Lexical means
Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning (good - evil, powerful - powerless).The opposition of antonyms in speech is a bright source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis.: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.
Contextual (or contextual) antonyms -these are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text:Mind and heart - ice and fire -That's the main thing that distinguished this hero.
Hyperbole - figurative expression exaggerating any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression.: Snow fell from the sky in pounds.
Litotes - worst understatement: a man with a fingernail.Used to enhance the artistic impression.
Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) -thanks to their novelty, they allow creating certain artistic effects, expressing the author's view on a topic or problems: ...how can we make sure that our rights do not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)
Use of literary imageryhelps the author to better explain any situation, phenomenon, other image:Grigory was, apparently, the brother of Ilyusha Oblomov.
Synonyms - These are words belonging to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning:Love is love, friend is friend.Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express the idea, use. To enhance the feature.
Contextual (or contextual) synonyms −words that are synonymous only in this text:Lomonosov - a genius - a beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)
Metaphor - a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.
In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands what kind of similarity the semantic relationship between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on:There were, are, and, I hope, always will be more good people in the world than bad and evil ones, otherwise disharmony would come in the world,it would have skewed...tipped over and sunk.Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.
Metonymy - transfer of values (renaming) according to the adjacency of phenomena. The most common cases of transfer:
A) from a person to his any external signs:Is lunch coming soon? asked the guest, turning toquilted vest;
b) from an institution to its inhabitants: Whole board recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisarev;
Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words that create a new concept or idea. This is a combination of logically incompatible concepts, sharply contradictory in meaning and mutually exclusive. This technique sets the reader to the perception of contradictory, complex phenomena, often - the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author's attitude to an object or phenomenon, or gives an ironic connotation:The sad fun continues...
personification -one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When impersonating, the described object is externally used by a person:Trees leaning towards meoutstretched thin arms.Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain slapped bare feetalong the paths of the garden.
Evaluative vocabulary -direct author's assessment of events, phenomena, objects: Pushkin is a miracle.
Paraphrase(s) - using a description instead of a proper name or title; descriptive expression, turn of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition: The city on the Neva sheltered Gogol.
Proverbs and sayings,used by the author, make the speech figurative, apt, expressive.
Comparison - one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, to create whole art pictures give descriptions of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by conjunctions:like, as if, as if, exactly, etc.but it serves for a figurative description of the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give exact description colors: Like the night, his eyes are black.
Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: snake alarm crept into our hearts.There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words:similar, similar, reminiscent: ... butterflies are like flowers.
Phraseologisms -these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author's attitude to events, to a person, etc.:people like my hero have divine spark. Phraseologisms have a stronger effect on the reader.
Quotes from other works they help the author to prove any thesis, the position of the article, show his passions and interests, make the speech more emotional, expressive: A.S. Pushkin, "like first love"will not forget not only"Russian heart" but also world culture.
Epithet - a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Anything can be an epithet. meaningful word, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition to another:talker magpie,fatal hours. eagerly peers; listens frozen;but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense:half-asleep, tender, loving eyes.
Gradation - a stylistic figure that consists in the consequent intensification or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech:For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world!Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending (weakening of the feature).
Antithesis - a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
Tautology - repetition (better, the author's words are the words of the author)
colloquial vocabularygives additional. Expressive-emotional. Coloring (put, deny, reduce) can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.
Historicisms- words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts they denoted (chain mail, coachman)
Archaisms - words that are in modern. Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)
In the works of the artist Lit. Help to recreate the color of the era, are the means speech characteristics, or can be used as a means of comic
Loans. The words -to create humor, a nominative function, give national. Coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is described.
. Grammar means.
exclamation particles -a way of expressing the emotional mood of the author, a method of creating an emotional pathos of the text: O, how beautiful you are, my land! And how good are your fields!
exclamatory sentencesexpress the emotional attitude of the author to the described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration):Disgraceful attitude! How can you save happiness!Exclamatory sentences also express a call to action:Let's save our soul as a shrine!
Inversion - reverse word order in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the adverb of the mode of action is before the verb:The youth of today quickly realized the falsity of this truth.And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. It's strong means of expression used in emotional, excited speech:Beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!
Polyunion - a rhetorical figure, consisting in the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the enumerated concepts, the role of each is emphasized.: And the thunder did not strike, and the sky did not fall to the ground, and the rivers did not overflow from such grief!
Parceling - the technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into separate words. Its purpose is to give speech intonational expression by its abrupt pronunciation:The poet suddenly stood up. Turned pale.
