Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.
Lexical meaning words are a reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).
grammatical meaning words is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table- masculine noun), as an element of the inflectional series ( table, table, table etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is associated with other words ( table leg, put the book on the table).
Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in the given word and by this delimits given word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
On the other hand, grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical .
Compare words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting miscellaneous items. At the same time, they are characterized by common, the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.
An important sign of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from the meaning of the lexical one, is the obligatory nature of the expression: we cannot use the word without expressing its grammatical meanings (with the help of endings, prepositions, etc.). So, speaking the word table, we not only name a certain object, but also express such features of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf .: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table). All these signs of form table the essence of its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection.
Pronouncing the word form table (for example, in a sentence Blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express grammatical meanings instrumental case (cf. endings used to express case meanings: table-a, table-y, table-e), masculine (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. table-ami). The lexical meaning the words table- "a piece of household furniture, which is a surface of hard material, mounted on one or more legs, and serving to put or put something on it" - in all case forms this word remains unchanged. In addition to the root table-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.
TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANINGS OF WORDS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
1. By way of nomination straight lines and figurative meanings words.
direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.
For example, words table, black, boil have the following main meanings:
1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."
2. "Colors of soot, coal."
3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).
These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant "throne", "reign", "capital".
The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.
portable(indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.
Yes, the word table has several figurative meanings:
1. "Item of special equipment or part of a machine of similar shape": operating table, raise machine table.
2. "Food, food": rent a room with a table.
3. "A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs": information desk.
At the word black such portable values:
1. "Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white": blackbread.
2. "Taking a dark color, darkened": blackfrom sunburn.
3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, deprecated): blackhut.
4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": blackthoughts.
5. "Criminal, malicious": blacktreason.
6. "Not the main, auxiliary" (only the full form): blackmove in the house.
7. "Physically heavy and unskilled" (long form only): blackWork etc.
Word boil has the following metaphors:
1. "To manifest in a strong degree": work is in full swing.
2. "To manifest something with force, to a strong extent": boilindignation.
As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly related to the concept, but approach it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Portable meanings can preserve figurativeness: black thoughts, black betrayal, boil with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.
In terms of reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.
However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative such names as pipe elbow, teapot spout, clock and under. In such cases, one speaks of extinct imagery in lexical meaning words, oh dry metaphors.
Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.
2. According to the degree of semantic motivation values are highlighted unmotivated(non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word, and motivated(derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and derivational affixes. For example, words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. Words canteen, desktop, canteen, completion, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness motivated meanings are inherent, they are, as it were, “produced” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative stem.
For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes ancient family ties words with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows us to distinguish historical roots in words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with words live, drink, eye, twist, ear, drag(envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation of one or another meaning of the word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while the semantic connections of this word seem lost to a non-specialist.
3. Possibly lexical compatibility the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first are based only on the subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink combined with words denoting liquids ( water, milk, tea, lemonade etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the "freedom" of the compatibility of words with unrelated meanings is relative.
The non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win matches with words victory, top, but does not match the word defeat. One can say bow your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you can't lower your hand» ( leg, briefcase).
Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. The former are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend(you can not swap the elements of these phrases).
Syntactically conditional values words are realized only if it performs a syntactic function unusual for itself in a sentence. Yes, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, they get the meanings " stupid man"; "stupid, stupid person"; "sluggish, uninitiated person, bungler". V. V. Vinogradov, who first singled out this type of values, called them functionally-syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings.
As part of the syntactically conditioned meanings of the word, there are also meanings structurally limited, which are implemented only under the conditions of a certain syntactic construction. For example, the word vortex with a direct meaning "gusty circular motion of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case gets a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events- "the rapid development of events."
4. By the nature of the functions performed lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is the nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature is predominant. For example, in the phrase tall man word high indicates great growth; this is its nominal value. And the words lanky, long combined with the word human, not only indicate a large growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for a neutral word. high.
5. By the nature of the relationships of some values with others in the lexical system of the language can be distinguished:
1) autonomous the meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designate mainly specific items: table, theater, flower;
2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other on some grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age,
3) deterministic values, i.e. such, "which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ...". For example: nag(cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse), beautiful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).
