Information about the culture of the 19th century. Russian culture of the 19th century

RUSSIAN FINE ART OF THE XVIII CENTURY

RUSSIAN ART OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY

The eighteenth century was one of the turning points in the history of Russia. The culture that served the spiritual needs of this period began to quickly acquire a secular character, which was greatly facilitated by the convergence of art and science. So, today it is very difficult to find an artistic difference between the geographical "land map" of those days and the emerging species engraving (with the exception of the works of A.F. Zubov). Most of the engravings of the first half of the century look like technical drawings. The rapprochement between art and science awakened in artists an interest in knowledge and therefore helped to free themselves from the fetters of church ideology.

In painting, the genres of the new, realistic art were outlined and defined. The portrait genre acquired the predominant importance among them. In religious art, the idea of man was belittled and the idea of God was exalted, so secular art had to begin with the image of man.

Creativity I. M. Nikitin. The founder of the national portrait genre in Russia was Ivan Maksimovich Nikitin (born around 1690 - d. 1741). We do not know the biography of this artist well, but even scarce information shows that it was unusual. The son of a priest, he initially sang in the patriarchal choir, but later turned out to be a mathematics teacher at the Antillernaya School (future Artillery Academy). Peter I became aware of the passion for fine art that had awakened in him early, and Nikitin was sent as a scholarship holder to Italy, where he had the opportunity to study at the academies of Venice and Florence. Returning from abroad and heading the Russian realistic school, the painter remained faithful to the ideals of the time of Peter the Great all his life. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, he joined the opposition circles and paid with Siberian exile, returning from which (during the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna) he died on the road. The period of mature creativity of the master is able to adequately represent not only natural portraits of Peter I himself, but also such an outstanding work as “Portrait of the Floor Hetman” (1720s).

In terms of its technical execution, Nikitin's creation is quite on the level European painting XVIII century. It is strictly in composition, the shape is molded softly, the color is full-sounding, and the warm background creates a feeling of real depth.

The "floor hetman" is perceived by today's viewer as an image of a courageous person - a contemporary of the artist, who also came to the fore not because of his generosity, but thanks to tireless work and abilities.

Having noted the merits of Nikitin, it should, however, be stipulated that the painter achieved the inner characterization of the depicted person only if the character of the person being portrayed was, as they say, “written on the face” sharply and definitely. Nikitin's work solved in principle the initial problem of the portrait genre - showing the uniqueness of the individual appearance of people.

Of the other Russian portrait painters of the first half of the 18th century, one can also name A. M. Matveev (1701 - 1739), who studied painting in Holland. His best works are considered to be portraits of the Golitsyns (1727 - 1728) and a self-portrait in which he depicted himself together with young wife (1729).

Both Nikitin and Matveev most clearly reveal the realistic trend in the development of the Russian portrait of the Petrine era.

Russian art middle of the 18th century. Creativity A.P. Antropova The traditions laid down by Nikitin did not receive direct development in the art of the period of the reign of Peter's immediate successors, including the so-called Bironism.

The creations of portrait painters of the middle of the 18th century testify that the era no longer gave them the fertile material that their predecessor Nikitin had at their disposal. However, a vigilant and conscientious fixation of all the features of the appearance of the depicted led to the fact that individual portraits acquired a truly accusatory power. This especially applies to the work of Alexei Petrovich Antropov (1716 - 1795).

A native of the craftsmen, a student of A. M. Matveev, he finally formed in the “painting team” of the Chancellery from buildings, which was in charge of technical and artistic work on numerous court buildings. His works remained for the middle of the 18th century a document of the time, like Nikitin's works for the first quarter of the century. He performed portraits of A. M. Izmailova (1754), Peter III (1762) and other canvases, in which the originality of the author’s creative manner and the traditions of folk applied art, manifested in decorativeness; combinations of bright spots of pure (local) color, fused together.

Antropov's activity covers, except for the middle, the entire second half of the 18th century. Nevertheless, it is advisable to complete the consideration of the history of art in the first half of the 18th century with an analysis of his work, because in the further development of Russian artistic culture, other tasks were identified, in the solution of which the image of a person in the uniqueness of his individual appearance served as nothing more than a starting point.

RUSSIAN ART OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY

By the second half of the 18th century, Russia, having completely departed from the obsolete forms of medieval artistic culture, entered a path of spiritual development that was not common with European countries. Its general direction for Europe was determined by the impending French Revolution of 1789. True, the emerging Russian bourgeoisie was still weak. The historical mission of the onslaught on the feudal foundations turned out to be connected for Russia with the activities of the advanced noble intelligentsia, whose representatives were to be enlightened! XVIII century gradually come to the Decembristism of the beginning of the next century.

Enlightenment, being the largest general cultural phenomenon of the era, was formed under the dominance of legal ideology. The theorists of the rising class - the bourgeoisie - sought to substantiate from the point of view of legal consciousness its domination and the need to eliminate feudal institutions. One can cite as an example the development of the theory of "natural law" and the publication in 1748 of the famous work of the Enlightener Charles Montesquieu "The Spirit of the Laws". In turn, the nobility, taking retaliatory actions, turned to legislative provisions, because other forms of resistance to the impending threat left their hands.

In the fifties, the first public theater appeared in Russia, founded by F. G. Volkov. True, the number of theaters was not large, but one should take into account the development of the amateur stage (at Moscow University, at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the gentry corps, etc.). home theater architect and translator N. A. Lvov played a prominent role in the life of the capital. The place occupied by dramaturgy in Russian literature of the 18th century is at least indicated by the fact that even Catherine II, in search of means of government guardianship over the minds, used the form of a dramatic composition (she wrote the comedies “Oh, time!”, “Name day of Mrs. Vorchalkina”, "Deceiver" and others).

Development of the portrait genre. Turning to the direct history of Russian fine art in the second half of the 18th century, we must first dwell on the birth of the so-called intimate portrait. To understand the features of the latter, it is important to note that everyone, including the great masters of the first half of the century, also worked as a ceremonial portrait. The artists sought to show, first of all, a worthy representative of the predominantly noble class. Therefore, the person depicted was painted in full dress, with insignia for services to the state, and often in a theatrical pose, revealing the high social position of the person being portrayed.

The ceremonial portrait was dictated at the beginning of the century general atmosphere era, and subsequently - the established tastes of customers. However, it very quickly turned, in fact, into an official one. The art theorist of that time, A. M. Ivanov, stated: “It must be that ... the portraits seem to speak for themselves and, as it were, inform: “look at me, I am this invincible tsar, surrounded by majesty.”

In contrast to the ceremonial portrait, an intimate portrait sought to capture a person as he appears to the eyes of a close friend. Moreover, the task of the artist was to, along with the exact appearance of the depicted person, to reveal the features of his character, to give an assessment of the personality.