Repeat - conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: Pushkin was sufferer, suffererin the full sense of the word.
Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations -a special means of creating the emotionality of speech, expressing the author's position.Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in it their useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction?
What summer, what summer? Yes, it's just magic!
Syntactic parallelism -the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea:Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.
A combination of short simple and long complex or complicated sentences with a variety of turnovershelps to convey the pathos of the article, the emotional mood of the author.
“1855. The zenith of Delacroix's glory. Paris. Castle fine arts… in central hall exposition - thirty-five paintings of the great romantic ".
One-part, incomplete sentencesmake the author's speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text:Gioconda. A human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps ... Not a single stroke, - I hear the words. - No smears. How alive.
Anaphora, or monogamy - This is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. It is used to strengthen the expressed thought, image, phenomenon:How to describe the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings that overwhelm the soul at this moment?
Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: I have been going to you all my life. I have believed all my life into you. I have loved all my life you.
water words are used to express confidence (of course), uncertainty (maybe), various feelings (fortunately), the source of the statement (according to words), the order of events (firstly), evaluation (to put it mildly), to attract attention (you know, understand, listen)
Appeals- is used to name the person to whom the speech is being addressed, to attract the attention of the interlocutor, and also to express the attitude of the speaker to the interlocutor (Dear and dear mother! - common appeal e)
Homogeneous members of the proposal -their use helps to characterize the object (by color, shape, quality ...), focus on some point
Sentence words - Yes! But how!Of course! Used in colloquial speech strong feelings motives.
Isolation - used to highlight or clarify part of the statement. (At the fence, at the gate itself ...)
TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY
GRAMMATIC TOOLS
The teacher will talk about a special lexical composition:
common vocabulary predominantly with an abstract meaning;
terms- designations of concepts, which are based on a scientifically constructed definition;
general scientific words, with the help of which phenomena and processes are described in various fields of science and technology;
organizer words scientific thought are responsible for the logic of presentation, build judgments, turn the text into a scientific one.
†Introduce terminological vocabulary according to the scheme suggested above.
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Grammatical means
In addition to the grammatical means presented in the diagram, the scientific style is characterized by:
1. A large number of participles and participles.
2. Frequency short form adjectives and participles ( the work is interesting; results are predictable; task completed).
3. The prevalence of complex syntactic constructions ( From the analyzed material it follows that the toponymic system of Siberian cities developed in the 19th century).
4. The typicality of introductory words and phrases indicating the source of the message ( according to the message, according to the information), confidence level ( really, possibly, possibly), the order of thought ( first, second, then, finally) etc.
5. Frequency of impersonal and generalized personal sentences ( It is common knowledge that...; It is possible to assume that...; Let's assume that...; As evidence, consider...).
6. Availability conceptual (rational grain, red thread and others), terminological ( leading branch of the economy, stages of social development, strengthening military power etc.) phraseological units and set expressions(rely on an opinion, be based on a theory, proceed from a postulate).
7. The presence of speech clichés - phrases that are repeatedly reproduced in finished and often unchanged form in a large array of scientific texts ( follow the example, follow the principles, play a role, matter, influence, function).
What grammatical means have already been presented in the scheme?
Communicative forms of speech are the basis for constructing scientific texts.
Communicative form of speech- a kind of speech, determined by the nature of the transmitted information.
The information transmitted by a scientific text is different:
− theories;
− hypotheses;
− evidence;
− methodology for collecting material and obtaining results.
Statement of facts and theories defines representing the character of the text and correspondingly representing the form of speech.
Hypothesis, bringing evidence, refutation of any statements, points of view, facts involves the creation of an argumentative text and argumentative form of speech.
5. Description and narration in scientific communication.
Scientific Description- a text or a fragment of text in which a scientific object is presented in a special order, which is determined by the purpose of the study. Similar texts "answer" the questions:
What's this? What specific features does it have?
What tasks are facing the writer / speaker in the representation of the object scientific research?
From what point of view was the object studied?
To what class of phenomena does it belong? What function does it perform? What other objects or phenomena does it correlate with?
Structure object description includes the following sections:
object qualification;
Designation of signs and properties of an object;
Characteristics of the composition and structure;
Purpose and application of the object;
Quantitative characteristic;
Comparison of an object with others;
Determining the place of an object in a series of similar ones.
To introduce structural elements into the text, we use speech cliches:
By ... understand ...;
... has ... properties;
... comprises...;
... you can imagine ...
n At the lecture, the teacher will continue examples of speech clichés.