In this way, the modern typology of lexical meanings is based, firstly, on the conceptual and subject relations of words (i.e., paradigmatic relations), and secondly, derivational (or derivational) connections of words, thirdly, the relationship of words to each other ( syntagmatic relations). Studying the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand semantic structure words, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.
grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammar word categories
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, the morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of the language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of word changes and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing an utterance. According to the duality of the object, the traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form change belongs to morphology. All phenomena associated with the syntagmatics of a word, as well as with the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of the language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and interweaving, so that the assignment of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the category of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of the language, so grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object has changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of the language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Alexandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: only fragments
reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
view of a magnifying glass; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2. Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a number of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed 3) expression in the language. For example, in a sentence Petrov - student the following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present time (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a number of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of the fact, masculine).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic relationships of the word
information about the paradigmatic relationships of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glistening kuzdra shteko bobbed up the bokra and curls the bokra. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the whole complex of grammatical meanings. It is clear to the listener, for example, to which parts of speech all the words of this phrase refer, what between budlanula and bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, while the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if a noun, for example, has the meaning of a number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence on whole class words: for example, all verbs in Russian express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
The list is closed: if the lexical system of each language is open and constantly updated with new units and new meanings, then the grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, in Russian nouns, these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Expression typing: grammatical meanings are transmitted in languages in strictly defined ways - with the help of means specially assigned to them: affixes, service words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical. So, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages the name can serve as the name of one or more objects. The meaning of certainty/uncertainty is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and non-grammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of private varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings implies the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the framework of the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: I go - you go);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - whites in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (I go - went)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically invariable lexical units and service elements (functional words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let me go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a service element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in the language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: the synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and the analytic type (in which the tendency to analyticism prevails). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance in the language of the tendency to analyticism or synthetism. In synthetic languages, the word retains its grammatical characteristics outside the sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires a grammatical characteristic only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of the opposition of one linguistic unit to another. So, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical contrasts or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, functional words, intonation, etc.). In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for the meanings to be opposed on some basis, they must also have some common attribute. Thus, the present can be contrasted with the past and the future, since they all relate to the sequence of events described. In this regard, another definition of the grammatical category can be given: it is the unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in the language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, the present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammes, and the means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-member categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-member (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationship between them, the more features in the content of each gramme.
Form-building and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong to different forms of the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot change according to the classifying attribute. For example, the gender category of nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine; but bed, bed, bed is feminine. Nevertheless, the gender of a noun is important from the point of view of grammar, since the forms of concordant adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: a large table, this table, the table stood; but: the bed stood, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the point of view from which reality is viewed, for example, the pledge of a verb: workers build a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate a connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammar categories of words
Grammar categories of words must be distinguished from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. The lexico-grammatical category does not have such a system of forms. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
The semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and affect the grammatical features of the words of this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within the parts of speech, smaller groupings are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way in which the grammatical forms of the words they contain are formed. These are groupings of words according to the type of conjugation (conjugation classes), according to the type of declension (declination classes). Between formal categories, in principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.
The lexical meaning of a word is a reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).
The grammatical meaning of a word is its characteristic as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table is a masculine noun), as an element of an inflectional series (table, table, table, etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is associated with in other words (table leg, Put the book on the table).
The lexical meaning of a word is individual: it is inherent in a given word and thereby delimits a given word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
On the other hand, grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical.
Compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different objects. At the same time, they are characterized by common, the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.
An important feature of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from lexical meaning, is the obligation of expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meanings (with the help of endings, prepositions, etc.).
P.). So, pronouncing the word table, we not only name a certain object, but also express such features of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table) . All these signs of the table form are its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection (for the concept of zero inflection, see the section "Morphology" // Russian language: In 2 hours / Edited by L. Yu. Maksimov .- Part II .- M., 1989).
Pronouncing the word form with a table (for example, in the sentence We blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express the grammatical meanings of the instrumental case (cf. endings that serve to express other case meanings: table-a, table-y, table-e), masculine gender (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. table-ami). The lexical meaning of the word table - ‘a piece of home furniture, which is a surface of hard material, fixed on one or more legs, and serving to put or put something on it’ - remains unchanged in all case forms of this word. In addition to the root stem table-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.
More on the topic § 52. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL MEANING OF THE WORD:
- 7. The word as the main nominative unit of the language. Word signs. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word. Connotation.
- A2. Lexical norms (use of a word in accordance with the exact lexical meaning and the requirement of lexical compatibility, paronyms).
Meaning of GRAMMATIC MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms
GRAMMATICAL SIGNIFICANCE
(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an additive to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relations (relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, relation to a linden performing an action or other persons, relation of a reported fact to reality and time, a speaker’s attitude to the reported, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the word country has the meaning of the feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:
a) affixation. Book, book, book, etc. (case values);
b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (values of imperfect and perfect form);
c) accent. Houses. (genus. falling singular) - at home (named after falling. plural);
d) suppletivism. Take - take (values of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison);
f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).
