In a position before the sound [e], denoted by the letter e, both soft and hard consonants are pronounced in borrowed words. The lack of softness is more often characteristic of dental [d], [t], [h], [s], [n] and sound [p]. However, the consonant before e in words academy,cream,press, museum,tenor and many others. See below for lists of such words.

Words with strongly pronounced consonants before e

adept [de]

detective [dete]

adequate [de]

anesthesia [ne, te]

annexation [ne] [ add. not]

antiseptic [se]

atheism [te]

atheist [te]

take-take [be, be]

business [ne]

businessman [ne] [ add. not, me]

hetaera [te]

grotesque [te]

landing stage [de, der]

devaluation [de] [ add. de]

degradation [de]

degression [de]

dehumanization [de]

dezabile [de]

disavow [de]

disintegration [dezinte]

misinformation [deza] [ add. misinformation]

disorganization [de] [ add. de]

disorientation [de] [ add. de]

decahedron [de]

dequalification [de]

neckline [de, te]

low-cut [ add. de]

decompensation [de]

decor [de]

delicacy [te]

demarche [de]

demos [de]

dumping [de]

dendrologist [de]

denomination [de]

denunciation [de]

dermis [de]

desegregation [de]

detective [dete]

detector [dete]

determinism [dete]

de facto [de]

deflector [de]

deflation [de]

decibel [de]

decimeter [de]

de-escalation [de]

de jure [de, re]

indexing [de]

computer [te]

condensate [de]

capacitor [de]

consensus [se]

confidential [de] [ add. de]

corps de ballet [de]

cosecant [se]

crater [te] [ add. those]

creed [re] [ add. re]

crepe de chine [de] [ add. re]

laser [ze]

manager [ne] [ add. me, ne]

management [ne] [ add. me, ne]

minstrel [re] [ add. ne]

to model [de]

nonsense [se]

orchid [de]

pantheon [te]

panther [te] [ add. those]

parterre [te]

reverence [ie] [ add. ie]

pretentious [te]

providential [de]

producer [se]

protege [te]

prosthesis [te]

protection [te]

rendezvous [de]

requiem [re, uh]

reputation [me] [ add. re, me]

secant [se]

St. Bernard [se]

maxim [te] [ add. ce]

sepsis [se]

setter [se, te]

synthesis [te]

sonnet [ne] [ add. not]

stress [re]

teza (anti-) [te]

thesaurus [te]

thesis (anti-) [te]

timbre [te]

tempera [te]

trend [te, de]

tender [te, de]

tennis [te]

T-shirt [te]

thermos [te]

terms [te]

terracotta [te]

tercet [te]

third [te]

tete-a-tete [tatatet]

tetrahedron [te]

track [re] [ add. re]

phoneme [ne]

phonetics [ne]

maid of honor [re]

meatball [de]

cicherone [ne]

showman [me]

psychic [se]

Words with softly pronounced consonants before e

academy [not de]

takes [not bere]

degenerate

tasting [ de and de]

deduction [ add. de]

disinfection, disinfect

deodorant [ de and de]

decade [ add. de]

decadent [ add. decade]

recitation

declaration

decoration

demilitarization [ add. de]

demi-season

dismantling [ add. de]

depression [ add. de, re]

leatherette

definition [ add. de]

hyphen [ add. de]

deformation [ add. de]

dividend

kinescope

competent

competence

congress [ add. re]

congressman [ add. re, me]

context

correct

cream [ add. re]

compartment, but: coupe [ pe]

legionary

mixer [ add. se]

policeman

mystery

cologne

cop

press conference

pressure

progression [ add. re]

register [ add. es]

referent

safe [ add. ce]

sexology [ add. ce],but: sex [se]

serverat [ add. ce]

service [ add. ce]

session [ add. ce]

athlete [rc]

therapist [ add. te]