The onset of a new period in the history of Russian portraiture was marked by the canvases of Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov (born 1736 - d. 1808 or 1809).

Creativity of F. S. Rokotov. The paucity of biographical information does not allow us to reliably establish who he studied with. There were long disputes even about the origin of the painter. The early recognition of the artist was ensured by his genuine talent, which manifested itself in the portraits of V. I. Maikov (1765), an unknown woman in pink (1770s), a young man in a cocked hat (1770s), V. E. Novosiltseva (1780) , P. N. Lanskoy (1780s).

The further development of the intimate portrait was associated with the name of Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky (1735 - 1822).

Creativity D. G. Levitsky. He received his initial art education under the guidance of his father, an engraver of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Participation in the work on the painting of the Kyiv Andreevsky Cathedral, carried out by A.P. Antropov, led to a subsequent four-year apprenticeship with this master and a passion for the portrait genre. In the early canvases of Levitsky, the connection with the traditional ceremonial portrait is clearly visible. A turning point in his work was marked by a custom-made portrait series of pupils of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, consisting of seven large-format works performed in 1773-1776. The order meant, of course, ceremonial portraits. It was envisaged to depict girls in full growth in theatrical costumes against the backdrop of the scenery of amateur performances staged at the boarding house.

By the winter season of 1773 - 1773, the pupils were so successful in performing arts that the imperial court and the diplomatic corps were present at the performances.)

The empress herself acted as the customer in connection with the upcoming first graduation of the educational institution. She sought to leave to posterity a clear memory of the fulfillment of her cherished dream - the education in Russia of a generation of nobles who, not only by birthright, but also by education, enlightenment, would rise above the lower classes.

However, the way the painter approached the task, reveals, for example, "Portrait of E. I. Nelidova" (1773). The girl is depicted, it is believed, in her best role- Serbina's servants from the staging of Giovanni Pergolesi's opera The Servant-Mistress, which told about a clever maid who managed to achieve the master's cordial disposition, and then marriage with him. Gracefully lifting her light lace apron with her fingers and cunningly bowing her head, Nelidova stands in the so-called third position, waiting for the wave of the conductor's baton. (By the way, the fifteen-year-old "actress" was so loved by the public that her performance was noted in the newspapers and poems were dedicated to her.) It is felt that for her theatrical performance- not a reason to demonstrate the "graceful manners" instilled in the boarding school, but an opportunity to reveal young enthusiasm, constrained by the daily strict rules of the Smolny Institute. The artist conveys the complete spiritual dissolution of Nelidova in stage action. Gray-green shades close in tone, in which the landscape theatrical backdrop is designed, the pearl colors of the girl's dress - everything is subordinated to this task. Levitsky also shows the immediacy of Nelidova's nature. The painter deliberately made the tones in the background dimmer and at the same time made them sparkle in the foreground - in the clothes of the heroine. The gamma is based on the ratio of gray-green and pearl tones, rich in its decorative qualities, with pink in the color of the face, neck, hands and ribbons that adorn the costume. Moreover, in the second case, the artist adheres to the local color, forcing him to recall the manner of his teacher Antropov.

Artistic achievements that gave originality to this small portrait gallery, Levitsky consolidated in subsequent work, creating, in particular, two excellent portraits of M. A. Lvova, nee Dyakova, daughter of the Senate chief prosecutor (1778 and 1781).

The first of them shows an eighteen-year-old girl, almost the same age as the Smolensk women. She is depicted in a turn, the ease of which is expressively emphasized by the golden side light that fell on the figure. The radiant eyes of the young heroine look dreamily and joyfully somewhere past the viewer, and her wet lips are touched by a poetically vague smile. In her appearance - slyly-fervent courage and chaste timidity, all-penetrating happiness and enlightened sadness. This character is not yet fully developed, full of expectation of a meeting with adult life.

The color scheme has changed. In the first work, the painting is brought to tonal unity and resembles Rokotov's coloristic searches. In the portrait of 1781, the color is taken in the intensity of its sound. Warm sonorous tones make the color tense, a little harsh.

Portraits of M. A. Lvova, N. I. Novikov, A. V. Khrapovitsky, the husband and wife of the Mitrofanovs, Bakunina and others, dating back to the eighties, testify that Levitsky, combining the harsh accuracy of Antropov and the lyricism of Rokotov, became the most prominent representative of Russian portraiture painting XVIII centuries.

The galaxy of the largest portrait painters of the 18th century is completed by Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky (1757 - 1825).

Creativity VL Borovikovsky. The eldest son of a small Ukrainian nobleman, who, together with his father, earned a livelihood by icon painting, he first attracted attention with allegorical paintings in Kremenchug, made in 1787 for the arrival of Catherine II. This gave the young master the opportunity to go to St. Petersburg to improve his painting skills. He managed, as they say, to take lessons from D. G. Levitsky and, in the end, to establish himself in the capital's artistic circles.

The portraits of Borovikovsky, including the one just examined, indicate that the painter has risen to the next, new (after Levitsky's achievements) step in deepening the image of a person. Levitsky opened the world of diversity of human characters for the Russian portrait genre. Borovikovsky, on the other hand, tried to penetrate into the state of mind and thought about how the character of the model was formed.

Bibliography

1. To a young artist. A book to read on the history of art. M., 1956.

2. Encyclopedic dictionary young artist. M., 1987.

3. Pikulev I.I. Russian fine arts. M., 1977.

4. Drach G.V. Culturology. Rostov-on-Don, 1995.

RUSSIAN FINE ART OF THE XVIII CENTURY

RUSSIAN ART OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY

In terms of its technical execution, Nikitin's creation is quite at the level of European painting of the 18th century. It is strictly in composition, the shape is molded softly, the color is full-sounding, and the warm background creates a feeling of real depth.

Both Nikitin and Matveev most clearly reveal the realistic trend in the development of the Russian portrait of the Petrine era.

Russian art of the middle of the XVIII century. Creativity A.P. Antropova The traditions laid down by Nikitin did not receive direct development in the art of the period of the reign of Peter's immediate successors, including the so-called Bironism.

RUSSIAN ART OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY

In the fifties, the first public theater appeared in Russia, founded by F. G. Volkov. True, the number of theaters was not large, but one should take into account the development of the amateur stage (at Moscow University, at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the gentry corps, etc.). The home theater of the architect and translator N.A. Lvov played a significant role in the life of the capital. The place occupied by dramaturgy in Russian literature of the 18th century is at least indicated by the fact that even Catherine II, in search of means of government guardianship over the minds, used the form of a dramatic composition (she wrote the comedies “Oh, time!”, “Name day of Mrs. Vorchalkina”, "Deceiver" and others).

The ceremonial portrait was dictated at the beginning of the century by the general atmosphere of the era, and later by the established tastes of customers. However, it very quickly turned, in fact, into an official one. The art theorist of that time, A. M. Ivanov, stated: “It must be that ... the portraits seem to speak for themselves and, as it were, announce: “look at me, I am this invincible tsar, surrounded by majesty.”

The onset of a new period in the history of Russian portraiture was marked by the canvases of Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov (born 1736 - d. 1808 or 1809).

The further development of the intimate portrait was associated with the name of Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky (1735 - 1822).

Creativity D. G. Levitsky. He received his initial art education under the guidance of his father, an engraver of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Participation in the work on the painting of the Kyiv Andreevsky Cathedral, carried out by A.P. Antropov, led to a subsequent four-year apprenticeship with this master and a passion for the portrait genre. In the early canvases of Levitsky, the connection with the traditional ceremonial portrait is clearly visible. A turning point in his work was marked by a commissioned portrait series of pupils of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, consisting of seven large-format works performed in 1773-1776. The order meant, of course, ceremonial portraits. It was envisaged to portray girls in full growth in theatrical costumes against the backdrop of the scenery of amateur performances staged at the boarding house.

By the winter season of 1773 - 1773, the pupils were so successful in performing arts that the imperial court and the diplomatic corps were present at the performances.)

However, the way the painter approached the task, reveals, for example, "Portrait of E. I. Nelidova" (1773). The girl is depicted, as is believed, in her best role - Serbina's maid from the staging of Giovanni Pergolesi's opera The Servant-Mistress, which told about a clever maid who managed to achieve the master's cordial disposition, and then marriage with him. Gracefully lifting her light lace apron with her fingers and cunningly bowing her head, Nelidova stands in the so-called third position, waiting for the wave of the conductor's baton. (By the way, the fifteen-year-old “actress” was so loved by the public that her performance was noted in the newspapers and poems were dedicated to her.) It is felt that for her theatrical performance is not a reason to demonstrate the “elegant manners” instilled in the boarding school, but an opportunity to reveal young enthusiasm, constrained by the daily strict rules of the Smolny Institute. The artist conveys the complete spiritual dissolution of Nelidova in the stage action. Gray-green shades close in tone, in which the landscape theatrical backdrop is designed, the pearl colors of the girl's dress - everything is subordinated to this task. Levitsky also shows the immediacy of Nelidova's nature. The painter deliberately made the tones in the background dimmer and at the same time made them sparkle in the foreground - in the clothes of the heroine. The gamma is based on the ratio of gray-green and pearl tones, rich in its decorative qualities, with pink in the color of the face, neck, hands and ribbons that adorn the costume. Moreover, in the second case, the artist adheres to the local color, forcing him to recall the manner of his teacher Antropov.

The first of them shows an eighteen-year-old girl, almost the same age as the Smolensk women. She is depicted in a turn, the ease of which is expressively emphasized by the golden side light that fell on the figure. The radiant eyes of the young heroine look dreamily and joyfully somewhere past the viewer, and her wet lips are touched by a poetically vague smile. In her appearance - slyly-fervent courage and chaste timidity, all-penetrating happiness and enlightened sadness. This is a character that has not yet fully developed, full of expectations of a meeting with adulthood.

The galaxy of the largest portrait painters of the 18th century is completed by Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky (1757 - 1825).

Creativity VL Borovikovsky. The eldest son of a small Ukrainian nobleman, who, together with his father, earned a livelihood by icon painting, he first attracted attention with allegorical paintings in Kremenchug, made in 1787 for the arrival of Catherine II. This gave the young master the opportunity to go to St. Petersburg to improve his painting skills. He managed, as they say, to take lessons from D. G. Levitsky and, in the end, establish himself in the capital's artistic circles.

Bibliography

1. To a young artist. A book to read on the history of art. M., 1956.

2. Encyclopedic dictionary of a young artist. M., 1987.

3. Pikulev I.I. Russian fine arts. M., 1977.

4. Drach G.V. Culturology. Rostov-on-Don, 1995.

Formed in France, classicism of the XVIII - early XIX centuries (in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism), has become a pan-European style.

Rome became the international center of European classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the traditions of academism with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization dominated. But the economic crisis that unfolded in Italy left its mark on the work of its artists. With all the abundance and variety of artistic talents, the ideological range of Venetian painting of the 18th century is narrow. The Venetian masters were attracted mainly by the external, ostentatious, festive side of life - this is what they are close to. French artists rocaille.

Among the galaxy of Venetian artists of the XVIII century, a true genius Italian painting was Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. The creative heritage of the master is extremely multifaceted: he painted large and small altar paintings, paintings of a mythological and historical nature, genre scenes and portraits, worked in the etching technique, performed many drawings and, first of all, solved the most difficult tasks of plafond painting - he created frescoes. True, his art was devoid of great ideological content, and in this there were echoes of the general state of decline in which Italy was, but his ability to embody the beauty and joy of being in art will forever remain the most attractive features of the artist.

The life and customs of Venice of the 18th century were reflected in small genre paintings Pietro Longhi. His everyday scenes are quite consistent with the character of the Rococo style - cozy living rooms, holidays, carnivals. However, with all the variety of motives, Longhi's art is not distinguished by either depth or great content.

In addition, another direction developed in Italy at that time, which does not quite fit into the framework of the style. This is Vedutism, a realistic and accurate depiction of city views, especially Venice. This is especially pronounced in artists such as Antonio Canale and Francesco Guardi. The love for the image of one's city, the creation of original portraits of a documentary urban view dates back to the time of the Early Renaissance.

Like Italy, Germany in the 18th century was a conglomeration of numerous unconnected secular and spiritual principalities. It was a politically fragmented and economically weak country. The Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648 halted development for a long time. German culture. German fine art was limited and little independent. And although the social upsurge characteristic of all of Europe, especially in the second half of the 18th century, also affected Germany, but mainly in the field of pure theory, and not in fine arts.

Most of the artists were either invited from abroad (D.B. Tiepolo, B.Belotto, A.Pen, A.Vanloo), or worked, often imitating foreign masters (B. Denner, A.F. Maulperch, engraver Schmidt and etc.). The best achievements of Germany in the field of portraiture include the works of the German Swiss Anton Graff, which are distinguished by great truth in the transfer of nature, a good sense of form and harmony of color. In the field of graphics, Daniel Chodovetsky had significant achievements. He worked a lot in the field of engraving and book illustration, creating his own style of sentimentally sensitive commentary on the works of German writers - Geller, Gessner, Lessing, Goethe, Schiller and others. The artist's engravings are lively humorous genre pictures, idylls, everyday family scenes, where, against the backdrop of a burgher interior, streets, offices, and markets, German townsfolk go about their business.

German classicism of the second half of the 18th century in the visual arts did not rise to revolutionary civil pathos, as it was in pre-revolutionary France.