Write down as many examples as possible.
! Write out from term paper speech cliches related to your scientific field.
The qualification of an object often includes its definition.
Description and narration - texts of the representing type.
Definition - a logical operation of establishing the meaning of the term. Definition text - a wording that reveals the content, essence of the object. It characterizes its main features and allows you to distinguish objects conceivable in it from others.
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Did your rules match those presented by the teacher at the lecture?
When creating a definition, you should adhere to the following rules.
1. The definition must be proportionate, i.e..............
2. The definition should not contain "circle" .......
A "circle" can arise when the definition is given in other words, when ..... the concept is included in ...... the concept as a part.
3. The definition in the text is formulated using special linguistic means.
!Write definitions by inserting terms from your scientific field instead of dots.
1) …......- this is ….........
2) ............ is called ......
3) …........ are called...........
4) By ....... is understood ........
5) By ...... should be understood ......
6) …............. defined as ……….
The most important component of the scientific description is the selection of classes and types in the object, that is, the creation scientific classification.
The description has a three-part structure.
1. Wording division bases, i.e. a statement of the principles for constructing a classification ( Speech cliches:the basis of the classification (typology, taxonomy, division) a sign is put..; about the basis of the classification is...; the basis of the classification is ... and others.)
2. Fixation specific feature using words :( Lexical units: feature, difference (different, distinctive), originality (peculiar, peculiar), specificity (specific, specific), characteristic (characterized).
3. Performance classification in the form of a diagram.
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6. .
In reasoning different points of view on the problem are compared or the truth / falsity of any hypothesis is clarified.
Scientific reasoning must be reasoned.
Scientific reasoning can have the following goals:
Argumentative forms of scientific speech- reasoning and precept
____________________________________________________________________
1. Training, information transfer, communication, review.
The goal is achieved in a speech, report, lecture, article. The basis of argumentation is the transfer of information. Feedback with the listener is established I implicitly, due to the structure source code, program, pre-set cognitive tasks. This kind of scientific reasoning is always present in university lectures.
2. Establishing a measure of truth and a measure of falsity for each thesis.
The goal is usually achieved in the course of scientific discussion, which is defined as a form of scientific cognitive activity, a form of discussion of the subject at the entity level. Structurally, the discussion is well organized. It always involves several people. The discussion gravitates toward a compromise, toward clarification of terminology, research methods, and the development of a unified methodology.
Evidence in scientific reasoning must be based on reliable facts, the laws of science, known axioms and postulates. References to statements or opinions of scientists can be used as additional arguments.
The reasoning uses a complex of syntactic means.
1. Causal and conditional relationships conveyed by words and their combinations: and therefore, hence, consequently, due to this, due to this, depending on this, due to this, in this case, in this case, on this condition, etc.
2. Temporal correlation th parts of the text are indicated by words and their combinations: in the beginning, at first, first of all, first of all, previously, now, at the same time, at the same time, along with, earlier, again, then, later, later, subsequently, in the future, subsequently, henceforth, in conclusion, further.
3. Comparison and contrast of parts information is represented by words and their combinations: so (same), in the same way, similarly, if ... then, while ..., while, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, on the contrary, in contrast to this, otherwise a, but, however , but
4. Addition and clarification of information conveyed in the words: at the same time, moreover, at the same time, moreover, by the way.
5. Illustration, selection of a particular case i are denoted introductory words, particles, combinations of words: for example, so, for example, exactly, only, even, only, after all, especially, in other words, in other words, more precisely, in particular, that is.
6. Order of listing facts or judgments It is most often represented by introductory words: firstly, secondly, thirdly, then, next, finally..
7. Generalization, conclusion, summary of previous information conveyed by words and combinations of words: thus, so, in short, in general, generally speaking, in a word, therefore, it follows from this.
From your scientific work (term paper, report), write out examples illustrating the use of syntactic means in reasoning. What means are frequent, and what are not at all?
Prescription in scientific communication- this is a text or a fragment of it, which contains orders, technological recipes that prescribe certain actions to addressees.
! Write a text (10-12 sentences) proving or refuting the following statement: "The modern scientific style is influenced by other styles: words or phrases borrowed from other styles are used to denote new concepts, phenomena, objects."
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Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain linguistic means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in the verb I write is expressed with the ending -y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case in the word forest is expressed with the ending -om. Here is the expression grammatical meanings external linguistic means is called grammatical form.
Therefore, word forms are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. Outside of the grammatical form, there is not a single CG.