Terminator

thermonuclear [ add. te]

terror [ add. te]

fashionable [ add. ne]

shrapnel

express [ add. re]

expression [ add. re]

epidemic

essence

jurisprudence

The Russian language as a whole is characterized by the opposition of hard and soft consonants (cf.: small and crumpled, at home and Dyoma). In many European languages ​​there is no such opposition. When borrowing, the word usually obeys the pronunciation norms of the Russian language. So, before "e" in Russian, a soft consonant usually sounds ( m ate, no no). Many foreign words begin to be pronounced in the same way: m etr, r ebus. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually retained by all foreign surnames: Chopin [pe], Voltaire [te]. The pronunciation of a solid consonant before "e" is also typical for bookish, little-used words ( apartheid [te]. demarche [de]). The type of consonant before "e" also has a certain meaning. For example, the combination "de" is more often pronounced with a soft consonant. and the combination "te" - with solid. Known role plays the source of the borrowing. For example, the final stressed syllable in words from French is usually pronounced with a hard consonant ( pastel [te], cure [re], corrugated [re]). But there are exceptions, such as the word overcoat pronounced with a soft "n". Here is a small group of words in which pronunciation errors are often observed.

The correct pronunciation is considered to be a solid consonant before "e" in the following words: artery, atelier, atheist, bijouterie, business, businessman, steak, brandy, brotherhood, Bundeswehr, sandwich, bra, water polo, riding breeches, gangster, corrugation, grotesque, disintegration, decadent, dequalification, decollete, detective, dumping, denunciation, determinism, de facto, de jure, deciphering, identical, impresario, inert, index, interval, integration, intensity, intervention, interview, cartel, square, cabaret, condensate, container, motorcade, computer, cure, laser, lottery, Madeira, Mademoiselle Manager

In words diet, project, caries the sound [j] is not pronounced, that is, they sound like [d ieta], [project], [kar yes].

The consonant before the "e" is pronounced softly: academy, certificate, benefit performance, beret, brunet, bookmaker, accounting, bill, gazelle, haberdashery, hegemon, debit, debate, debut, degenerate, devaluation, degradation, disinfection, demagogue, democrat, demi-season, dismantling, deposit, despatch, despot, defect, hyphen, deficit, deformation, dividend, ikebana, investor, intellectual; congress, conditioner, coffee, cream, patent, presentation, progress, review, raglan, register, reserve, raid, flight, rail, x-ray, referee, term, overcoat, effect.

In general, the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in loanwords is a very flexible norm. As a rule, when borrowing, the word is pronounced with a firm consonant for some time. As it is mastered by the language, it loses the “plaque” of a foreign, “foreign”, hard pronunciation is gradually replaced by the pronunciation of a soft consonant (in accordance with the spelling). Sometimes this process goes very quickly. For example, schoolchildren in urban schools, where the computer is no longer perceived as something exotic, usually pronounce the word a computer with a soft “t”, but such a pronunciation has not yet become a general literary norm.

At the same time, in some cases, the pronunciation of both hard and soft consonants is equally acceptable. For example, the pronunciation of "e" and "e" is allowed in the words: aggression, misinformation, decade, dean, creed, claim and some others.

Attention should also be paid to the social significance of the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words. If the pronunciation of a hard consonant is still the norm, then the pronunciation of a soft consonant can be perceived as a manifestation of a person’s low culture (cf. , can be perceived as a manifestation of philistinism, pseudo-intelligence. This is how, for example, pronunciation like shi [ne] l, k [re] m, ko [fe], bru [ne] t, aka [de] miya, [te] ma is perceived.

Pronunciation [e] and [o] under stress after soft consonants and hissing

In Russian, in a position between a soft and hard consonant, under stress, “o” is usually pronounced (graphically “e”): sister - sisters, wife - wives. However, in whole groups of words, such alternation is not observed. These are many borrowed words ( bluff, scam etc.), words that came to us from the Old Slavonic language. For example, nouns in -ie are usually of Old Slavonic origin, and words with -e are Russian, so the following parallels can be distinguished: being - being, living - living . There is no alternation in the position between two soft consonants, cf .: ice, but - sleet.

CHECK YOURSELF:

1. Read the following words carefully, paying attention to their correct pronunciation and stress:

a) White, faded, sequin, voyager, millstone, gutter, bile, kioskeur, maneuver, nonsense, sweep, loan, receiver, polygamy, bucket, bucket, priest, kneeling, imprinted, wool, perch, hopeless, worthless, importer, retoucher , marker, pianist, chronicler, stuntman, knowledgeable, starter, officer.

b) Obstetrician, guardianship, scam, being, life, plump, snapdragon. grenadier, carabinieri, successor, sharpness, settled way of life, bent, bigamist, polygamist, bluff, expired, pole, rod, hornet, spineless, fashion designer, dispensary, minuscule, croupier, porter, point.

