Meaning of GRAMMAR in the Dictionary linguistic terms
GRAMMATICAL SIGNIFICANCE
(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an additive to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relations (relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, relation to a linden performing an action or other persons, relation of a reported fact to reality and time, a speaker’s attitude to the reported, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the word country has the meaning of the feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:
a) affixation. Book, book, book, etc. (case values);
b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (values of imperfect and perfect form);
c) accent. Houses. (genus. falling singular) - at home (named after falling. plural);
d) suppletivism. Take - take (values of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison);
f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).
The grammatical meaning in a word can also be expressed with the help of other words with which given word linked in a sentence. The tram left the depot. - The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depot in the first sentence and the genitive case in the second are created in both cases by different connections of this word with other words). see also ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, word meanings and what is GRAMMATIC MEANING in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- GRAMMATICAL SIGNIFICANCE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language. IN … - GRAMMAR
INTERPRETATION - interpretation of the rule of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words in order to clarify its meaning and content. GT. assumes that... - MEANING in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING
content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. Z. of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MEANING in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign, etc.) of a certain language. The meaning of linguistic expressions is studied in linguistics, ... - MEANING in encyclopedic dictionary:
, -i, cf. 1. Meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, means. 3. look, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical … - MEANING
LEXICAL MEANING, the semantic content of a word, reflecting and fixing in the mind the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon and ... - MEANING in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
SIGNIFICANCE, importance, significance, the role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. The content associated with a particular expression (word, sentence, sign ... - MEANING in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, value, ... - MEANING in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-I'm with. 1) Meaning, content of something. Gesture value. Meaning of the word. She is disturbed by dreams. Not knowing how to understand it, the dreams of a terrible ... - MEANING in the Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary:
- MEANING in the Russian Thesaurus:
1. Syn: significance, significance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary importance 2. Syn: ... - MEANING in the Dictionary of synonyms of Abramov:
meaning, mind; weight, importance, authority, dignity, strength, value. Real, figurative, direct, own, strict, figurative, literal, broad sense of the word. "This girl... - MEANING in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language:
Syn: significance, significance, importance, role Ant: insignificance, unimportance, secondary Syn: ... - MEANING in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
cf. 1) What does someone mean. or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
value, ... - MEANING in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
meaning, … - MEANING in the Spelling Dictionary:
value, ... - MEANING in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
meaning, what a given phenomenon, concept, object means, denotes the Z. of a look, gesture. Determine h. words. Lexical words (meaning... - MEANING in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
1) importance, significance, the role of an object, phenomenon, action in human activity. 2) The content associated with a particular expression (words, sentences, ... - MEANING in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
values, cf. (book). 1. Meaning, what the given object (Word, gesture, sign) means. The word "knowledge" has several meanings. The word sick... - MEANING in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
value cf. 1) What does someone mean. or something; meaning. 2) Importance, significance, purpose. 3) Influence, ... - MEANING in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
cf. 1. What someone or something means; meaning. 2. Importance, significance, purpose. 3. Influence, ... - MEANING in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
I cf. Possessing the property to express, to mean something, to have any meaning. II cf. 1. Importance, significance. 2. Influence, ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION
- interpretation of the norms of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. this year suggests that in the words ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
- see grammatical interpretation ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION
- interpretation of the norms of law, which consists in the analysis of the structural connection of words to clarify its meaning and content. This year suggests that in the words ... - GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION in the Big Law Dictionary:
- see Grammar interpretation ... - TIME GRAMMAR in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
grammatical, grammatical category that serves to localize in time the event that is indicated by the verb or predicate of the sentence: temporary forms express the relationship ... - JAKOBSON ROMAN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(1896-1982) - Russian linguist, semiotician, literary critic, who contributed to the establishment of a productive dialogue between European and American cultural traditions, French, Czech and Russian ... - INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
- INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW in the Big Law Dictionary:
- activity government agencies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the obligatory will of the legislator, ... - JAPANESE LANGUAGE in Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
For a long time it was believed that the Japanese language is not included in any of the known language families, occupying in the genealogical classification of languages \u200b\u200b... - VAK in the Dictionary of Yoga:
, Vah (Vak or Vach) Oral speech; pronunciation, pronunciation. "Vakya" means a grammatical sentence, and "Mahavakya" means "great speech", ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
STANDARDS OF LAW - the activities of state bodies, various organizations and individual citizens, aimed at understanding and explaining the meaning and content of the universally binding ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
INTERNATIONAL CONTRACT - understanding the true intention of the parties to the treaty and the actual meaning of its provisions. The purpose of the interpretation is to be as complete as possible ... - INTERPRETATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
GRAMMATIC - see GRAMMATICAL INTERPRETATION; INTERPRETATION OF REGULATIONS… - SENTENCE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
the main unit of coherent speech, characterized by certain semantic (the presence of the so-called predication - see below) and structural (choice, location and connection ... - INVERSION in the Literary Encyclopedia:
violation of the order of words accepted in colloquial speech and, thereby, the usual intonation; the latter with I. is characterized by a larger than usual number ... - DIALECTOLOGY in the Literary Encyclopedia:
department of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the dialect as a whole. So. arr. unlike other departments of linguistics, distinguishing in ... - GRAMMAR in the Literary Encyclopedia:
[from the Greek grammata - "letters", "scriptures"]. In the original understanding of the word, G. coincides with the science of linguistic forms in general, including ... - ENGLISH LANGUAGE in the Literary Encyclopedia:
lang. mixed. In its origin, it is associated with the western branch of the Germanic group of languages. (cm.). It is customary to share the history of A. Yaz. on the … - FORTUNATOV in the Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary:
Philip Fedorovich (1848-1914), linguist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1898). The founder of the Moscow, the so-called. Fortunatovskaya, linguistic school. Since 1876 professor at Moscow University. IN … - FRANCE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- FORM OF THE WORD in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
words, 1) a set of morphological and phonological characteristics of a word that define it grammatical meaning. So, the composition of the morphemes of the word "teacher" (uchi-tel-nits-a) indicates ...