Before talking about the ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Russian, we need to talk about the means of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meanings are expressed using various means (grammatical indicators):
1) endings; 2) formative suffixes and prefixes; 3) stress; 4) alternation of sounds; 5) prepositions; 6) intonation; 7) auxiliary words.
With the help of the ending, the meanings of the gender, number and case of nouns are expressed: tree -y, -om, -e; wood; table-; board; arable land - arable land; eye - eyes; adjectives: green tree, green tree, green tree; beautiful, th, th, th; participles: flying bird, flying bird, flying bird, flying birds; pronouns: our country, our country; the meaning of the case of numerals: two, two, two, two.
The meaning of the person, number and gender of the verb: love, love, love, loved, loved, would love.
With the help of word-forming and formative affixes, the form of the past tense of the verb is formed: risova -l; the form of the imperfective form of verbs: to draw - sris-ovy-vat, to find out - recognize-ava-t; perfect form of verbs: build - build, read - pro-read; comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: red - red-her, important - important-eysh-th. Forms of pledge: teach - learn-sya, cut - cut-sya. The superlative forms of adjectives are the most important.
With the help of stress, forms of species are formed: pour - pour, cut - cut; nouns of the nominative case of plural and nouns of the genitive case of unity are distinguished. numbers: (no) stamps and (what?) stamps (plural); (no) horse and (pl.) horse.
Grammatical meanings are also distinguished by the alternation of sounds. They distinguish the form of the verb: equip - equip, cool - cool.
Prepositions are used to express the grammatical meaning of the case of nouns, numerals and pronouns: at the table, over the table, about the table, across the table.
Intonation helps to distinguish the imperative mood of the verb (imperative) from the infinitive: Get up! Be silent!
Auxiliary words form forms of the imperative mood: May there always be sunshine! Forms of the future complex - I will look for; subjunctive mood - would have looked.
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb there is an ending -ut expresses both person, number, and mood.
It should be especially noted that formal grammatical means are of two types: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called inflection. Some words have no inflection: they always appear in the same form (such, for example, are the service words y, but, only). Such words have zero paradigm. But for most words in the Russian language, the paradigm is not zero. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school is formed by word forms: school, school, school, school, school, (o) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, (o) schools.
Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words are paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of a word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, in some words there are additional, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:
1) alternation (or alternations) of phonemes in the stem (run-run; sleep - sleep ("fluent" vowel);
2) buildup, truncation or alternation of fundamental suffixes in the stem [brother - brothers (brother-] -a); peasant - peasants; give - give; dance - dance (dance-y]-y)];
3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (walking-walking; man - people);
4) change in the place of stress (tree-trees; was-were).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, i.e. in a phrase. For example, in phrases A new book, new books, the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the endings of the noun, but also by the endings of the adjective that agrees with it. Here paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting given value becomes the grammatical syntagmatics (compatibility) of the word. For example, if a noun does not have outwardly different endings, i.e., is “indeclinable” (such as a coat, CHP), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed “outside” the noun itself, in concordant forms of the adjective (new / new coats; powerful /powerful CHP). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical doctrine of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.
Sentimentalism as a literary method developed in the literatures of Western European countries in the 1760s-1770s. The artistic method got its name from the English word sentiment (feeling).
Sentimentalism as a literary method
The historical background for the emergence of sentimentalism was the growing social role and political activity of the third estate. At its core, the activity of the third estate expressed a tendency to democratize the social structure of society. The socio-political imbalance was evidence of the crisis of the absolute monarchy.
However, the principle of a rationalistic worldview changed its parameters significantly by the middle of the 18th century. The accumulation of natural science knowledge has led to the fact that in the field of the very methodology of cognition there has been a revolution, foreshadowing a revision of the rationalist picture of the world. The highest manifestation of the rational activity of mankind - absolute monarchy - more and more demonstrated both its practical inconsistency with the real needs of society, and the catastrophic gap between the idea of absolutism and the practice of autocratic rule, since the rationalistic principle of world perception was revised in new philosophical teachings that turned to the category of feeling and sensation .
The philosophical doctrine of sensations as the only source and basis of knowledge - sensationalism - arose at the time of the full viability and even flowering of rationalistic philosophical teachings. The founder of sensationalism is the English philosopher John Locke. Locke declared experience to be the source of general ideas. External world given to a person in his physiological sensations - sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch.
Thus, Locke's sensationalism offers a new model of the process of cognition: sensation - emotion - thought. The picture of the world produced in this way also differs significantly from the dual rationalistic model of the world as a chaos of material objects and a cosmos of higher ideas.