The grammatical meaning in a word can also be expressed with the help of other words with which this word is associated in a sentence. The tram left the depot. - The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depot in the first sentence and the genitive case in the second are created in both cases by different connections of this word with other words). see also ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, word meanings and what is GRAMMATIC MEANING in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- GRAMMATICAL SIGNIFICANCE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language. AT … - GRAMMAR
INTERPRETATION - interpretation of the rule of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words in order to clarify its meaning and content. GT. assumes that... - MEANING in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING
content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. Z. of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The meaning of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in encyclopedic dictionary:
, -i, cf. 1. Meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, means. 3. look, gesture. Determine h. the words. Lexical… - MEANING
LEXICAL MEANING, the semantic content of a word, reflecting and fixing in the mind the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon and ... - MEANING in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
SIGNIFICANCE, importance, significance, the role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. The content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign ... - MEANING in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, ... - MEANING in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-I'm with. 1) Meaning, content of something. Gesture value. Meaning of the word. She is disturbed by dreams. Not knowing how to understand it, the dreams of a terrible ... - MEANING in the Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary:
- MEANING in the Russian Thesaurus:
1. Syn: significance, significance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary importance 2. Syn: ... - MEANING in the Dictionary of synonyms of Abramov:
meaning, mind; weight, importance, authority, dignity, strength, value. Real, figurative, direct, own, strict, figurative, literal, broad sense of the word. "This girl... - MEANING in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language:
Syn: significance, significance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary Syn: ... - MEANING in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
cf. 1) What does someone mean. or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
value, ... - MEANING in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning, … - MEANING in the Spelling Dictionary:
value, ... - MEANING in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, denotes the Z. of a look, gesture. Determine h. the words. Lexical words (meaning... - MEANING in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
1) importance, significance, the role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. 2) The content associated with a particular expression (words, sentences, ... - MEANING in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
values, cf. (book). 1. Meaning, what the given object (Word, gesture, sign) means. The word "knowledge" has several meanings. The word sick... - MEANING in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
value cf. 1) What does someone mean. or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
cf. 1. What someone or something means; meaning. 2. Importance, significance, purpose. 3. Influence, ... - MEANING in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
I cf. Possessing the property to express, to mean something, to have any meaning. II cf. 1. Importance, significance. 2. Influence, ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION
- interpretation of the norms of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. this year suggests that in the words ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
- see grammatical interpretation ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION
- interpretation of the norms of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. This year suggests that in the words ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the Big Law Dictionary:
- see Grammar interpretation ... - TIME GRAMMAR in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
grammatical, grammatical category that serves to localize in time the event that is indicated by the verb or predicate of the sentence: temporary forms express the relationship ... - JAKOBSON ROMAN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(1896-1982) - Russian linguist, semiotician, literary critic, who contributed to the establishment of a productive dialogue between European and American cultural traditions, French, Czech and Russian ... - INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
- INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW in the Big Law Dictionary:
- activity government agencies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the obligatory will of the legislator, ... - JAPANESE in Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
For a long time it was believed that the Japanese language is not included in any of the known language families, occupying in the genealogical classification of languages \u200b\u200b... - VAK in the Dictionary of Yoga:
, Vah (Vak or Vach) Oral speech; pronunciation, pronunciation. "Vakya" means grammatical sentence, and "mahavakya" - "great saying", ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
STANDARDS OF LAW - the activities of state bodies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the universally binding ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
INTERNATIONAL CONTRACT - understanding the true intention of the parties to the treaty and the actual meaning of its provisions. The purpose of the interpretation is to be as complete as possible ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
GRAMMATIC - see GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION; INTERPRETATION OF REGULATIONS… - SENTENCE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
the main unit of coherent speech, characterized by certain semantic (the presence of the so-called predication - see below) and structural (choice, location and connection ... - INVERSION in the Literary Encyclopedia:
violation of the order of words accepted in colloquial speech and, thereby, the usual intonation; the latter with I. is characterized by a larger than usual number ... - DIALECTOLOGY in the Literary Encyclopedia:
department of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the dialect as a whole. So. arr. unlike other departments of linguistics, distinguishing in ... - GRAMMAR in the Literary Encyclopedia:
[from the Greek grammata - "letters", "scriptures"]. In the original understanding of the word, G. coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including ... - ENGLISH LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
lang. mixed. In its origin, it is associated with the western branch of the Germanic group of languages. (cm.). It is customary to share the history of A. Yaz. on the … - FORTUNATOV in the Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary:
Philip Fedorovich (1848-1914), linguist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1898). The founder of the Moscow, the so-called. Fortunatovskaya, linguistic school. Since 1876 professor at Moscow University. AT … - FRANCE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- FORM OF THE WORD in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
words, 1) a set of morphological and phonological characteristics of a word that determine its grammatical meaning. So, the composition of the morphemes of the word "teacher" (uchi-tel-nits-a) indicates ...