The word is one of the basic units of grammar. The word combines its sound matter and its meanings - lexical and grammatical.
Grammatical meaning -a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic constructions, which finds its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, tense of the verb, etc.
The grammatical meaning is opposed to the lexical meaning, which is devoid of a regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.
Criteria for distinguishing between lexical and grammatical meanings:
2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), while GL is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, noun singulars.
3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GP changes in different forms of the word.
4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.
A characteristic feature of grammatical meaning is also recognized standard, regularity of the way of expression. In most cases, meanings traditionally referred to as grammatical ones are indeed directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.
Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the grammatical form, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).
Grammar category– a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.
The concept of grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a union of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a number of forms).
a) inflectional - appear in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, the case and number of Russian nouns, the gender and number of French adjectives, the mood and tense of the verb);
b) classification categories are inherent in the given word in all its forms and refer it to the class of similar words.
The members of the classification categories are represented by different words, for example, the category of the gender of nouns in Russian 'table' is masculine, 'desk' is feminine, 'window' is middle. genus.
33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.
I. Synthetics
1. Affixation consists in using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books-y; read-l-and; mäktäp-lär. Affixes are auxiliary morphemes.
2. Supletivism. Suppletivism is understood as the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), man - people (GZ pl.), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.
Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. LZ they have one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.
3. Reduplication(repetition) consists in the complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang-' human' , orange-orange -'people' .
4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. sound changes. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘to collect – to collect’; ‘sing-sang’.
II. Analytical tools -
GCs get their expression outside the main word, often in other words.
1. Service words can use for express.GZ: I will read (bud. time), I would read (conventional inclination).
We went to a cafe (V.p.). - We went from a cafe (R.p.).
2. Word order.The house (I.p.) covered the forest (V.p.). - The forest (I.p.) blocked the house (V.p.).
It is especially important, for example, for isolating languages.
The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmented, i.e. can be superimposed on a segment chain.
3. Emphasis: hands (I. and V. p. pl.) - hands (R. p. singular).
4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?
So, in the adjectives of the Russian language, we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter. This gives us reason to assert that the grammatical category of gender is characteristic of the adjectives of the Russian language.
The grammatical meaning (content plan) and the formal indicator of this meaning (expression plan) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. grammeme– component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning is a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.
A gramme can have multiple meanings.
The gramme of the plural of nouns in Russian has the following meanings: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sands'.
The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes, and grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account
the following criteria:
The presence / absence of the corresponding grammatical category;
The number of grammes of the grammatical category;
Ways of expressing the grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;
The digits of words with which this grammatical category is associated
34. Methods of linguistics
General scientific methods.
Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help to reveal the hidden specificity of the object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.
Method- the way and way of knowing the object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.
In linguistics, there are:
common methods- generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, language research methods associated with a certain linguistic theory and methodology,
private- separate techniques, methods, operations - technical means of studying a certain aspect of the language.
Each method is based on the knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories of subjective dialectics.
General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.
Observation carried out in natural conditions on the basis of sensory perception of the objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena, its results may be random and not reliable enough.
Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object under study.
Induction and deduction are intellectual methods of cognition. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of the experiment are systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.
Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its constituent parts or the separation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for the knowledge of the general through the individual. Synthesis- a mental or experimental connection of the constituent parts of an object and its properties and the study of it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected, mutually conditioned.
Private methods of linguistics.
Comparative historical method– scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;
The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that make it possible to prove the relationship of certain languages and restore the most ancient facts of their history. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders are F.Bopp, J.Grimm, R.Rask, A.Kh.Vostokov.
Descriptive Method- a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of a language at a given stage of its development; it is a method of synchronous analysis.
comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two compared languages and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.