From the philosophical picture of the world of sensationalism follows a clear and distinct concept of statehood as a means of harmonizing the natural chaotic society with the help of civil law.
The result of the crisis of absolutist statehood and the modification of the philosophical picture of the world was the crisis of the literary method of classicism, which was due to the rationalist type of worldview, associated with the doctrine of absolute monarchy (classicism).
The concept of personality, which has developed in the literature of sentimentalism, is diametrically opposed to the classical one. If classicism professed the ideal of a reasonable and social person, then for sentimentalism the idea of the fullness of personal being was realized in the concept of a sensitive and private person. The sphere where the individual private life of a person can be revealed with particular clarity is the intimate life of the soul, love and family life.
The ideological consequence of the sentimentalist revision of the scale of classic values was the idea of the independent significance of the human personality, the criterion of which was no longer recognized as belonging to a high class.
In sentimentalism, as in classicism, the sphere of greatest conflict tension was the relationship of the individual with the collective, sentimentalism gave preference to the natural person. Sentimentalism demanded from society respect for individuality.
The universal conflict situation of sentimentalist literature is the mutual love of representatives of different classes, breaking up against social prejudices.
The desire for the natural naturalness of feeling dictated the search for similar literary forms of its expression. And in place of the high "language of the gods" - poetry - prose comes in sentimentalism. The advent of the new method was marked by the rapid flourishing of prose narrative genres, first of all, the story and the novel - psychological, family, educational. Epistolary, diary, confession, travel notes - these are typical genre forms of sentimentalist prose.
Literature that speaks the language of feelings addresses feelings, evokes emotional resonance: aesthetic pleasure takes on the character of an emotion.
The peculiarity of Russian sentimentalism
Russian sentimentalism arose on national soil, but in a larger European context. Traditionally, the chronological boundaries of the birth, formation and development of this phenomenon in Russia are determined by 1760-1810.
Already since the 1760s. works of European sentimentalists penetrate into Russia. The popularity of these books causes a lot of their translations into Russian. F. Emin's novel "Letters of Ernest and Doravra" is an obvious imitation of Rousseau's "New Eloise".
The era of Russian sentimentalism is "the age of exceptionally diligent reading."
But, despite the genetic connection of Russian sentimentalism with European, it grew and developed on Russian soil, in a different socio-historical atmosphere. Peasant revolt, which grew into civil war, made his own adjustments both to the concept of "sensitivity" and to the image of "sympathizer". They acquired, and could not help but acquire, a pronounced social connotation. The idea of moral freedom of the individual lay at the heart of Russian sentimentalism, but its ethical and philosophical content did not oppose the complex of liberal social concepts.
Lessons from European travel and the experience of the Great french revolution Karamzin fully corresponded with the lessons of Russian travel and understanding of the experience of Russian slavery in Radishchev. The problem of the hero and the author in these Russian "sentimental journeys" is, first of all, the story of the creation of a new personality, a Russian sympathizer. The “sympathizers” of both Karamzin and Radishchev are contemporaries of turbulent historical events in Europe and Russia, and the reflection of these events in the human soul is at the center of their reflection.
Unlike the European Russian sentimentalism had a solid educational foundation. The educational ideology of Russian sentimentalism adopted, first of all, the principles of the "educational novel" and the methodological foundations of European pedagogy. Sensitivity and the sensitive hero of Russian sentimentalism were striving not only to reveal the "inner man", but also to educate and educate society on new philosophical foundations, but taking into account the real historical and social context.
The consistent interest of Russian sentimentalism in the problems of historicism is also indicative: the very fact of the emergence from the depths of sentimentalism of the grandiose building “History of the Russian State” by N. M. Karamzin reveals the result of the process of comprehending the category of the historical process. In the depths of sentimentalism, Russian historicism acquired new style associated with ideas about the feeling of love for the motherland and the indissolubility of the concepts of love for history, for the Fatherland and the human soul. The humanization and animation of historical feeling is, perhaps, what sentimentalist aesthetics has enriched Russian literature of modern times, which is inclined to cognize history through its personal incarnation: epochal character.
Sentimentalism (from fr. sentiment- feeling) arose during the Enlightenment in England in the middle of the 18th century. during the period of the disintegration of feudal absolutism, estate-serf relations, the growth of bourgeois relations, and, therefore, the beginning of the liberation of the individual from the shackles of the feudal-serf state.