In abstract works Anton Raphael Mengs idealistic normative doctrines come to the fore. Repeated stays in Rome in an atmosphere of a resurgent interest in antiquity led Mengs to the path of an uncritical perception of ancient art, to the path of imitation, as a result of which his painting appeared, distinguished by features of eclecticism, idealized nature of images, static compositions, dryness of linear outlines.

Many German artists, like Mengs, according to the tradition of that time, studied and worked for years in Rome. These were the landscape painter Hackert, the portrait painters Anzhelika Kaufman and Tischbein.

In general, architecture and fine arts were not strong point culture of Germany in the 17th - 18th centuries. German masters often lacked that independence, creative audacity, which is so attractive in the art of Italy and France.

The share of painting and sculpture in Spain (apart from Goya, whose work stands at the turn of two centuries and belongs to more modern times), Portugal, Flanders and Holland was insignificant for the 18th century.

1. Russian culture of the 19th century: general characteristics

Russian art of the pre-October era occupies an important place in the history of world artistic culture.

The development of Russian culture in the 19th century was based on the transformations of the previous time. The penetration of elements of capitalist relations into the economy has increased the need for literate and educated people. Cities became the main cultural centers. New social strata were drawn into social processes. New stage characterized by the expansion of cultural interaction with other countries and peoples, the general democratization of the creative process.

The culture of Russia developed against the background of the ever-increasing national self-consciousness of the Russian people and, in this regard, had a pronounced national character. The Patriotic War of 1812 had a significant impact on literature, theatre, music and fine arts.

The contradictions of the time became especially acute in the 1940s. It was then that the revolutionary activity of A.I. Herzen began, with brilliant critical articles V. G. Belinsky spoke, passionate disputes were waged by Westerners and Slavophiles. Romantic motifs appear in literature and art, which is natural for Russia, which has been involved in the pan-European cultural process for more than a century. Much has changed in comparison with the 18th century, the social role of the artist has increased, the significance of his personality, his right to freedom of creativity, in which social and moral problems are now more and more acutely raised.

The growth of interest in the artistic life of Russia was expressed in the building of certain art societies and the publication of special journals: "The Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts" (1801), "Journal fine arts"First in Moscow (1807), and then in St. Petersburg (1823 and 1825), the Society for the Encouragement of Artists" (1820), the "Russian Museum ..." P. Svinin (1810s) and the "Russian Gallery" in the Hermitage (1825), provincial art schools, such as the school of A.V. Stupin in Arzamas or A.G. Venetsianov in St. Petersburg and the village of Safonkovo.

The humanistic ideals of Russian society were reflected in the highly civic examples of architecture of that time and monumental and decorative sculpture, in the synthesis of which decorative painting and applied art which often ends up in the hands of the architects themselves. The dominant style of this time is mature, or high, classicism.

Russian history Art XIX centuries are usually divided into stages.

The first half is called the Golden Age of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. After the defeat of the Decembrists, a new rise began social movement. This gave hope that Russia would gradually cope with its difficulties. The country achieved the most impressive successes in these years in the field of science and especially culture. The first half of the century gave Russia and the world Pushkin and Lermontov, Griboyedov and Gogol, Belinsky and Herzen, Glinka and Dargomyzhsky, Bryullov, Ivanov and Fedotov.

The fine arts of the first half of the 19th century have an inner commonality and unity, a unique charm of bright and humane ideals. Classicism is enriched with new features, its strengths are most clearly manifested in architecture, history painting partly in sculpture. The perception of the culture of the ancient world became more historical than in the 18th century, and more democratic. Along with classicism, the romantic direction is intensively developed and a new realistic method begins to take shape.

The romantic trend in Russian art in the first third of the 19th century paved the way for the development of realism in the following decades, for to a certain extent it brought romantic artists closer to reality, to simple real life. This was the essence of the complex artistic movement throughout the first half of the 19th century. In general, the art of this stage - architecture, painting, graphics, sculpture, applied and folk art - is an outstanding, full of originality phenomenon in the history of Russian artistic culture. Developing the progressive traditions of the previous century, it has created many magnificent works of great aesthetic and social value, contributing to the world heritage.

The second half is the time of the final approval and consolidation of national forms and traditions in Russian art. AT mid-nineteenth century, Russia experienced severe upheavals: the Crimean War of 1853-1856 ended in defeat. Emperor Nicholas I died, Alexander II, who ascended the throne, carried out the long-awaited abolition of serfdom and other reforms. The "Russian theme" became popular in art. Russian culture was not isolated within national boundaries, it was not separated from the culture of the rest of the world.

In the second third of the 19th century, due to the intensified government reaction, art largely lost those progressive features that were characteristic of it earlier. By this time, classicism had essentially exhausted itself. The architecture of these years embarked on the path of eclecticism - the external use of styles from different eras and peoples. Sculpture lost the significance of its content, it acquired the features of superficial showiness. Promising searches were outlined only in sculpture of small forms, here, just as in painting and graphics, realistic principles grew and strengthened, asserting themselves despite the active resistance of representatives of official art.

In the 70s, progressive democratic painting is gaining public recognition. She has her own critics - I.N. Kramskoy and V.V. Stasov and her own collector - P.M. Tretyakov. The time has come for the flowering of Russian democratic realism in the second half of the 19th century. At this time, in the center of the official school - the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts.

The nineteenth century was also notable for the expansion and deepening of ties between Russian art not only with life, but also with the artistic traditions of other peoples who inhabited Russia. Motifs and images of the national outskirts, Siberia, began to appear in the works of Russian artists.

The national composition of students in Russian art institutions became more diverse. Natives of Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States, Transcaucasia and Central Asia studied at the Academy of Arts, in the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture organized in the 1830s. An active role in the training of artists in multinational Russia was played by provincial art schools, which enjoyed the methodological support of professors from the Higher Art School. Thus, the traditions of Russian academic studies were preserved and developed. art school, professional skill.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the largest representatives of the Association of Travelers art exhibitions: I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.V. Vereshchagin, V.D. Polenov and others. Then the talent of V.A. Serov, the greatest master realist of the pre-revolutionary era, flourished. These years were the time of formation of the young representatives of the Wanderers A.E. Arkhipov, S.A. Korovin, S.V. Ivanov, N.A. Kasatkin.

Russian culture has received worldwide recognition and taken a place of honor in the family of European cultures.

A particularly significant stage in the scientific development of art in the late 19th and early 20th centuries began in the 1960s. Numerous works were published, which became a valuable contribution to Russian art history.

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NOU VPO "Institute of Management"

Yaroslavl branch

Test

By discipline:

History of domestic state and law

Russian culture of the 19th century

Lecturer: Sakulin M.G.

Completed by student: Golovkina N.S.