In modern linguistics, considerable attention is paid to the study of linguistic phenomena. statistical methods of mathematics.
grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammar word categories
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, the morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of the language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of word changes and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing an utterance. According to the duality of the object, the traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form change belongs to morphology. All phenomena associated with the syntagmatics of a word, as well as with the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of the language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and interweaving, so that the assignment of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the category of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of the language, so grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object has changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of the language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Alexandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: only fragments
reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
view of a magnifying glass; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2. Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a number of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed 3) expression in the language. For example, in a sentence Petrov - student the following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present time (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a number of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of the fact, masculine).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic relationships of the word
information about the paradigmatic relationships of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glistening kuzdra shteko bobbed up the bokra and curls the bokra. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the whole complex of grammatical meanings. It is clear to the listener, for example, to which parts of speech all the words of this phrase refer, what between budlanula And bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, while the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if a noun, for example, has the meaning of a number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence on whole class words: for example, all verbs in Russian express the meanings of aspect, mood, person, and number.
The list is closed: if the lexical system of each language is open and constantly updated with new units and new meanings, then the grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, in Russian nouns, these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typization of expression: grammatical meanings are transmitted in languages in strictly defined ways - with the help of means specially assigned to them: affixes, service words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical. So, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages the name can serve as the name of one or more objects. The meaning of certainty/uncertainty is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and non-grammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of private varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings implies the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the framework of the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: I go - you go);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - whites in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (I go - went)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically invariable lexical units and service elements (functional words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let me go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a service element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings prevail in the language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: the synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and the analytical type (in which the tendency to analyticism prevails). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance in the language of the tendency to analyticism or synthetism. In synthetic languages, the word retains its grammatical characteristics outside the sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires a grammatical characteristic only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of the opposition of one linguistic unit to another. So, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical contrasts or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, functional words, intonation, etc.). In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for the meanings to be opposed on some basis, they must also have some common attribute. Thus, the present can be contrasted with the past and the future, since they all relate to the sequence of events described. In this regard, another definition of the grammatical category can be given: it is the unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in the language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, the present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammes, and the means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-member categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-member (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationship between them, the more features in the content of each gramme.
Form-building and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong to different forms of the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot change according to the classifying attribute. For example, the gender category of nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine; but bed, bed, bed is feminine. Nevertheless, the gender of a noun is important from the point of view of grammar, since the forms of concordant adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: a large table, this table, the table stood; but: the bed stood, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the point of view from which reality is viewed, for example, the pledge of a verb: workers build a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate a connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammar categories of words
Grammar categories of words must be distinguished from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. The lexico-grammatical category does not have such a system of forms. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
The semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and affect the grammatical features of the words of this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within the parts of speech, smaller groupings are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way in which the grammatical forms of the words they contain are formed. These are groupings of words according to the type of conjugation (conjugation classes), according to the type of declension (declination classes). Between formal categories, in principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
Not all words have a lexical meaning, that is, an internal meaning, but only those that can express concepts. Such words are called full-valued or independent. From a grammatical point of view, these include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns.
Functional words, modal words and interjections do not designate concepts, and they are not connected with objects of reality. These words have special meanings: they express finding attitudes and feelings towards something: definitely, fortunately, etc. lexical meaning, which only full-meaning words have, lies the concept, but there is no equality between the lexical meaning and the concept. A concept is a copy of the subject of reality in our thinking. The concept in a word is always one, but there can be several meanings. For example, the concept of green can have the following meanings:
Green pencil (color characteristic);
Green fruit (degree of ripening, compare: ripe fruit);
Green face (characteristic of ill health, degree of fatigue);
Green age (degree of social maturity).
Only if the word is a term does the concept coincide with the meaning. For example: suffix, root, phoneme, etc. The main difference between the concept and meaning is that the concept is a copy, an exact designation, and the meaning always includes an emotionally expressive coloring (modality). For example: the word sun - there is a diminutive connotation here; the word grandmother is a derogatory connotation. There cannot be these shades in the concept (compare: the use of the words morphemochka, phonemochka is illiterate).
Every word also has a grammatical meaning. Grammatical meanings complement lexical meanings and reflect the belonging of a word to a certain grammatical category. Grammatical categories are the meanings of gender, number, case, declension, voice, aspect, etc. Grammatical meanings help to classify the vocabulary of the Russian language. For example, the words plane, school, walking have nothing in common in terms of lexical meaning, that is, content, but their grammatical meanings are the same and allow them to be attributed to nouns in the singular, nominative case.
Not a single word in the Russian language remains without grammatical meaning. Lexical meanings in all languages are formed in exactly the same way (subject -> concept -> sound shell -> name). Grammatical meanings are formed differently in different languages. That is why there are 6 cases in Russian, in German- 4 cases, and in French and English they do not exist at all. The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. For example: high, height. The grammatical meaning is expressed with the help of endings, suffixes, prefixes, stresses, auxiliary words. For example, in the word side, the ending -a shows that it is a feminine noun, singular, nominative, 1 declension. When the lexical meaning changes, the grammatical meaning of the word also changes. This is especially noticeable when one part of speech passes into another (on horseback, around, dining room - these words now have different grammatical meanings than before).