Representatives of sentimentalism
England. L. Stern (the novel "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy"), O. Goldsmith (the novel "The Weckfield Priest"), S. Richardson (the novel "Pamela", or Virtue Rewarded", the novel "Clarissa Harlow", "The Story of Sir Charles Grandison").
France. J.-J. Rousseau (novel in letters "Julia, or New Eloise", "Confession"), P. O. Beaumarchais (comedies "The Barber of Seville", "The Marriage of Figaro").
Germany. I. V. Goethe (sentimental novel "The Suffering of Young Werther"), A. La Fontaine (family novels).
Sentimentalism expressed the worldview, psychology, tastes of the conservative nobility and the bourgeoisie (the so-called third estate), thirsting for freedom, a natural manifestation of feelings that demanded reckoning with human dignity.
Features of sentimentalism
The cult of feeling, natural feeling, not spoiled by civilization (Rousseau asserted the decisive superiority of simple, natural, "natural" life over civilization); denial of abstractness, abstractness, conventionality, dryness of classicism. Compared with classicism, sentimentalism was a more progressive direction, because it contained elements of realism associated with the depiction of human emotions, experiences, expansion inner world person. The philosophical basis of sentimentalism is sensationalism (from lat. sensus- feeling, sensation), one of the founders of which was the English philosopher J. Locke, who recognizes sensation, sensory perception as the only source of knowledge.
If classicism affirmed the idea of an ideal state, ruled by an enlightened monarch, and demanded that the interests of the individual be subordinated to the state, then sentimentalism put forward not a person in general, but a concrete, private person in all the originality of his individual personality. At the same time, the value of a person was determined not by his high origin, not by his property status, not by class affiliation, but by personal merits. Sentimentalism first raised the question of the rights of the individual.
The heroes were simple people- nobles, artisans, peasants, who lived mainly by feelings, passions, heart. Sentimentalism opened up the rich spiritual world of the common man. In some works of sentimentalism sounded protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of the "little man".
Sentimentalism gave literature a democratic character in many ways.
Since sentimentalism proclaimed the writer's right to express his author's individuality in art, genres appeared in sentimentalism that contributed to the expression of the author's "I", which means that the form of narration in the first person was used: diary, confession, autobiographical memoirs, travel (travel notes, notes, impressions ). In sentimentalism, poetry and dramaturgy are replaced by prose, which had a greater opportunity for transmission. complex world emotional experiences of a person, in connection with which new genres arose: family, everyday and psychological novel in the form of correspondence, "petty-bourgeois drama", "sensitive" story, "bourgeois tragedy", "tearful comedy"; the genres of intimate, chamber lyrics (idyll, elegy, romance, madrigal, song, message), as well as the fable, flourished.
It was allowed to mix high and low, tragic and comic, mixing genres; the law of "three unities" was subverted (for example, the range of phenomena of reality was significantly expanded).
Depicted ordinary, everyday family life; the main theme was love; the plot was built on the basis of situations of everyday life of private individuals; the composition of works of sentimentalism was arbitrary.
The cult of nature was proclaimed. The landscape acted as a favorite backdrop for events; the peaceful, idyllic life of a person was shown in the bosom of rural nature, while nature was depicted in close connection with the experiences of the hero or the author himself, was in tune with personal experience. The village as the center of natural life, moral purity sharply opposed to the city as a symbol of evil, artificial life, vanity.
The language of the works of sentimentalism was simple, lyrical, sometimes sensitively elevated, emphatically emotional; such poetic means as exclamations, appeals, petting-diminutive suffixes, comparisons, epithets, interjections were used; blank verse was used. In the works of sentimentalism, there is a further convergence of the literary language with lively, colloquial speech.
Features of Russian sentimentalism
Sentimentalism took hold in Russia in the last decade of the 18th century. and fades away after 1812, during the development of the revolutionary movement of the future Decembrists.
Russian sentimentalism idealized the patriarchal way of life, the life of a serf village and criticized bourgeois mores.
A feature of Russian sentimentalism is a didactic, educational orientation towards the upbringing of a worthy citizen. Sentimentalism in Russia is represented by two currents:
- 1. Sentimental-romantic - Η. M. Karamzin ("Letters of a Russian traveler", story " Poor Lisa), M. N. Muravyov (sentimental poems), I. I. Dmitriev (fables, lyrical songs, poetic tales "Fashionable Wife", "Whimsical"), F. A. Emin (the novel "Letters of Ernest and Doravra"), V. I. Lukin (comedy "Mot, corrected by love").
- 2. Sentimental-realistic - A. II. Radishchev ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow").