For a long time now, I have been nurturing the idea of ​​significantly deepening the topics and issues addressed in this blog. Over the past three years, a lot of advice has accumulated here, relating mainly to entertaining prose (prose that exists according to its own specific laws, tightly tied to the methods of controlling human attention), but it is naive to believe that the world of literature is limited only to light and relaxed reading. In the penultimate article, we already discussed. So that area of ​​​​fiction, called "intellectual", "elitist" and God knows what else, for many inexperienced readers and even authors - an impenetrable jungle, an area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe gloomy and unknown, where danger awaits behind every bush. And about the danger, I'm not here for a red word. Modern intellectual prose often does not promise us pleasant sensations (of course, these stoned perverted graphomaniacs only need to push the reader out of their comfort zone). But did someone say it would be easy? Did someone say that life is honey and sugar, and literature will deliver only positive experiences? Like it wasn't like that.

So batten down the hatches, get ready to dive!

But before that, I propose to brush up on (or learn, omg) some of the nuances of the history of literature of the last two hundred years. Carefully trace the stages of the evolution of prose and make sure that it has not stood still. I assure you, this will be useful not only for understanding future articles, but also for understanding the problems that a modern novice author in our country faces. And there are indeed problems.

Of course, I do not have the opportunity and proper qualifications to reveal the issue with academic accuracy. I fully admit that in the course of my free story, some inaccuracies may be made. Correct me in the comments, or better score. The purpose of this educational program is not so much to teach someone the mind, but to push novice authors to get acquainted with literature that they did not know.

Realism

I decided to start my story from the first half of the 19th century. Not only because to consider earlier periods does not have now special meaning, but also because of the enormous influence of this period on all subsequent literature. What are we seeing at this moment? Russian empire successfully ended the war with Napoleon and is among the most powerful world powers. The flourishing military, political and economic has continued in other areas. In particular, in the literature there comes a time of such magnitudes that have not been seen either before or after, and which will subsequently be called nothing more than the Golden Age. The main trend in the literature of that time is realism. Having come to replace romanticism, realism captured the minds of Russian writers for a long time, so that we will see its representatives even in the progressive twentieth century.

For ease of understanding, realism- this is all that great literature that we were taught at school for 11 classes, and which we used to consider the standard of the artistic word. The surname list looks like a mighty dream team: A.S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, A.S. Griboedov, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.S. Turgenev, A.P. Chekhov, A.I. Kuprin, etc. In the twentieth century, this is A.T. Tvardovsky, V.M. Shukshin, M.A. Sholokhov.

You need to understand that literature is closely related to other types of art, so we are not talking about realism as a purely literary phenomenon, no, realism is a direction in art in general. The main goal of realism is a reliable reproduction of reality..

Among the many features inherent in the direction of realism, I will try to highlight the main ones:

• Typical, reader-friendly situations and conflicts. In the works of realists, you will never see how a hero saves the world from an impending disaster or thwarts an attempt on the king. Conflicts and topics are as close as possible to reality, well-tangible everyday life. That is why we often see the so-called. a conflict of an extra person or a confrontation between a small person and society. There is no epicness in these works, but there is a well-recognized truth of life. And even if the reader himself has never found himself in a similar situation, he can easily imagine with whom and when it could happen.
• Attention to the psychological credibility of the characters. Unfortunately, reality is not always as bright and interesting as the reader would like, so one of the main means of plot development are bright and strong characters. It is no coincidence that many of the names of the heroes of that time become common nouns, they turned out to be so voluminous and memorable. However, we note that the strength of character never denies its realism.
• Descriptions of the ordinary and everyday life of the characters. Not such an important element for the movement of the plot, as an important link in the chain of creating a realistic picture.
• No division into positive and negative characters . Another important element that brings the literary text closer to reality. Indeed, in real life there are never exclusively evil and completely good people. Everyone has their own truth.
• The importance of social problems. Well, here, I think, no comments.

The list could go on, but I hope you get the gist. The realist writer seeks to depict life in all its details and details, to draw the characters' characters with academic precision, so that the reader literally feels himself in the very setting, with the very people in question. A literary hero is not some fictional demigod, but an ordinary person, just like you and me, who lives the same way of life, faces the same problems and injustices.

Now that we have outlined the essence of the direction, I would like to talk about the influence of realism on contemporary young authors. As I mentioned above, almost all school program(if we are talking about prose) consists of the works of realists. Yes, these are great things from the pen of great people. The heights of the Golden Age will never be reached, but what does this mean for today's youth? The hypertrophied attention of school education to the literature of the era of realism leads to the fact that young people only vaguely imagine (and in fact do not know at all) what the literature of the twentieth century consists of. The prose of the twentieth century for a schoolchild is Sholokhov's "Quiet Flows the Don", short stories Shukshin and The Master and Margarita. Isn't it enough for a whole century? Graduates simply do not know how literature developed in the 20th century; their brains are stuck in the era of realism. Like, there was real literature, and after - only fantasy and cyberpunk. And this is a serious problem, don't you think? A colossal gap in the education of young people gives rise to a misunderstanding and rejection of the literature of the era of modernism and postmodernism. Yesterday's graduates, and now young authors, are torn between the geniuses of the 19th century and modern entertaining fiction and do not know where to apply themselves. They are trying to imitate the luminaries of the century before last, not realizing that they are already writing antiques - over the past century, literature has come such a long way, having managed to renounce the great ones and recognize them again, that our newly-minted author looks, at best, a Neanderthal who showed up in skins at a secular reception . And if it were not for these circumstances, I would now be silent in a rag and not talk about what every educated and well-read person should know a priori.

Modernism

Who would have thought, but the era of realism did not last forever. And although in Russian prose it still remains the dominant trend until the middle of the twentieth century, abroad, the wind of change is already bringing something new and progressive to the surface.

Modernism is a trend in literature late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, characterized by a departure from the classical novel in favor of the search for a new style and a radical revision of literary forms.

Modernism is gaining its strength already at the beginning of the twentieth century. The most famous representatives of the trend are: William Faulkner, Francis Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, Franz Kafka, Thomas Mann, Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf. In Russia, the first significant modernist trend is symbolism. Simultaneously with its inception, the Silver Age of Russian literature begins. But speaking of the Silver Age, we mean only poetry, while prose here remains literally outside the scope of history. An ignorant layman may even get the impression that modernism is some kind of prank and nonsense that was entertained in the West, while our socialist realist writers continued, albeit with a certain degree of ideology, the glorious work of the Russian classics.

Now it is difficult to single out some main difference between the new style and the old one - modernism in its various manifestations tends to differ literally in everything. But there are certain, especially bright moments that distinguish the direction of modernism:

• Experiments with literary form. The authors of the new generation are trying to move away from the usual form of the novel. The linear construction of the plot is being replaced by a fragmentary, fragmentary construction. We can see the story from the perspective of several characters who often have opposing points of view.
• Mindflow. This is probably the most grandiose reception that modernism has given writers. The stream of consciousness turns all ideas about literature, about ways of presenting information. It allows you to catch the very movement of thought, to express the complex nuances of the internal state that were previously inaccessible. And in this we see another aspiration of modernism - to maximize the inner world of the hero.
• The theme of war and the lost generation. The beginning of the 20th century with the First World War and the Great Depression could not but leave an imprint on the topics raised in the works of modernists. Of course, the focus is always on a person, but his problems are already completely different than in the novels of the nineteenth century. The themes of new age literature are becoming more global.

Another important point, which must be mentioned when talking about modernism, is a significant increase in the requirements for the reader. If the literature of realism often did not imply any reader preparation, it revealed themes deliberately worldly, understandable to everyone and everyone, then modernism is increasingly gravitating towards elitism. And on the example of the most notable novel of this period - "Ulysses" by James Joyce - we see that this book is designed exclusively for a prepared reader. What does this mean in practice? And the fact that when we see "Ulysses" at the head of the list of the most significant books of the twentieth century, we are indignant, although we have not read: "What the hell is "Ulysses" ?! After all, there is “The Master and Margarita”: with the devil, a naked woman and a brutal cat! What could be more interesting?!" Dispute.

Postmodernism

In fact, to give a clear definition of the concept of postmodernism is not so simple. This is due to the phenomenal vastness and versatility of this phenomenon, the directions of which often acquire directly opposite features. Therefore, in the end, we come to the simplest: postmodernism is what was after modernism, grew up and rethought it.

Postmodernism is a cultural phenomenon of the second half of the 20th century that rejects the basic principles of modernism and uses elements of various styles and trends of the past, often with ironic effect.

The most famous representatives of the direction of postmodernism (in our country) are: U.S. Burroughs, H.S. Thompson, F. Dick, G.G. Marquez, V. Nabokov, K. Vonnegut, J. Cortazar, H. Murakami, V. Pelevin, V. Sorokin, E. Limonov.

An important difference between the literature of postmodernism is that if modernism gravitated towards elitism, postmodernism is in close connection with popular culture Moreover, it has a huge impact on it. This became possible not only because of the simplicity of presentation and the wide availability of books, but also because of the numerous film adaptations. And this connection with popular culture, although it may seem at first glance as something vicious, is actually very important: once written, the work does not disappear somewhere on dusty library shelves, it continues to live and develop - in the form of films and series , computer games and numerous references in other books, movies, games and even internet memes. The rules have changed, and they have probably never been so liberal.

Let's talk a little about distinctive features postmodernism:

• Irony, game, black humor. The first thing that catches the eye in the literature of postmodernism is a change in the attitude of authors to the stories they tell, a change in the tone of the story. What is it expressed in? If earlier realist writers raised serious social issues, placed heroes in the center of the most acute conflicts (personal or social), which often ended tragically, now writers often sneer at problems modern society. Many go even further, and tragedy becomes the breeding ground for black humor. In general, irony is the most powerful tool in the hands of a modern author. And not by chance. Irony, in my humble opinion, is the flight of the thinking individual from the boundless pathos of mass culture. And although pathos and irony are two sides of the same coin, many readers categorically do not want to identify themselves with mass culture. And a smart writer just knows how to play with it.
• Intertextuality. The origin of this concept dates back to the era of modernism, but intertextuality is gaining real flourishing only now. From the point of view of literature, this means that borrowing is now not a bad form, but an indicator of well-read, a high cultural level. And the more odious the objects of borrowing, the cooler the author himself. Speaking about Pelevin, I already wrote that borrowing reminds me of a game with the reader, when the author amuses his vanity by slipping in elements that a smart reader will definitely recognize, but whether the rest will know is not a fact. In general, we have come to a state where repeatedly repeated images, archetypes and situations that we all have seen a hundred times and will see as many more roam in the media space. And there is no longer any possibility of passing off the old for the new, and we feed others and eat the same cake ourselves, overcooked a million times and already devoid of any taste. This is where the time for irony comes in - like a good mine in a bad game.
• Experiments with form, mixing genres. In the era of postmodernism, the authors did not abandon experiments with form: this is the Burroughs cut-up method, and non-linear plots of all stripes, and temporal distortions. Increasingly, we are seeing a mixture of genres, elements of fantasy are being introduced into everyday stories especially intensively. And sometimes it turns out so well that it gives rise to entire trends, for example, magical realism.
• Magic realism. I singled it out separately as an original and very interesting direction, and as an example of the impact of postmodernism ideas on motives that are well known to us.

Of course, it is simply impossible to describe all the variety of manifestations of postmodernism with this short list, and I do not have such a goal now. But I think that soon we will analyze them in more detail and already with specific examples.

So what conclusions can we draw from all this?

First of all, the young author needs to realize that he lives in the era of postmodernism. Not in the 19th century among literary geniuses and illiterate serfs, but in the information space of the whole planet, where plots and motifs evolve from form to form and none of them is final. And if so, then he has every right to use all the baggage that was accumulated by writers before him. Therefore, the primary task of the young author is to get acquainted with the achievements of the literature of the twentieth century. To independently eliminate the gap that school education left on his map.

But to understand, to realize all this baggage, it will take a lot of time and considerable wisdom. Behind boring, incomprehensible and often nauseating pages, the writer must see how modernism swept away all the foundations and patterns classical literature, trying to build their own in their place, and how the postmodern already dumped all these rules in a heap and maliciously joked about all this and continues to joke to this day. Yes, this literature is far from those light wonderful books that we gladly leaf through at night. “But who said…” and so on.

Yes, we live in the postmodern era, where literature is closely intertwined with popular culture, and the requirements for the reader are not much different from the requirements of the 19th century (to be able to read at least in syllables). But think about whether the requirements for the writer himself have become softer in this “light” era? Does it have the right contemporary author know nothing about the experiments and achievements of the literature of the last century? Or is the baggage on the list enough: "Harrison, Tolkien, Strugatskys"?

Well main question: if a writer is no different from an ordinary reader, then what is such a writer able to give to his audience?

That's all for today. Leave comments, I will be glad to constructive dialogue. See you soon!

Modernism is an ideological trend in literature and art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which is characterized by a departure from classical standards, the search for new, radical literary forms and the creation of a completely new style of writing. This direction replaced realism and became the forerunner of postmodernism, the final stage of its development dates back to the 30s of the twentieth century.

The main feature of this trend is a complete change in the classical perception of the worldview: the authors are no longer carriers of absolute truth and ready-made concepts, but rather demonstrate their relativity. The linearity of the narrative disappears, giving way to a chaotic, fragmented plot, fragmented into parts and episodes, often presented on behalf of several characters at once, who may have completely opposite views on current events.

Directions of modernism in literature

Modernism, in turn, branched into several directions, such as:

Symbolism

(Somov Konstantin Andreevich "Two ladies in the park")

Originated in France in the 70-80s of the 19th century and reached its peak in the early twentieth century, it was most common in France. Belgium and Russia. Symbolist authors embodied the main ideas of the works, using the many-sided and multi-valued associative aesthetics of symbols and images, they were often full of mystery, mystery and understatement. Outstanding representatives of this trend: Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Lautreamont (France), Maurice Maeterlinck, Emile Verhaern (Belgium), Valery Bryusov, Alexander Blok, Fedor Sologub, Maximilian Voloshin, Andrey Bely, Konstantin Balmont (Russia) .. .

Acmeism

(Alexander Bogomazov "Pedlars of flour")

It emerged as a separate trend of modernism in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, acmeist authors, in opposition to the symbolists, insisted on a clear materiality and objectivity of the topics and images described, defended the use of precise and clear words, advocated distinct and definite images. The central figures of Russian acmeism: Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilyov, Sergei Gorodetsky...

Futurism

(Fortunato Depero "Me and my wife")

An avant-garde movement that arose in the 10-20s of the 20th century and developed in Russia and Italy. The main feature of futurist authors is their interest not so much in the content of their works, but more in the form of versification. For this, new word forms were invented, they used vulgar, common folk vocabulary, professional jargon, the language of documents, posters and posters. The founder of futurism is the Italian poet Filippo Marinetti, who composed the poem "Red Sugar", his associates Balla, Boccioni, Carra, Severini and others. Russian futurists: Vladimir Mayakovsky, Velimir Khlebnikov, Boris Pasternak...

Imagism

(Georgy Bogdanovich Yakulov - sketch of the scenery for the operetta "Beautiful Elena" by J. Offenbach)

It emerged as a literary direction of Russian poetry in 1918, its founders were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin. The purpose of the Imagists' creativity was to create images, and the main means of expression was declared to be metaphor and metaphorical chains, with the help of which direct and figurative images were compared ...

Expressionism

(Erich Heckel "Street Scene at the Bridge")

The current of modernism, which developed in Germany and Austria in the first decade of the twentieth century, as a painful reaction of society to the horrors of ongoing events (revolutions, First World War). This direction sought not so much to reproduce reality as to convey the emotional state of the author; images of pain and screams are very common in the works. In the style of expressionism worked: Alfred Deblin, Gottfried Benn, Ivan Goll, Albert Ehrenstein (Germany), Franz Kafka, Paul Adler (Czech Republic), T. Michinsky (Poland), L. Andreev (Russia)...

Surrealism

(Salvador Dali "The Persistence of Memory")

It emerged as a trend in literature and art in the 1920s. Surrealist works are distinguished by the use of allusions (stylistic figures that give a hint or indication of specific historical or mythological cult events) and a paradoxical combination of various forms. The founder of surrealism is the French writer and poet Andre Breton, the famous writers of this trend are Paul Eluard and Louis Aragon...

Modernism in Russian Literature of the 20th Century

The last decade of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of new trends in Russian literature, the task of which was a complete rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetic art. This period (1982-1922) entered the history of literature under the name "Silver Age" of Russian poetry. Writers and poets united in various modernist groups and trends that played in artistic culture that time a huge role.

(Kandinsky Vasily Vasilievich "Winter Landscape")

Russian symbolism appeared at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, its founders were the poets Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Fyodor Sologub, Konstantin Balmont, Valery Bryusov, later they were joined by Alexander Blok, Andrei Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov. They publish an artistic and journalistic organ of the Symbolists - the journal "Balance (1904-1909)," they support the idealistic philosophy of Vladimir Solovyov about the Third Testament and the advent of Eternal Femininity. The works of symbolist poets are filled with complex, mystical images and associations, mystery and innuendo, abstractness and irrationality.

Symbolism is being replaced by acmeism, which appeared in Russian literature in 1910, the founders of the direction: Nikolai Gumilyov, Anna Akhmatova, Sergey Gorodetsky, also O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich, M. Kuzmin, M. Voloshin. Acmeists, unlike the Symbolists, proclaimed the cult of real earthly life, a clear and confident view of reality, the assertion of the aesthetic and hedonistic function of art, without affecting social problems. The poetry collection "Hyperborea", released in 1912, announced the emergence of a new literary trend called acmeism (from "acme" - the highest degree of something, it's time to flourish). Acmeists tried to make the images concrete and objective, to get rid of the mystical confusion inherent in the Symbolist movement.

(Vladimir Mayakovsky "Roulette")

Futurism in Russian literature arose simultaneously with acmeism in 1910-1912, like other literary trends in modernism, it was full of internal contradictions. One of the most significant futuristic groupings called Cubo-Futurists included such prominent poets Silver Age like V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, I. Severyanin, A. Kruchenykh, V. Kamensky and others, the Futurists proclaimed a revolution of forms, absolutely independent of content, freedom of poetic speech and a rejection of old literary traditions. Interesting experiments were carried out in the field of the word, new forms were created and outdated literary norms and rules were denounced. The first collection of futurist poets, A Slap in the Face of Public Taste, declared the basic concepts of futurism and asserted it as the only truthful spokesman of its era.

(Kazimir Malevich "Lady at the Tram Stop")

In the early 1920s, on the basis of futurism, a new modernist trend, imaginism, was formed. Its founders were the poets S. Yesenin, A. Mariengof, V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev. In 1919, they held the first Imagist evening and created a declaration proclaiming the main principles of Imagism: the primacy of the image “as such”, poetic expression through the use of metaphors and epithets, a poetic work should be a “catalogue of images”, read the same as from the beginning, so from the end. Creative disagreements between the Imagists led to the division of the direction into the left and right wings, after Sergei Yesenin left its ranks in 1924, the group gradually disintegrated.

Modernism in Foreign Literature of the 20th Century

(Gino Severini "Still Life")

Modernism, as a literary trend, fell to the ground in the late 19th and early 19th centuries on the eve of the First World War, its heyday falls on the 20-30s of the 20th century, it develops almost simultaneously in the countries of Europe and America and is an international phenomenon, consisting of various literary movements, such as Imagism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Surrealism, etc.

Modernism arose in France prominent representatives related to the symbolist movement were the poets Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire. Symbolism quickly became popular in other European countries, in England it was represented by Oscar Wilde, in Germany by Stefan George, in Belgium by Emil Verhaarn and Maurice Metterlinck, in Norway by Henrik Ibsen.

(Umberto Boccioni "The street enters the house")

The Expressionists included G. Trakl and F. Kafka in Belgium, french school- A. Frans, German - I. Becher. The founders of such a modernist trend in literature as Imagism, which has existed since the beginning of the 20th century in English-speaking European countries, were the English poets Thomas Hume and Ezra Pound, they were later joined by the American poetess Amy Lowell, the young English poet Herbert Read, and the American John Fletcher.

The most famous modernist writers of the early twentieth century are the Irish prose writer James Joyce, who created the immortal novel in the style of "stream of consciousness" "Ulysses" (1922), the French author of the seven-volume epic novel "In Search of Lost Time" Marcel Proust, and the German-speaking master of modernism Franz Kafka, who wrote the story "The Metamorphosis" (1912), which has become a classic of the absurdity of all world literature.

Modernism in the Characteristics of Western Literature of the 20th Century

Despite the fact that modernism is divided into a large number of currents, their common feature is the search for new forms and the determination of man's place in the world. The literature of modernism, which arose at the turn of two eras and between the two world wars, in a society tired and exhausted from old ideas, is distinguished by cosmopolitanism and expresses the feelings of authors lost in an ever-evolving, growing urban environment.

(Alfredo Gauro Ambrosi "Duce Airport")

Writers and poets who worked in this direction constantly experimented with new words, forms, techniques and techniques in order to create a new, fresh sound, although the themes remained old and eternal. Usually it was a theme about the loneliness of a person in a vast and colorful world, about the discrepancy between the rhythms of his life and the surrounding reality.

Modernism is a kind of literary revolution, writers and poets participated in it, declaring their complete denial of realistic plausibility and all cultural and literary traditions in general. It fell to them to live and create in a difficult time, when the values ​​of traditional humanistic culture are outdated, when the concept of freedom in different countries had a highly ambiguous meaning when the blood and horrors of the First World War devalued human life, and the world appeared before the man in all his cruelty and coldness. Early modernism symbolized the time when faith in the power of reason collapsed, the time came for the triumph of irrationality, mysticism and the absurdity of all existence.

Literary method, style, or literary movement are often treated as synonyms. It is based on a similar different writers type of artistic thinking. Sometimes a modern author does not realize in which direction he is working, and a literary critic or critic evaluates his creative method. And it turns out that the author is a sentimentalist or an acmeist ... We present to your attention the literary trends in the table from classicism to modernity.

There were cases in the history of literature when representatives of the writing fraternity themselves were aware of the theoretical foundations of their activities, propagandized them in manifestos, united in creative groups. For example, the Russian futurists, who appeared in the press with the manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste."

Today we are talking about the established system of literary trends of the past, which determined the features of the development of the world literary process, and are studied by the theory of literature. The main literary trends are:

• classicism
• sentimentalism
• romanticism
• realism
• modernism (divided into currents: symbolism, acmeism, futurism, imagism)
• social realism
• postmodernism

Modernity is most often associated with the concept of postmodernism, and sometimes socially active realism.