Thus, the word, which is the unity of form and content, that is, the unity of the sound shell and meaning, thereby represents the unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. Each word, naming this or that object or phenomenon, always informs. For example: Pick this flower for me. The word flower performs two functions in this sentence: it denotes a specific object that I need at a given moment, and it denotes an object in general, that is, an object with some specific features, thanks to which a person recognizes it among Other objects. Thus, each word performs two functions in the language.
1 What is grammatical meaning? Explain with examples. Lexical meaning. refers to reality itself a gram value complements the lexical meaning. and express attitude to another word (coordination, adjacency). Eg. lex. value "country" - designator. "state", a certain territory, and gram-e word meaning"country" - noun, f.r. , units, etc. The gram-I form is the language of the means that serve to express gram values. These means are prefixes, suffixes, etc. Eg. there is ch. do - do, do. Gram category - a class of gram values united by homogeneity of gram values: eg. syst. conjugations, category of tenses in Russian. lang. - present, past, future, old, past, etc. Word forms are a representative of a particular gram-th category. The totality of all gram forms constitutes a paradigm. The gram-I form has both an external meaning (ending in a case, in a gl. form) and an internal one - a relation to s-l. face, other subject. One form can have several meanings: Ex. to give something to someone and to someone (objective meaning) it became cold (subjective). Sometimes the gram-e value. superimposed on the semantic and historical. words lost their meaning: oak - husband. genus, birch - f.r.
2 What are parts of speech? What are the principles of their classification?Parts of speech- the largest gram-th classes of words, which are characterized by 3 features: 1) the unity of the generalized gram-th meaning, it abstracts from the lexical and designates categories of a more general order: objectivity, processuality (verb ), quality (adjective) 2) commonality of gram-x categories and inflections. The generality is determined by the composition of morphological categories, the generality of their organization when they line up in a paradigm (conjugations, declensions) 3) the identity of syntactic functions. Those. they appear in sentences, phrases in a general form (i.e., nouns are usually subjects, ch. are predicates, etc.). 10 parts of speech in modern grammar, which are divided into 2 groups - significant (nouns of nouns, adjectives and numerals, as well as a pronoun (only pronoun-noun-e), verb and adverb) and service (preposition, union and particles, as well as interjection (serves for expression, feelings)).
3 Name the independent and service parts of speech. In modern grammar, there are 10 parts of speech: one group is significant / independent (noun-e, adjective-e, number-e, pronoun-e, verb and adverb), the other is service (preposition, conjunction, particles and separately - interjection - their syntactic role is not defined.
4 What are modal words? Give examples. There are interjections introductory words, imitations (jin-jin), urges, expressions of feelings (ah, well, ah, yes)). Modal words they are incentive, conciliatory, grateful (obviously, probably, of course, of course). Functions of introductory words, and semantics - the definition of attitude to reality, or an additional assessment.
5 Grammar features of common nouns and proper nouns. Essence - part of speech, which designates an object, names saints, abstracted from the carrier and actions abstracted from the subject. There are proper and common nouns. Narits-e - generalized phenomena. Own - individual. Usually the second is used in a single number (Kyiv, Athens). Own names can turn into common names, and vice versa (Pisces is a sign of the zodiac, and fish).
6 Concrete and endowed noun. The first are specific nouns, when objects appear as separate instances or to-l. individuals, they combine with final numbers and change in numbers, according to gender, number and case (house, houses, three houses).
7 Grammar features of collective nouns. Collective - denotes an indefinite set of objects as one indivisible whole: military, junk, animals, relatives, youth. There are complex transitional cases. For example, the words people, group, heap, collective do not belong to the collective, because they denote separate sets and are grammatically plural (peoples, groups).
8 Real noun - they denote a homogeneous mass, which can be weighed, but not counted: flour, sulfur, salt, cereals, etc. They do not change in numbers (although they differ in types: mineral waters, fragrant oils).
9 There is single among them are singulatives: dew - dewdrop, straw - straw. There are abstract ones - they denote qualities, properties, actions (abstract qualities): reading, anger, grief, joy. Words with an abstract meaning do not have a plural, although they can also have individualization, i.e. there is an enrichment of meaning (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). These nouns outwardly not calculable, but when there are concrete manifestations of this quality, then you can use it in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils.
10 Soul and inanimate entities. The names are named. living creatures, mythological animals (dinosaur). To the inhospitable relation named. plants (oak, maple), collective soul-e names (people, crowd-grammatically they behave like inanimate), as well as such words as “dead (I see a dead but), dead man", but I see a corpse _ (he used to mean "dead, fallen tree"). There are difficult moments: to play Cossack And-robber And(the word behaves like inanimate, for "a game called the Cossacks-robbers"). Buy crocodile but but buy "Crocodile". Inanimate more often refer to cf.