Yaroslavl

Introduction

1.1 Education

1.2 Science

1.3 Literature

1.4 Painting and sculpture

1.5 Architecture

1.6 Theater and music

2.1 Enlightenment

2.2 Science

2.3 Literature

2.4 Painting and architecture

2.5 Theater and music

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

History of Russian culture in the 19th century. occupies a special place. This is the century of the unprecedented rise of Russian culture. It was in the XIX century. Russian art culture became a classic, having the meaning of an immortal model for all subsequent generations of people. If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind the advanced European countries, then in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but in many respects outstripped them. Russia contributed to the World Cultural Fund wonderful works literature, painting, music. Russian scientists have made outstanding discoveries in science and technology.

Achievements of Russian culture were determined by many factors: Peter's reforms, Catherine's era of enlightened absolutism, the establishment of closer contacts with Western Europe. An important role was also played by the fact that capitalist relations were slowly but steadily developing in the economic and socio-political structure of Russia. Factories and plants appeared. Cities grew and became the main cultural centers. The urban population has increased. The need for literate and educated people has increased. A special role was played by the victory of the Russian people in Patriotic War 1812, which had a significant impact on literature, music, theater, and the visual arts.

However, the internal situation in the country held back the development of culture. The government deliberately slowed down the rapidly developing processes, actively fought against social thought in literature, journalism, theater and painting. It prevented a wide public education. The feudal system did not allow the entire population to enjoy high cultural achievements. Culture remained the privilege of an insignificant part of the ruling class. The cultural demands and needs of the top of society were alien to the people, who developed their own cultural ideas and traditions.

Goals term paper:

to study various aspects of Russian culture of the 19th century;

identify the main directions of development of culture;

identify the influence of social, political, and economic factors on cultural and social life.

The topic of XIX culture is very relevant for the present time. its study and consideration performs important educational, informational, cultural functions.

culture russia petrovsky ekaterininsky

Chapter 1. Culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century

1.1 Education

The education of society is one of the indicators of the cultural state of the people, the country. At the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century. a closed estate system of enlightenment and education was formed.

Schooling was not provided for serfs. For state peasants, parochial schools were created with a one-year training program. For the urban population of non-noble origin, county schools were created, for the children of the nobles - gymnasiums, the completion of which made it possible to receive higher education. For the nobles, special secondary educational institutions were also opened - paramilitary cadet schools.

The famous educational institution has become an exemplary Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, whose program almost corresponded to the university one. Many prominent public and political figures and representatives of Russian culture studied at the Lyceum (poets and writers A.S. Pushkin, V.K. Kuchelbeker, I.I. Pushchin, A.A. Delvig, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, diplomats A. M. Gorchakov and N. K. Girs, publicist N. A. Danilevsky, future Minister of Education D. A. Tolstoy, etc.)

The system of home education was widespread, in which the main attention was paid to the study of foreign languages, music, literature, instilling good manners, painting.

Opportunities for the development of women's education remained very limited. There were several closed institutes (schools) for noblewomen. The most famous was the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, opened in St. Petersburg at the end of the 18th century. and laid the foundation for women's education in Russia. According to his model, women's institutes were opened in other cities. The program was designed for 7-8 years of study and included arithmetic, history, literature, foreign languages, dances, music, and various types of home economics. At the beginning of the 19th century in St. Petersburg and Moscow, schools for girls of the "chief officer rank" were created. In the 1930s, several schools were opened for the daughters of guards soldiers and sailors from the Black Sea. However, the bulk of Russian women were deprived of the opportunity to receive even primary education.

The major politicians understood that the state needed more and more educated or at least literate people, at the same time they were afraid of broad enlightenment of the people.

University and higher specialized education developed. Universities played a major role in shaping national identity and promoting modern scientific achievements. Public lectures by professors of Moscow University on the problems of Russian and world history, commercial and natural sciences were very popular. The lectures on the general history of Professor T.N. Granovsky, consonant with the public mood of that time. Higher specialized educational institutions prepared qualified personnel for the further modernization of Russia.

Despite the obstacles put in place by the government, there was a democratization of the student body. Raznochintsy (natives of non-noble strata) sought to get a higher education. Many of them were engaged in self-education, replenishing the ranks of the emerging Russian intelligentsia. Among them are the poet A. Koltsov, publicist N.A. Polevoy, A.V. Nikitenko, a former serf who was bought free and became a literary critic and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

In contrast to the 18th century, which was characterized by an encyclopedism of scientists, in the first half of the 19th century, the differentiation of sciences began, the separation of independent scientific disciplines (natural and humanitarian). Along with the deepening of theoretical knowledge, scientific discoveries, which had applied value and were introduced, albeit slowly, became increasingly important. practical life.

1.2 Science

In the first half of the 19th century began the differentiation of science, the allocation of independent scientific disciplines. Along with the deepening of theoretical knowledge, scientific discoveries, which had applied significance and were introduced, albeit slowly, into practical life, were becoming increasingly important.

In the natural sciences, there was a desire for a deeper knowledge of the basic laws of nature. The discoveries of Ya.K. Kaidanova, I.E. Dyadkovsky, K.F. Roulier made a significant contribution in this direction. Professor of Moscow University biologist K.F. Roulier, even before Charles Darwin, created an evolutionary theory of the development of the animal world. Mathematician N.I. Lobachevsky in 1826, far ahead of his contemporary scientists, created the theory of "non-Euclidean geometry". The church declared it heretical, and colleagues recognized it as correct only in the 60s of the 19th century.

In the applied sciences, especially important discoveries were made in the field of electrical engineering, medicine, biology and mechanics. Physicist B.S. Jacobi in 1834 designed the first suburban electric motors powered by galvanic batteries. Academician V.V. Petrov created a number of original physical devices and laid the foundation for the practical application of electricity. P.L. Schilling created the first recording electromagnetic telegraph. Father and son E.A. and M.E. The Cherepanovs in the Urals built a steam engine and the first steam-powered railway. Chemist N.N. Zinin developed a technology for the synthesis of aniline, an organic substance used as a dye fixer in the textile industry. Professor of Moscow University M.G. Pavlov made a great contribution to the development of agrobiology. N.I. Pirogov, a participant in the defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War, for the first time in the world began to perform operations under ether anesthesia, widely used antiseptics in military field surgery. Professor A.M. Filomafitsky introduced the practice of using a microscope to study blood elements and, together with N.I. Pirogov developed a method of intravenous anesthesia.

The first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken in 1803-1806. under the command of I.F. Krusenstern. On two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" the expedition passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied. Later Yu.F. Lisyansky, having made his way from the Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich geographical and ethnographic materials about these territories. In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain V.M. Golovnin attempted a second round-the-world trip, explored the Kuril Islands, but were captured by the Japanese. Three-year stay in captivity of V.M. Golovnin used to collect valuable data on Japan, little known to Europeans. In 1819, a Russian expedition to Antarctica was carried out on two ships Vostok and Mirny.