2. Mark the words in which [e] is pronounced under stress after a soft consonant.

Genesis, fable, of the same name, catechumen, stunned, grenadier, difference in time, connected, laden, coarse-haired.

3. Divide the words below into two groups, depending on whether the consonant is pronounced hard or soft.

Ampere, anesthesia, antenna, beige, steak, brunette, sandwich, dean, demon, depression, chapel, caravel, file cabinet, cafe, cake, stranded, modern, museum, short story, Odessa, hotel, pastel, patent, pioneer, resonance, rail, sausage, superman, tavern, thematic, plywood, music library, brown hair, overcoat.

4. Highlight the words in which the consonant before E is pronounced firmly.

Antithesis, anapaest, grotesque, aesthetics, effect, genetics, tennis, pool, phoneme, benefit performance.

If we talk about the culture of ancient India, we can distinguish in this case four main areas are writing, literature, art, as well as scientific knowledge. All this in a more accessible and summary outlined below.

Religion of ancient India in brief

AT ancient times Indians worshiped the forces of nature, on which their production activities depended. The god Indra was a beneficent deity, a rainmaker, a fighter against drought spirits and a formidable storm god armed with lightning.

The sun god Surya, according to the ancient Indians, rode every morning in a golden chariot drawn by fiery red horses. They offered sacrifices to the gods and prayed to them. It was believed that the gods could not refuse a person's request if it was accompanied by correctly cast spells and a correctly performed sacrifice.

In the era of the formation of a class society and the state, the gods of nature turn into gods - patrons of the state and royal power. The god Indra turned into the patron of the king, into the deity of a formidable war.
Over time, in ancient india there is a special priestly religious system - Brahmanism. Brahmin priests considered themselves the only experts and keepers of sacred knowledge. They declared themselves the best of men:
deities in human form. During the spread of Brahmanism, plentiful sacrifices were brought to the gods. Brahmin priests benefited from this. Brahmanism consecrated the slave-owning state, as allegedly established by the gods themselves, and strengthened the caste system that was beneficial to the slave-owners.

Against caste system and the Brahmanism that supported it, a protest movement arose in ancient India. It found expression in a new religion - Buddhism. Initially, Buddhism opposed caste division. Adherents of the new religion taught that all people should be equal no matter what caste they belong to. At the same time, the followers of Buddhism did not fight against the caste system and social injustice, since Buddhism preached the rejection of all struggle. Buddhism gained popularity
distribution in India in the middle of the first millennium BC. e. From India, it passed to neighboring countries and is currently one of the most widespread religions of the East.

Writing and literature (summary)

The largest cultural achievement of the ancient Indians was the creation of an alphabetic letter containing 50 characters. These signs denoted individual vowels and consonants, as well as syllables. Indian writing is much simpler than Egyptian hieroglyphs and Babylonian cuneiform. The rules of writing were set out in special grammar books created in the 5th century. BC e. Indian scholar Panini.
Literacy in ancient India was available mainly to the Brahmins. They wrote in their laws that the god Brahma created the Indian script and allowed only Brahmins to use it.

Already in the XI-X centuries. to i. e. Indian singers sang hymns to the gods. The collections of these hymns are called the Vedas. They were subsequently written down and became monuments of literature. The Vedas introduce us to the ancient religious beliefs Indians. They contain many legends that formed the basis of works of fiction.
The beautiful poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" contain information about the exploits of ancient kings and heroes, about their campaigns and conquests, about wars between Indian tribes.
The Indians created many fairy tales, which reflected the attitude of the people towards the oppressors. In these
fairy tales, the kings are brought out reckless, the priests - stupid and greedy, and simple people- bold and resourceful.
One of the Indian tales tells of a merchant who spared money to feed his donkey. The merchant put a lion's skin on his donkey and let it graze in the fields of the poor. The watchmen and farmers fled in horror, thinking they were seeing a lion, and the donkey ate its fill. But one day the donkey screamed. The villagers recognized the donkey by its voice and beat it with sticks. So the merchant was punished, accustomed to deceiving people and profiting at their expense.
Many Indian fairy tales were translated into Chinese, Tibetan and other languages ​​of the peoples of the East in ancient times. They live to this day, testifying to the talent and wisdom of their creator—the great Indian people.