11 Gender categories. Have inhospitable noun it is defined formally, at the end (tree - cf.r., cedar. - (m.r.) pine, palm tree (zh.r.)). Household names - belly - (m.r.), belly - cf., although one and the same. To the grammar the genus is usually an abbreviation in accordance with that gram. genus, which underlies the core genus. But this is not true in general: university (higher education institution), but the university is not of a middle kind, but m.r. Foreign Ministry - cf., but for the townsfolk - m.r. There is a noun. general gender - also applies to m.r. and to the female: crybaby, warden, lecturer. Unmarked nouns - reader, student, i.e. in general these classes of people. "The student is now uneducated."
12 Number category. There is a singular, plural and dual: eye, eyes (pl), eyes (dual), four tables (dual), but five tables (pl). Words with an abstract meaning do not have a plural, although they can also have individualization, i.e. there is an enrichment of meaning (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). Joy, stupidity, vulgarity, etc. These nouns outwardly not calculable, but when there are concrete manifestations of this quality, then you can use it in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils, say nasty things. At the same time, the meaning changes - shreds (a tuft of snow, cotton wool), shreds - small pieces. Plural stressed forms. to "a", began to spread even before the time of Pushkin (earlier, for example - house s, but preserved forms of years, years with different. meaning).
13 Case categories. Case - ("fall") - "not a direct meaning." Historically up to 10 cases. In R.P. there is also a parent parts" - drink a glass of tea. In Proposition. P. has an explanatory meaning - to talk about tea, about business. Now there are 6 of them. V.P. goes to R.P. in denial ("don't give him your hand"). V.P. used when talking about a certain subject (don't forget the suitcase).
15 A glass of tea- a measure of a substance (i.e. not a liquid, dry tea leaves poured into a glass). a glass of tea- the liquid we drink.
16. On the edge / on the edge. "On the edge" (more razg. form) has a shade of concreteness (to stand on the edge of the abyss (objectivity)). "On the edge" - more lit. form, is more generalized (in the meaning of "on the outskirts") (write on the edge (kresk) of the board - that is, in the very corner).
17 Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives. Adj-e - part of speech, which is not a procedural sign of the subject. Separate 3 categories of adjs: 1) quality - directly indicates the quality, quality of objects (white, red). They can be used both in short and in full form. 2) relative - through relation to other objects (glass - made of glass). 3) possessive - the relationship of ownership, belonging (paternal portfolio).
18 Comparisons of adjectives. App. can change in degrees of comparison (stupid - even dumber), but not all (blind - no "blinder"). In addition to the comparative degree (lower), there is also an excellent (the most stupid). Elative - superlative degree with a hint of subservience, deep. respect: as soon as possible.
19 Places of names of numerals. The numeral denotes a number and expresses a definite. the number of similar items. There are 1) quantitative - this is a quantitative determinant of almost all entities that can be counted (one, two, three). They are divided into simple (two, three, one thousand), derivatives (fifteen, four hundred - an image with the help of suf. or consist of 2 bases) and compound - in two or more words (four hundred and thirty five) 2 ) collective (two (pair), three, four). They also have no gender or number. 3) fractional numbers - designate, count. in fractional units. (three and two tenths). Structurally, they are composite. Can be zh.r. (one sixth).
20 Declension of fractional numbers. When declining, all the words that make up them change (twenty-two hundredths - twenty-two hundredths). The word "one and a half, one and a half" stands apart. One and a half hours, but one and a half melons, excl. one and a half (from the beat on the first syllable) days. Options: with a thousand rubles (countable nouns), with a thousand rubles (displaces other forms), with a thousand rubles (this is a pure numeral.)
21 Declension of numbers by \u003d ten. Well, it's like fifty, sixty - decline yourself.
22 Declension of numbers 40, 90, 100. They have only two case forms. Ninety - stands apart. In I.P. ninety about, and in all indirect - ninety but, Fourty but, st but. St about books—with two hundred but mi books, no three hundred _ books, i.e. either one part of the word, or both, can be declined.
24 Collective numbers, their grammatical features. With morphol. so numerals have neither gender nor number. Usage with noun. m.r. (five men), with the words "children, guys, people, faces", with the name of animal cubs (four cubs), with a noun, which have the form only plural. (two sledges), with paired nouns. (four stockings, but two pairs of stockings are better) Sobir. num. not used with noun. zh.r. (one cannot say three dressmakers, four janitors, four teachers), with noun. which denote named. animals (two tigers are not allowed), with a noun, names of persons are high. societies. position (minister).
26 Discharges of pronouns. There are 3 categories: 1) pronoun-noun. 2) place-e-adjectives 3) place-i-numerals. The first category includes the words "I, you, you, who, what, this, someone, someone ...". In the preposition they are either complement or subject. The second category is "mine, yours, yours, this, some." In the preposition either the nominal part of the predicate., or defined. In the third category: "how much, so much, a few, not at all, a few." Ch. place function. - replacement of semantically independent words in speech.