MORPHOLOGY. PART I
THEME 1 . MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE
Subject of morphology
Morphology (from the Greek morphe - form and logos - teaching) is a grammatical doctrine of a word. The word is the main object of morphology. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of words, establishes what grammatical meanings certain words, classes of words have, and reveals the specifics of grammatical categories in words belonging to different parts of speech. For example, both nouns and adjectives have categories of gender, number, and case. However, for nouns these categories are independent, while for adjectives they are syntactically determined, depending on the gender, number and case of the noun with which the given adjective is combined (cf.: big house, big house, big house etc.; our big room; large building; big houses etc.).
The tasks of morphology include determining the circle of words that have one or another grammatical category. Grammatical categories either cover the entire lexical base of a certain part of speech, or apply only to the main array of words belonging to it. So, nouns pluralia tantum (scissors, twilight, yeast etc.) do not have a category of gender, impersonal verbs do not have a category of person. One of the most important tasks of morphology is to identify and describe the specifics of the functioning of grammatical categories in the vocabulary of various parts of speech.
Morphology establishes the composition of the grammatical forms of various types of words, reveals the rules for changing words, distributes words according to the types of declension and conjugation.
Morphology includes the study of parts of speech. It considers the semantic and formal features of words of various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words into parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of parts of speech, studies the lexical and grammatical features of words of each part of speech, and reveals patterns of interaction between parts of speech.
Grammatical meanings of words
A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. For example, the word lamp stands for "lighting or heating device of various devices." This is its lexical meaning. In the semantic content of the word lamp also includes feminine, nominative and singular meanings. These are its grammatical meanings.
The lexical meaning of a word is an individual semantic feature that distinguishes it from other words. Even words that are close in meaning (cf. lamp, lampada, lantern) have different lexical meanings. Lampada -“a small vessel with a wick, filled with oil and lit in front of the icons”; flashlight has three meanings: 1) "lighting device in the form of a glass ball, a box with glass walls"; 2) special: "a glass skylight in the roof, as well as a glazed ledge in the building"; 3) figurative: "a bruise from a beating, from a bruise."
Grammatical meanings are characteristic of a whole class of words. So, the meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case combine the words lamp, water, fish, room, mermaid, thought etc., which have nothing in common in their lexical meanings. Wed also: 1) I run, I fly, I read, I lift, I write, I jump; 2) sang, drew, read, thought, danced, shot; 3) run, read, take, fly, wipe, buy. The words of the first row denote different processes, but they all express the grammatical meanings of the 1st person, singular. The words of the second row are united by the meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine. gender, the words of the third row - with the meanings of the imperative mood, units. numbers. Thus, grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.
The grammatical meanings are not singular. One grammatical meaning necessarily implies the presence of another (or others), homogeneous and correlative with it. For example, the singular value implies the plural (bird - birds, nagas - pashas); the meaning of the imperfect aspect is paired with the meaning of the perfect aspect (take off- take off, take - take); meaning to them. pad. enters into a relationship with all other case meanings.
Grammatical meanings are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to be layered on the lexical (real, material) meanings of words and rely on them. Therefore, they are often referred to as companions. Thus, the grammatical meanings of gender, number and -case in a noun book accompany its lexical meaning; grammatical meanings of the 3rd person, singular numbers, carry aspect in a verb draws based on its lexical meaning. A. A. Shakhmatov wrote about this: “The grammatical meaning of a linguistic form is opposed to its real meaning. Real value word depends on its correspondence as a verbal sign to one or another phenomenon of the external world. The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning it has in relation to other words. The real meaning connects the word directly with the external world, the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words.
Grammatical meanings reflect either certain features of the phenomena of the external world, or the attitude of the speaker to the thought expressed by him, or intralinguistic connections and relationships of words. They, notes A. A. Shakhmatov, “may be based (1) in part on the phenomena given in outside world: for example, pl. h. birds depends on the fact that we have in mind the idea of not one, but several birds ... (2) Partially, the accompanying meanings are based on the subjective attitude of the speaker to a certain phenomenon: for example, I went means the same action as me I go but taking place, according to the speaker, in the past tense ... (3) Partly, finally, the accompanying meanings are based ... on a formal, external reason given in the word itself: thus, the feminine gender of the word book depends only on the fact that it ends in -a.