Scientific knowledge (briefly)

The ancient Indians achieved great success in mathematics. Around the 5th century they created the numbers we call "Arabic". In fact, the Arabs only transmitted to Europe the figures that they met in India. Among the numbers, the spelling of which was given by the Indians, there was the number "O" (zero). She made it easier to count by allowing you to count in tens, hundreds, thousands using the same ten digits.
The ancient Indians knew that the earth was spherical and that it rotated on its own axis. The Indians traveled to distant countries. This contributed to the development of geographical knowledge.
Indian agronomists, relying on the centuries-old experience of farmers, have developed rules for tillage, crop rotation, fertilization, and crop care.
Medicine has reached a high development in India. Indian doctors had different specialties (internal medicine, surgery, eye surgery, etc.). They knew jaundice, rheumatism and other diseases, as well as ways to treat them. They knew how to make medicines from medicinal herbs and salts, to perform complex operations. The first medical works appeared.
Chess was invented in India and is now the favorite game of millions of people. different countries in particular our country. The Indians called chess "chaturanga", i.e. "four branches of the army."

About art (briefly)

Indian architects built wonderful temples and palaces, distinguished by extraordinary care in decoration. Striking splendor royal palace in Pataliputra. The main entrances of this huge wooden building were rows of columns. The columns were decorated
gilded vines and birds skillfully cast in silver. Strangers could not believe that the palace in Pataliputra was built by people; it seemed to them that it was created by the gods.
On sacred places for the ancient Indians, stupas were erected - huge structures made of brick or stone in the form of a barrow. The stupa was surrounded by a stone fence with one or more gates. The gate was tricky architectural structure decorated with rich carvings and sculptures.

Monuments of hard work are ancient cave temples and monasteries preserved in the mountains. Vast halls and corridors were carved into the rocks. They were decorated with carved columns and colorful paintings, admired by contemporary artists.

Features of the development of the countries of the East. The term "East" in historical science is commonly understood as a society not only in Asia, but also in Africa and Oceania. Below you will get acquainted with the development of typical civilizations of the East: Indian-South Asian and Chinese-Far Eastern (you learned about the emergence and development of the Middle East-Muslim from the previous paragraphs). Although these civilizations differ in many ways, they also have some common features, making it possible to evaluate them as belonging to the same type - eastern, which is different from western.

Character traits civilizations of the East:

The state is the supreme owner of the land.

Whoever has power has property;

The basis of society and the state is the rural community;

Private property plays only an auxiliary role, and the state is dominant;

The presence of large cities, before played the role of administrative, religious centers, as well as centers of international trade.

In contrast to Europe, a clear border of the transition of the countries of the East from the era ancient world to the Middle Ages is almost impossible. They did not have such huge changes as in Europe. The countries of the East developed, as in previous centuries, within their traditional framework.

In all the states of the East, the economic system was organized according to the following scheme. Those who cultivated the land were united in communities that had a guaranteed right and obligation to cultivate it and use all the necessary resources for farming: water, forest, suburbs, etc. Together, the right to own and dispose of land and its resources was in the hands of the state apparatus. There was a clear connection between society and the state apparatus. The community transferred the generated excess product as a tax to the state, redistributed it in favor of the apparatus and society as a whole (canals, roads, bridges, temples, etc. were built). Consequently, those who belonged to the state apparatus had access to the distribution of manufactured products and, accordingly, received their share in ownership. The higher the position held by a person in the state apparatus, the greater the share she received. Therefore, we say that the feature eastern civilization was the power of ownership.

The more efficiently the state apparatus worked, the more regularly and in sufficient volume taxes were collected. The state was strong and powerful. Its power increased from the productivity of the peasant or artisan. But if there were failures in this clear mechanism, then the life of the whole society was disrupted: uprising, famine, the death of states, etc. The failures of this system occurred through two main reasons: when the volume of taxes, through the unreasonable policies of the rulers, exceeded the possibilities of production, or after an external invasion that destroyed traditional system life.

Indian Society in the Middle Ages. In the history of India, as already mentioned, it is very difficult to draw a line between ancient history and the Middle Ages. When serious changes were taking place in Europe associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of feudalism, India continued to develop according to its own scenario. Many small states fought among themselves, while the foundations of life for the bulk of the population remained unshakable.