27 Morphological categories of the verb. Time, person, number, pledge, inclination, type, gender - gram. verb categories. Many forms of the verb are not able to express all these 7 forms (complete). We must not forget about the infinitive - in it the verb reflects the form and voice.
31 Verb tenses. Synonymy of times. ST - the use of one time in another: historical. S .: “I come yesterday and see” (time is present). So everyone can change: the present instead of the future, the past instead of the future. (“So I believed you!”), etc.
37 Adverb, its grammatical features. N. - part of speech, which conveys the quality or circumstance of other qualities or actions. There are qualitative N. (from qualitative adjectives) (speak red), participatory N. (looked inquiringly), N. as funkt. adj-x (a person is so-so). N. on "o" and "e" began to form actively in the end. XIX century, they do not change-Xia (in absentia, ahead of schedule). N. has subjective assessments (for a long time, good). There is a comparative degree (freer, brighter) N. and excellent (to humbly ask, bow down to the bottom). There is an emotional expression of the degree (raspberry, early, stupidly, extremely). There are transitional N. (in a good way, often blindly) these are qualitatively circumstantial shades. N. may refer to adj., moreover, to N. himself.
38 State category words. This is the state of something that does not fall under any part of speech. Ex. The expression on his face is scary (cr. adj.). It was scary for him (adverb, which refers to the same adverb) interesting. He became scared (the description of the state is the words of the category of the state).: boring, it is necessary, it is impossible, it is necessary, it is possible, it is a pity - they are used. in func. only predicate ( I miss). The words of the state category may include nouns, pronouns, adverbs of time, place, quantity, there may be an infinitive.
39 Phrases, their categories. Types of phrases - substantive (noun - core word), verbal (predictive). The main thing is which word is pivotal. Phrase. divided by structure into: 1) simple ( new house, give a book) 2) complex (irresistible desire to wander) 3) combined - i.e. those that consist of several core words, phrases, and those are in a state of adjoining, subordinating to each other (reading an interesting book with enthusiasm).
40 Offers, their categories. Ranks of prepositions - simple, complex, compound, repaired, compound, compound-union, introductory sentences, direct. speech, etc.
41 What is predicativity. This is the correlation of the statement with reality.
42 Composition as syntactic link. Soch-e as a syntax-I connection - coordinative connection between peers. This is a sentence in which no element can be a component of another.
43 Subordination as syntactic link. This is a connection between elements of sentences that are mutually subordinate in meaning.
44 Agreement, its grammatical features. Consent - type of subordination, to-I vyr-sya assimilation dependent word form dominant.
45 Management, its grammatical features. W. is one of the types of subordination. It can be direct or through prepositions. There are options - to be amazed at something (to admire) and to be amazed at something (to be surprised). The phenomenon of “management” is semantic and grammatical in origin, which means that the meaning is important. There are unfolding forms: feedback about something (lit.), feedback on smth. (outdated).
46 Adjacency, its grammatical features. P. is a subordinating relationship, with which the words act as a dependent word immutable(adverbs, adjectives, infinitives, adverbs).
49 Complex syntactic integer. This is a kind of text in which the statement is built on the material of sequentially built complex sentences and complex syntactic constructions. STS is such a unity of complex sentences, which are built according to the principle of sequence.
50 Text, features and properties. A text is a written or oral statement, which is characterized by internal coherence and completeness. Its mandatory features are 1) completeness 2) connectedness.
51 What is discourse? Discourse - "moving back and forth" - a related text in conjunction with extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors, i.e. which are out of context. Dr. words - this is speech immersed in life (reporting, live conversation). Discourse of affairs on 1) frames - c.-l. typical situations, scenes; this is a data structure that makes up a person's knowledge of the world 2) scenarios - show how frames develop in c.-l. situations. The main functions are persuasion and emotional impact. Discourse is not a text; it cannot be applied to antiquity. Rheme - statement, verb, speaking.
- Grammatical meanings
In any significant word are combined lexical And grammatical values. The grammatical meaning acts as an additive to the lexical one and expresses various relations (the relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relation to the person performing the action or other persons, the relation of the reported fact to reality and time, the speaker’s relation to the reported, etc. ). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; verb read contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, imperfective.
Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed in word form.
The grammatical meaning in a word can also be expressed with the help of other words with which this word is associated in a sentence.
The term "grammatical categories" refers to a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. The values of individual cases are combined into the category of case, the values of individual forms of tense - into the category of tense. The grammatical category is related to grammatical meaning as general to particular. Window: gender category from the meaning of the neuter gender. Read: mood category from the verb form expressing the grammatical meaning of the imperative mood.
When identifying a grammatical form, we mean linguistic means that serve to express grammatical meanings. I take: the ending -у indicates the 1st person, singular, present tense, indicative mood.