The humanities emerged and successfully developed into a special branch. The desire to know Russian history as an important element of the general national culture. The Society of Russian History and Antiquities was established at Moscow University. An intensive search for monuments of ancient Russian writing began. In 1800, the found at the end of the 18th century was published. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is an outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature.

In 1818, the first 8 volumes of "The History of the Russian State" by N.M. were published. Karamzin. This work caused a wide resonance of the public and ambiguous assessments of his conservative-monarchist concept.

Nevertheless, the "History" of N.M. Karamzin was a huge success and was repeatedly reprinted. It contributed to the further awakening of further interest in historical knowledge. Under the influence of Karamzin, "Historical Thoughts" by K.F. Ryleev, the tragedy "Boris Godunov" by A.S. Pushkin, dramatic works by A.K. Tolstoy, historical novels by I.I. Lazhenchikova and N.V. Puppeteer.

The works of historians K.D. Kavelina, N.A. Polevoy, T.N. Granovsky, M.P. Pogodin. In the late 1940s, the coryphaeus of Russian historical science S.M. began his research activities. Solovyov, who wrote the 29-volume "History of Russia" and many other works on various problems of national history.

An important task of the formation of culture was the development of the rules and norms of the Russian literary and colloquial language. This was of particular importance due to the fact that the nobles despised the Russian language, many of them could not write a single line in Russian, did not read mother tongue. Some scientists advocated the burial of archaisms characteristic of the 18th century. and in general for the era of classicism. Some rightly protested against the servility to the West, the imitation of foreign models and the use of many foreign words (mainly French) in the Russian literary language.

Great importance To solve this problem, the creation of a verbal faculty at Moscow University and the activities of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature had.

The development of the foundations of the Russian literary language was finally completed in the work of writers N.M. Karamzin, M.Yu. Lermontov, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol and others. Publicist N.I. Grech wrote "Practical Russian Grammar", for which he was elected a corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

1.3 Literature

It flourished in the first half of the 19th century. reached literature. It was she who defined this time as the "golden age" of Russian culture. The literature reflected the complex socio-political processes of that time. Writers differed in their beliefs and aspirations. There were also various literary and artistic styles within which opposing currents developed. At this time, many fundamental principles were affirmed in Russian literature that determined it. further development Keywords: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship and a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice. Russian literature was an important means of developing social thought.

At the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. Classicism gave way to sentimentalism. At the end of his creative way G.R. came to this direction. Derzhavin. The main representation of Russian sentimentalism was the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (story " Poor Lisa" and etc.)

The War of 1812 brought Romanticism to life. This literary style was widespread in Russia and other European countries. There were two currents in Russian romanticism. V.A. Zhukovsky was considered a representative of "salon" romanticism. In his ballads, he recreated the world of beliefs and mysticism, chivalric legends far from reality. Civil pathos, genuine patriotism were characteristic of another trend in romanticism, associated with the names of poets and writers of the Decembrists: K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbeker, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. They called for a struggle against the autocratic-serf order, advocated the ideals of freedom and service to the motherland. In his early work, A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov filled romanticism with the highest artistic content.

Of great importance for the development of Russian literature was the activity of the "thick" magazines Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski. On the pages of these magazines, a new phenomenon for Russia arose - literary criticism. The magazines became the centers of literary associations and spokesmen for various social and political views. They reflected not only literary controversy, but also social struggle.

The development of literature took place in difficult socio-political conditions. Censorship restrictions were rigidly in effect, sometimes reaching the extreme. The works of writers were shredded. Magazines were fined and closed. The censor was punished, who missed the publication of "Eugene Onegin" in the poetic description of A.S. Pushkin of Tatyana's entry into Moscow the line "... And flocks of jackdaws on crosses." The gendarmes and priests saw this as an insult to the church.

1.4 Painting and sculpture

In Russian fine arts, as well as in literature, romanticism and realism were affirmed. The official trend in painting was academic classicism. The Academy of Arts became a conservative and inert institution, hindering any attempts at creative freedom. Its main principle was strict adherence to the canons of classicism, the predominance of religious themes, biblical and mythological subjects.

A prominent representative of romanticism in Russia was O.A. Kiprensky, whose brushes belong to the wonderful portraits of V.A. Zhukovsky and A.S. Pushkin. Portrait of A.S. Pushkin - young, fanned by political glory - is one of the best creations of a romantic image. Another artist, V.A., worked in the same genre. Tropinin. He also painted a portrait of A.S. Pushkin, but in a realistic manner. Before the viewer appears wise life experience, not really happy man.

The influence of romanticism was experienced by K.P. Bryullov. The painting "The Last Day of Pompeii", written, it would seem, in the traditions of classicism, expressed the artists' expectation of social changes, upcoming major political events.

A special place in Russian painting is occupied by the work of A.A. Ivanova. His painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People" became an event in world art. The grandiose picture, which was created over 20 years, continues to excite many generations of viewers.

In the first half of the 19th century Russian painting includes everyday plot, which was one of the first to be addressed by A.G. Venetsianov. His paintings "On Plowed Fields", "Zakharka", "Morning of the Landowner" are dedicated to ordinary people, spiritual threads are connected with the life and way of life of the people. The successor of the tradition of A.G. Venetsianov was P.A. Fedotov. His canvases are not only realistic, but also filled with satirical content, exposing the commercial morality, life and customs of the elite of society ("Major's Matchmaking", "Fresh Cavalier", etc.). Contemporaries rightly compared P.A. Fedotov in painting with N.V. Gogol in literature.

At the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. there has been a rise in Russian monumental sculpture. P.A. Martos erected the first monument in Moscow - to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square. According to the project of Montferrand, a 47-meter column was erected on Palace Square before winter palace as a monument to Alexander I and a monument in honor of the victory in the war of 1812 B.I. Orlovsky created monuments to M.I. Kutuzov and M.B. Barclay de Tolly in Petersburg. I.P. Vitali designed the fountain sculptures on Theater Square in Moscow. PC. Klodt erected four equestrian sculptural groups on the Anichkov Bridge and equestrian statue Nicholas I in Petersburg. F.P. Tolstoy created a series of wonderful bas-reliefs and medals dedicated to the Patriotic War of 1812.

1.5 Architecture

Russian architecture of the first half of the 19th century. associated with the traditions of late classicism. It is characterized by the creation of large and complete ensembles.

This was especially evident in St. Petersburg, where entire avenues and quarters were formed, striking in their unity and harmony. The building of the Admiralty was erected according to the project of A.D. Zakharov. From the Admiralty, the rays of St. Petersburg avenues spread. Nevsky Prospekt acquired a completed look after the construction of A.N. Voronikhin of the Kazan Cathedral. According to the Montferrand project, St. Isaac's Cathedral was created - the most large building Russia of that time. It was in the first half of the 19th century. Petersburg has become a true masterpiece of world architecture.