Since ancient times, Indian society has been divided into four large groups- varnas. The higher varnas (Brahmins and Kshatriyas) continued to rule and fight, and below (Vaishyas and Shudras) they worked in the fields and in workshops. In the Middle Ages, changes took place in this ancient division. Varnas began to be divided into smaller groups of people who were united by profession or gender Thus, for example, pharmacists, doctors, teachers, etc. stood out among the Brahmins, Warriors, officials, etc., among the Kshatriyas. had its special characters, rituals, decorations, rules of conduct. One could look for a bride or groom only in one's own caste, and raise children only according to the traditions and customs of the caste. Like the varnas, castes were divided into lower and higher. There was also a special caste of "untouchables".

Representatives of the higher castes could not even be near the lower ones, much less wash food or water from their hands. It was considered higher that even the shadow of the "Untouchables" could "desecrate". Only representatives of the higher ones could read and listen to sacred texts. Those who violated these customs and traditions were severely punished.

Despite the existence of caste division, representatives of various castes united in communities, were arranged as small self-sufficient states, which acted as a single entity in state power. Communities were the backbone of Indian society. They provided him with internal stability. While government was weak and limited to collecting taxes from the communities.

A system of mutual services has developed between the various castes in the community - the exchange of products and services. Almost all issues were resolved by the community itself: they chose the council, judges, payment of taxes, allocated people for public works. Those who violated the rules of life in the community could be punished. Worse than punishment is expulsion from the community.

There were several religions in medieval India. Based ancient religion in the 1st millennium AD Hinduism was formed. In the first place came the worship of three gods: Cherry, Shiva and Brahmi. Temples were built in their honor and rich sacrifices were made.

Hindus believed in the transmigration of souls after death. If a person did not do anything during his lifetime. What violated caste traditions, then in the next life he could be reborn in a higher caste. If he retreated, then he was reborn into a lower or animal, plant, stone.

Hindus deified animals. Especially cows. They were forbidden to be killed. Hindus also worshiped the sacred river Ganges.

The second religion of India was Buddhism, which arose here in the VI century. BC. The Buddha taught that the whole life of a person is hardness and suffering, and therefore his soul must be freed from everything earthly and strive for higher peace. He urged to forget about riches. Pleasure, to speak only the truth and not to kill living beings.

Culture of India. In the Middle Ages, significant changes took place in the development of Indian culture. The assimilation of the cultures of the north and south of the peninsula is being completed, the formation of the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism is being completed.

During the XIII-XV centuries. There were two significant moments in the development of India. First, in the north of India, the process of unification of elements of the Muslim and Indian civilizations continued. Secondly, at present, urban life was developing quite intensively, which was associated with the development of residences. various rulers and bringing India into international trade through Arab merchants. Such cities as Goa, Calicut, Kambai, Agra, Panipat, Lahore, Multan, Delhi grew rapidly.

Based on previous achievements, the culture of India continued to develop, enriching world culture with its achievements. So, already at the beginning of our era in India they used the decimal number system, which is now used throughout the world. Indian mathematicians were able to calculate the areas of figures and volumes of bodies, perform operations with fractions, determine the number p relatively accurately.

Significant were the achievements in medicine. Indian doctors perfectly knew the internal structure of the body, performed complex operations using about 200 surgical instruments, prepared medicines for various diseases. They were famous for their knowledge and skills in all countries of the East.

Many buildings from the Middle Ages have survived to this day. The masterpieces of architecture of this era are Buddhist temples carved into the rocks: Ajanta, Ellora, O. Elefant.

Temple in Ajanta - This is a whole complex of structures, caves, which were built over nine centuries. 30 halls of the temple were painted with frescoes (only 16 caves have preserved frescoes), reflecting the life of India at that time, scenes from the life of Buddha. The paints with which the frescoes are painted have not lost their brightness to this day. Their main property is that they glow in the dark.

In addition to temples in the rocks, temples were built in the form of towers. In Orissa, a whole temple town was built and surrounded by a powerful fence. The inside of the temple was hardly decorated, but from the outside they were completely covered with reliefs, statues and skillfully executed stone carvings. The sculptors reproduced scenes from legends and tales. They were good at depicting people and animals in motion.

Starting from the XIII century. Muslim culture has had a significant influence on the architecture of India. The most impressive was the huge minaret Qutub Minar in Delhi. Its height reaches 70 meters