The grammatical form is the ratio of grammatical meaning and grammatical mode in their unity.
2. Parts of speech. Principles of their classification. Independent and official ch.r. Modal words
Parts of speech are the main lexical and grammatical categories (classes), according to which the words of the language are distributed based on the following features: 1) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action, state, quality, etc.); 2) morphological (morphological categories of the word); 3) syntactic (syntactic functions of the word).
Parts of speech - independent (significant) and official.
Special groups include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words.
Independent(significant) parts of speech either name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings, in a sentence they act as main or secondary members. Independent parts of speech - 7 categories of words: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, category of state.
Service parts of speech are devoid of a nominative (nominative) function. They manifest themselves in relationships and connections between words and sentences (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as in the transfer of semantic and emotional shades of meanings expressed by independent parts of speech (particles). Service parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles.
Modal words serve to express the speaker's assessment of his statement as a whole or its individual parts s.t.z. their relation to objective reality.
Interjection are also deprived of the function of naming. They are the spokesmen for certain feelings (Oh! Choo! Fu! Alas!) and expressions of will (Out! Stop! Shh!).
Onomatopoeic words are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, etc.: quack, mu-u, ding-din, etc.
3. Grammatical features of common and proper nouns
Depending on the lexico-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into common nouns and proper ones.
common nouns nouns serve as names for homogeneous objects, actions or states: a person, mother, island, river, book, holiday, joy, grief, sleep, ride.
Semantically they are opposed to nouns. own, which are the names of single items separated from a number of homogeneous ones: personal names, surnames, geographical, administrative-territorial names, names literary works, astronomical names, names historical eras and events, popular movements, significant dates, etc.: Ivan, Elena, Petrov, Vladimirov, Europe, Dvina, Ryazan, "War and Peace", Mars, Earth, Renaissance, Great Patriotic War, Victory Day.
The formal grammatical feature of proper nouns is that they have only the singular form. The appearance of the plural is associated with the use of the word in a different meaning, therefore the plural form in this case is not correlative in meaning with the singular form.
Proper nouns are used in the plural form: 1) when referring to different persons and objects that have the same name (two Ivanovs, both Americas); 2) when designating persons who are related (brothers Karamazov, gentlemen Golovlev). When designating the type of people, the properties of their character, proper names can go into the category of common nouns: manilov, chichikov, khlestakov.
4. Grammatical features of concrete and abstract nouns
A noun is a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animation and inanimateness. In the proposal I.S. acts as a subject and an object.
Depending on the lexico-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into concrete and abstract (abstract).
Specific nouns are used to name certain objects and phenomena of reality, taken separately and therefore subject to counting: a book, a school, a house, a girl.
Distracted(abstract) nouns name an action or a sign in abstraction from the producer of the action or the bearer of the holiday. Such names do not form correlative forms of numbers and are not combined with quantitative numbers: study, emergence, departure, whiteness, hatred, selfishness, lyricism, elections, vacations. However, some abstract nouns, acquiring a specific meaning, are used in the plural: winter cold, different fates, seven troubles - one answer, southern latitudes, different temperatures.
5 . Grammar features of collective nouns
A noun is a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animation and inanimateness. In the proposal I.S. acts as a subject and an object.
Depending on the lexico-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into collective ones as well.
Collective nouns in the singular form denote a set of identical persons or objects as one indivisible whole. They are not determined by cardinal numbers, but have special derivational suffixes: -v(a), -stv(o), -estv(o), -ur(a), -at: foliage, children, students, teachers, professors, proletariat .
6 . Grammatical features of real nouns
A noun is a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animation and inanimateness. In the proposal I.S. acts as a subject and an object.
Depending on the lexico-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into real ones as well.
Real nouns denote a homogeneous mass, substance (liquids, metals, chemical elements and compounds, food products, crops, etc.): water, lead, amidopyrine, oxygen, sugar, cheese, meat, rye, cotton. They have the form of only one number (either singular or plural): milk, nitrogen; cream, yeast. They do not combine with quantitative numbers, but, as words denoting a measured substance, they can be combined with measure words: a kilogram of flour, a hectare of wheat, a liter of milk, a lot of water. At the same time, real nouns are used in the form of the genitive case of the singular, in contrast to non-material nouns, which in such cases have the plural form. A number of masculine nouns have two forms of the genitive case: sugar - sugar, tea - tea, snow - snow.
7 . Grammatical features of singular nouns
A noun is a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animation and inanimateness. In the proposal I.S. acts as a subject and an object.
Depending on the lexico-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into singular ones.
Single nouns (singulatives) call single objects isolated from a mass of matter or a set of homogeneous objects: pea (pea), pearl (pearl), tesina (tes), snowflake (snow), peasant (peasantry), professor (professorship). In some cases, singulatives are formed analytically: an onion head, a head of cabbage.
8. Grammatical features of animate and inanimate nouns
A noun is a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animation and inanimateness. In the proposal I.S. acts as a subject and an object.