Moscow, which burned down in 1812, was also rebuilt according to the traditions of classicism, but on a smaller scale than St. Petersburg. close-up architectural ensemble became Manezhnaya Square with the buildings of the University, the Manege and the Alexander Garden under the walls of the Kremlin. The grandiose building of the Manezh was built to meet Russian troops returning from the foreign campaign of 1813-1815. The garden was laid out on the site of the dirty and muddy river Neglinka, the waters of which were enclosed in special pipes taken underground. The Cathedral of Christ the Savior was founded on the banks of the Moskva River. It was conceived as a symbol of deliverance from the French invasion of 1812 and the victory of Russian weapons. Numerous shopping arcades and shops were located on Red Square. Tverskaya Street was framed by orchards and orchards. Behind Tverskaya Zastava (in the area of the current Belorussky railway station) stretched a huge field adapted for hunting hares.

Imitating both capitals, the provincial towns were also transformed. Nikolsky Cossack Cathedral was erected in Omsk according to Stasov's project. In Odessa, according to the project of A.I. Melnikov created an ensemble of Primorsky Boulevard with semicircular buildings facing the sea.

By the end of the first half of the 19th century. The crisis of classicism began to manifest itself in architecture. Contemporaries were already tired of his strict forms. It had a deterrent effect on the development of civil engineering. The "Russian-Byzantine style", which had little connection with national town-planning traditions, became widespread.

1.6 Theater and music

In the first half of the 19th century theatrical life revived in Russia. There were different types of theatres. Serf theaters belonging to Russian aristocratic families (Sheremetevs, Apraksins, Yusupovs, and others) were still widespread. State theaters there were few (Alexandrinsky and Mariinsky in St. Petersburg, Bolshoi and Maly in Moscow). They were under the petty tutelage of the government, which constantly interfered with the repertoire, the selection of actors and other aspects of their activities. This greatly hindered theatrical creativity. Private theaters also appeared, which were endlessly allowed, then banned by the authorities.

The theater developed under the influence of the same trends as literature. In it in the first decades of the 19th century. dominated by classicism and sentimentalism. In the spirit of classicism, the historical tragedies of V.A. Ozerov ("Oedipus in Athens", "Dmitry Donskoy"). On the theater stage romantic plays by Russian and foreign authors were staged. Plays by F. Schiller, W. Shakespeare and others were played. Of the Russian authors, N.V. A puppeteer who wrote a number of historical plays ("The Hand of the Most High Fatherland Saved", etc.). Opera and ballet were dominated by the Italian and French schools. In the 30-40s of the 19th century. the influence of Russian literature on the theatrical repertoire increased, in which realistic traditions began to assert themselves. A major event in the social and cultural life of Russia was the staging of the play by N.V. Gogol's "Inspector".

In Russia, a national theater school who has brought up many talented artists.

Russian music received its own development. Composers did not seek to borrow from German, Italian and French schools, were looking for their own ways of musical self-expression. The combination of folk motifs with romanticism led to the emergence of Russian romance - a special variety musical genre. Romances by A.A. Alyabyeva "Nightingale", A.E. Varlamov "Red Sundress", A.L. Gurileva "Mother Dove" are popular today.

An outstanding composer of that era was M.I. Glinka, who created a number of major musical works. Opera "Life for the Tsar" N.V. Kukolnik, "Ruslan and Lyudmila" by A.S. Pushkin laid the foundations of Russian national opera art. M.I. Glinka wrote many romances based on poems by famous Russian poets. The most famous was his romance "I remember a wonderful moment" to the verses of A.S. Pushkin. A.S. was a remarkable composer. Dargomyzhsky, who boldly introduced scenes from everyday life and folk song melodies into musical works. The most famous was his opera "Mermaid", enthusiastically received by the public.

So, the most impressive successes of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. achieved in the field of culture. The world fund forever includes the works of many Russian writers and poets, artists, sculptors, architects and composers. The process of the formation of the Russian literary language and, in general, the formation of a national culture was completed. Traditions established in the first half of the 19th century developed and multiplied in subsequent times.

Chapter 2. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

2.1 Enlightenment

Literacy in post-reform Russia was required literally at every step; it was necessary for a juror and a recruit in the army, a peasant who had gone to a factory or trade. Therefore, the enlightenment of the people took a huge step forward after 1861: in the 60s only 6% of the population could read, in 1897 - 21%. In Russia, three main types of elementary school have developed: state, zemstvo and parochial. In church schools they taught first of all the law of God, church singing and the Church Slavonic language; secular subjects were taught more widely in ministerial and zemstvo schools. A huge contribution to the development of the rural school was made by the asceticism of the zemstvo intelligentsia. Where there were neither state, nor zemstvo, nor church schools, the peasants pooled their money to start their own "literacy schools." Sunday schools helped educate the adult population.

The number of primary schools increased 17 times - by 1896 there were about 79 thousand of them with 3800 thousand students. And yet the number of literate people in Russia was far from meeting the needs of the time. Two thirds of the children school age stayed out of school. The reason for this was the lack of funds allocated for education, and the rivalry between secular and church schools.

Secondary education also developed: it was given by classical gymnasiums, where the emphasis was on humanitarian subjects and ancient languages, and real gymnasiums, where natural and exact sciences were taught more widely. Women's gymnasiums arose. By the end of the 19th century in Russia there were about 600 male secondary schools with 150,000 students and about 200 female secondary schools with 75,000 students.

Improved higher education. In the second half of the 19th century. a number of new universities were founded - Warsaw, Novorossiysk, Tomsk; but more attention was paid to special higher educational institutions - there were about 30 of them. female education. During the post-reform period, the number of higher educational institutions more than quadrupled (from 14 to 63), with about 30,000 students enrolled.

Enlightenment in Russia has always been closely connected with politics and depended on the general state course. In the 60s in high school autonomy was given high school opened for all classes, military and religious schools were moving closer to civil ones, in primary education schools of different types coexisted. In the 1980s, government supervision over education was strengthened, class principles were strengthened, the isolation of military and religious schools was strengthened; women's access to higher education was hampered, with emphasis placed on church schools in elementary education.

The number of public reading rooms has grown over half a century after the peasant reform by more than 3 times (from 280 to 862). In the second half of the 19th century. the Historical Museum was founded, Polytechnical Museum, Tretyakov Gallery and Rumyantsev Library, Russian Museum.

2.2 Science

The development of education created the basis for the flourishing of science. The studies of the mathematician P.L. Chebyshev, physicists A.G. Stoletov and P.N. Lebedev. Chebyshev's student S.V. Kovalevskaya became the first female corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. The great discovery was the periodic law of chemical elements, formulated in 1869 by D.I. Mendeleev. A.M. Butlerov conducted in-depth research in the field of organic chemistry; the higher nervous activity of animals and humans was studied by I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov.