Depending on the lexico-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into animate and inanimate.
Animation-inanimateness nouns is lexically manifested in the fact that animate nouns designate mainly living beings (people and animals), and inanimate - objects and phenomena of reality that are not classified as living nature. Grammatically, the category of animation - inanimateness is manifested in the declension of nouns: the form of the accusative case of animate nouns coincides with the form of the genitive case, while the form of the accusative case of inanimate nouns - with the form of the nominative case: student - animated name (c.p. = r.p. student), table (v.p. = r.p. table).
The category of animation covers mainly masculine and feminine nouns. For masculine nouns, except for nouns. on -a, -z, it manifests itself in both numbers (v.p. = r.p. of a student, students). For feminine and masculine nouns in -a, -я - only in the plural (v.p. = r.p. of students, boys, judges).
Animated neuter nouns include: 1) nouns with suffixes -ish-(e), -ovish-(e), -lisch-(e): monster, monster, monster; 2) some substantive adjectives and participles: animal, insect, mammal; 3) nouns child, person (in the meaning of a person), being (in the meaning of a living organism).
A number of nouns have fluctuations in the expression of the category of animation - inanimateness (in the names of microorganisms, in nouns, the image, type, character): consider ciliates and ciliates; kill bacteria and germs; create vivid images, special characters.
The lexico-grammatical category of gender is inherent in all nouns (with the exception of words used only in the plural). it is syntactically independent: the gender of the noun determines the generic form of the agreed words (big house). Nouns of different genders differ in the declension paradigm (home - home, home), word-formation structure (brother - brothers, teacher - teacher), some lexical and semantic features (Tbilisi, lady). For inanimate nouns, the gender is purely formal, for animate nouns it is not only formal, but also significant, because associated with the distinction between the names of persons and animals, male and female. The genus category is clearly displayed only in singular forms.
masculine- this is a variety of the grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - belonging to it of male creatures: table, edge, house, young man.
Feminine gender - this is a variety of the grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns, the names of female beings belong to it: country, Moscow, week, cherry, joy, pea, daughter, sister. The feminine gender includes nouns that have in i.p. unit endings -а, (-я): book, earth.
Meaning generic can be correlated with both a male person and a female person: an orphan, a slut, a smart girl, Sasha, a counterpart, a protégé, incognito.
Neuter gender- this is a variety of the grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special declension paradigm and the meaning of inanimateness (with a few exceptions): a village, a gun, a child, an insect, a monster.
Category numbers nouns - a lexical and grammatical inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of the correlative forms of the singular and plural: student - students, teacher - teachers.
The form of a number denoting one object in a series of homogeneous objects is the form the only numbers: table, notebook, textbook. The number form denoting an indefinite set of homogeneous objects is the plural form: tables, notebooks, textbooks.
The singular and plural are distinguished by means of expression:
1) the presence of various endings: book - books, house - houses.
2) a change in the ending in combination with a change in the place of stress: wall - walls, window - windows.
3) truncation, buildup or alternation of suffixes in the base: peasant - peasants, leaf - leaves, foal - foals.
4) the use of suppletive forms: a person - people, a child - children.
A number of nouns do not have correlative singular and plural forms.
Nouns that have only singular forms include:
1) abstract nouns (courage, courage, sadness, linguistics)
2) collective nouns (foliage, students)
3) a number of real entities (silver, hydrogen, raspberries, milk)
4) proper names (Moscow, Don, Ural)
Nouns that have only plural forms are:
1) some abstract nouns (vacation, farewell, twilight)
2) a number of real nouns (cream, cabbage soup, perfume, sweets)
3) individual proper names (Cheboksary, Kuriles, Pyrenees)
4) the names of some games (chess, checkers, blind man's buff, hide and seek)
5) specific nouns denoting objects consisting of several parts or paired objects (scissors, gates, watches, rakes, railings).
Plural nouns are used to name various types and types of matter (high-quality steels, noble wines, territorial waters), products made from this material, they can indicate a large amount of matter, vast space (desert sands, endless snows). Proper names are used in the plural form and when designating the type of people (kabanikhs, chichikovs), as well as members of the same family (the Artamonov family).
case- an inflectional lexical and grammatical category of a noun, which, by a system of case forms opposed to each other, expresses the relationship of the object designated by the noun to other objects, actions and features. The relations created with the help of cases are manifested at the level of phrases and sentences. There are 6 cases in modern Russian, but the number of meanings they convey is much greater than the number of case forms.
The meanings expressed by cases are divided into 4 main groups: subjective, objective, attributive and circumstantial.
Nominative- independent case form. It is not used with prepositions. Meanings: 1) Subjective (the boy is reading); 2) Objective (The lecture is recorded by students); 3) Definitive (he was a peasant).
Indirect cases according to their use are divided into verbal And nominal: read a book (verb ce); reading a book (adjective genitive). V.P. is only verbal.