Significant progress has been made in geographical research: N.M. Przhevalsky studied Central Asia, N.N. Miklouho-Maclay - Oceania. The post-reform era was marked by a number of technical discoveries: P.N. Yablochkov and A.N. Lodygin designed electric lamps, A.S. Popov - radio receiver. In the 1980s, the first power plant in Russia was built.

The brilliant achievements of the exact and natural sciences strengthened the cult of reason and exact knowledge among the intelligentsia. Many prominent Russian scientists were atheists and materialists. Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev adhered to materialistic views in philosophy and sociology. A different position was taken by the positivists. Positivism was the most popular philosophical trend in the second half of the 19th century. Many liberals were positivists, including K.D. Kavelin, known for his works on philosophy and psychology. In the second half of the 19th century. Russian historical science rose to a considerable height. The great historian S.M. Solovyov created the fundamental "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes. Following the views of Hegel, he portrayed the development of Russia as an organic, internally logical process arising from the struggle of opposites - a creative state principle and destructive anti-state tendencies (popular riots, Cossack freemen, etc.).

2.3 Literature

The literature of the post-reform era brought world fame to Russian culture. The social tensions of the second half of the 19th century, the colossal psychological overload experienced by a person at a time of turbulent change, forced great writers to pose and solve the most profound questions - about the nature of man, good and evil, the meaning of life, the essence of being. This was clearly reflected in the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky - "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov" - and L.N. Tolstoy - "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Sunday".

Was realism a striking feature of post-reform literature? the desire to portray the "truth of life", the denunciation of social vices, democracy, the craving for rapprochement with the people. This was especially clearly manifested in the poetry of N.A. Nekrasov and satires M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Other views were defended by the lyricist A.A. Fet, who believed that art should not directly interfere with reality, but should reflect eternal themes and serve beauty. The struggle between the supporters of the theory of the so-called "pure art" and civil art became one of the most important topics of literary discussions in the first post-reform years. In the course of this struggle, the cult of social, civic art established itself for a long time in Russian literature.

2.4 Painting and architecture

The democratic-realistic spirit of the 60s influenced art with particular force. In painting, he is represented by the movement of the "Wanderers", in music - by the circle "Mighty Handful", in the theater - by the dramaturgy of A.N. Ostrovsky.

A vivid phenomenon of wandering was the satirical, accusatory pictures of V.G. Perova - "Rural procession for Easter", "Tea drinking in Mytishchi". The master of portrait painting was I.N. Kramskoy - "L. Tolstoy", "Nekrasov". N.A. Yaroshenko created images of young intellectuals-raznochintsev (pictures "Student", "Cursist").

The pinnacle of Russian painting was the canvases of I.E. Repin (1844 - 1930), in whose work the main directions of wandering were combined - thoughts about the people ("Barge Haulers on the Volga"), interest in history ("Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan", "Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan"), the theme of the revolution ("Refusal of confession", "Arrest of the propagandist").

In architecture, the search for a national style began, elements of Russian architecture of the 17th century were used. In the 80-90s, this course was encouraged by the authorities - an example is the Church of the Resurrection of Christ (the Savior on Spilled Blood) in St. Petersburg, erected according to the project of the architect A.A. Parlanda at the site of the death of Alexander II. Buildings were built in the "neo-Russian style" Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V.O. Sherwood), the Upper Trading Rows - now the Gumma building (A.N. Pomerantsev), the building of the Moscow City Duma (D.N. Chichagov).

2.5 Theater and music

In the development of the theater, a leading figure in Russian dramaturgy A.N. Ostrovsky: for almost three decades, his new plays were staged every year. He scourged social vices, the customs of the "dark kingdom". Creativity Ostrovsky was inextricably linked with the Maly Theater in Moscow. Great actors P.M. played here. Sadovsky, A.P. Lensky, M.N. Yermolov. The Alexandria Theater in St. Petersburg also stood out. Opera and ballet were presented, first of all, by the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi Theaters. The theater developed in the provinces, private and "folk theaters" arose.

Great strides have been made in music. The Russian national music school, founded by M.I. Glinka. Its traditions were continued by composers N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, M.P. Mussorgsky, A.P. Borodin, M.A. Balakirev, Ts.A. Cui. They created symphonies and operas using folk melodies, plots from Russian history and literature ("Boris Godunov" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Snow Maiden" and "Sadko" by Rimsky-Korsakov). The first Russian conservatories opened in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866).

Conclusion

Russia has gone from cultural isolation to integration with European culture.

For the majority of the country's population - the peasantry, urban dwellers, merchants, artisans, clergy - a new one that has absorbed the juices European enlightenment culture remained alien. The people continued to live by old beliefs and customs, enlightenment did not touch them. If by the 19th century in high society university education became prestigious and the talent of a scientist, writer, artist, composer, artist began to command respect regardless of the social origin of a person, then the common people saw in mental work "lordly fun", entertainment from idleness and looked at the intelligentsia " as an alien race" (Berdyaev).

There was a gap between the old and new culture. Such was the price that Russia paid for the sharp turn in its historical path and the way out of cultural isolation. The historical will of Peter I and his followers was able to enter Russia into this turn, but it was not enough to extinguish the force of cultural inertia that dominated the people. Culture could not withstand the internal tension created at this turn and went apart at the seams that had previously connected its various guises - folk and lordly, rural and urban, religious and secular, "soil" and "enlightened". The old, pre-Petrine type of culture has retained its folk, rural, religious, "soil" existence. Moreover, having rejected all alien foreign innovations, he withdrew and froze for a long time in the almost unchanged forms of Russian ethnic culture.

Bibliographic list

1. Balakina T.I. History of Russian culture. - M., 2004. - p.95-98

Gregoriev A.A., Fedorova V.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. - Krasnoyarsk: KSPU, 2002. - p.104-106

Zezina M.R., Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. - Moscow, 2000. - p.63-64

Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. - M., 2003. - p.15-19.

Orlov A.S., Polunov A.Yu. Manual on the history of the Fatherland. - M., 2004. - p.27

Orlov A.S., Tereshchenko Yu.A. Fundamentals of the course of the history of Russia. - M.: Prostor, 2002. - p.119-120

Pavlova G.E. Organization of science in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. - M., 2003. - p.65-70

Poznansky V.V. Essays on Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century. - M., 1999. p. - fourteen

Selvanyuk M.I., Gladkaya E.A., Podgayko E.A. History of Russia. 100 exam answers. - M. - Rostov-on-Don: "March", 2003. p.77

Shulgin V.S., Koshman L.V. Culture of Russia 19-20 V.M., 2005. p.171-182

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1. Russian culture of the 19th century: general characteristics

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