Literary trends in tables

	Classicism	Sentimentalism	Romanticism	Realism	Modernism
periodization	literary trend of the 17th - early 19th centuries, based on imitation of antique samples.	Literary direction of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. From French word"Sentiment" - feeling, sensitivity.	literary movement of the late 18th - second half of the 19th centuries. Romanticism arose in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region Greatest development received in England, Germany, France (J. Byron, W. Scott, V. Hugo, P. Merimee)	a direction in the literature and art of the 19th century, which aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features.	literary movement, aesthetic concept that was formed in the 1910s. The founders of modernism: M. Proust "In Search of Lost Time", J. Joyce "Ulysses", F. Kafka "The Process".
Signs, features	Clearly divided into positive and negative. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.	Special attention- to peace of mind person. The main thing is the feeling, the experience of a simple person, and not great ideas. Characteristic genres - elegy, epistle, novel in letters, diary, in which confessional motives prevail	Heroes are bright, exceptional personalities in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by an impulse, an extraordinary complexity, an inner depth of human individuality. The romantic work is characterized by the idea of ​​two worlds: the world in which the hero lives, and another world in which he wants to be.	Reality is a means of man's knowledge of himself and the world around him. Typification of images. This is achieved through the veracity of details in specific conditions. Even in a tragic conflict, art is life-affirming. Realism is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and public relations.	The main task of modernism is to penetrate into the depths of consciousness and subconsciousness of a person, to transfer the work of memory, the peculiarities of perception of the environment, in how the past, present and the future are refracted in “instant moments of being”. The main technique in the work of modernists is the "stream of consciousness", which allows you to capture the movement of thoughts, impressions, feelings.
Features of development in Russia	An example is Fonvizin's comedy "Undergrowth". In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement the main idea of ​​classicism - to re-educate the world with a reasonable word.	An example is the story of N.M. Karamzin " Poor Lisa", which, in contrast to rational classicism with its cult of reason, affirms the cult of feelings, sensuality.	In Russia, romanticism was born against the backdrop of a national upsurge after the war of 1812. It has a pronounced social orientation. He is imbued with the idea of ​​civic service and love of freedom (K. F. Ryleev, V. A. Zhukovsky).	In Russia, the foundations of realism were laid in the 1820s and 1830s. Pushkin's work ("Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov" Captain's daughter", late lyrics). this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. critical.	In Russian literary criticism, it is customary to call modernist 3 literary movements that declared themselves in the period from 1890 to 1917. These are symbolism, acmeism and futurism, which formed the basis of modernism as a literary movement.

Modernism is represented by the following literary movements:

• Symbolism

  (Symbol - from the Greek. Symbolon - a conventional sign)
  1. The central place is given to the symbol *
  2. The striving for the highest ideal prevails
  3. The poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon.
  4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two plans: real and mystical
  5. Elegance and musicality of the verse
  The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 delivered a lecture “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (article published in 1893). The Symbolists are divided into senior ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub debuted in the 1890s) and younger (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others debuted in the 1900s)

• Acmeism

  (From the Greek "acme" - a point, the highest point). The literary current of acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically associated with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) M. Kuzmin's article "On Fine Clarity", published in 1910, had an influence on the formation. In the programmatic article of 1913, “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism,” N. Gumilyov called symbolism “a worthy father,” but emphasized that the new generation had developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life”
  1. Focus on classical poetry 19th century
  2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
  3. Objectivity and clarity of images, sharpness of details
  4. In rhythm, acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
  regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brought the poem closer to live colloquial speech

• Futurism

  Futurism - from lat. futurum, the future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely associated with the avant-garde groupings of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups " Jack of Diamonds”,“ Donkey tail ”,“ Youth Union ”. In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article "Manifesto of Futurism." In 1912, the manifesto “Slapping the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.
  1. Rebelliousness, anarchic worldview
  2. Rejection of cultural traditions
  3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figured arrangement of stanzas and lines
  4. Active word creation

• Imagism

  From lat. imago - image A literary trend in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity was to create an image. Main means of expression Imagists - a metaphor, often metaphorical chains, comparing the various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the "Order of Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously a member of the group of new peasant poets

Modernism. Formation and development of modernist trends in literature at the turn of the century and in the first decades of the 20th century

Thematic plan

It is important to note that for full-time students

Course structure

Total for curriculum: 150 hours

Classroom studies - 66 hours

Lectures - 40 hours

Seminar -24 hours

Independent work of students - 3 hours

Time for the exam - 81 hours

Control of independent work - 2 hours

Form of intermediate certification:

4th semester - exam

disciplines ʼʼRussian literature of the late 19th - early 20th centuriesʼʼ for 3rd year students. The total volume of hours by discipline. Including: lectures - 40 hours, practical classes - 24 hours, independent work - 3 hours. The final form of control is an exam in the 6th semester.

№	Topic name	Lectures	Practice	Self. slave.
	Socio-literary situation of the late XIX - early XX centuries.
	The fate of Russian realism at the turn of the century and at the beginning of the 20th century. New features of realism in the works of L. Tolstoy and A. Chekhov.
	Writers of the realist movements of the 1890s-1990s
	Creativity I. A. Bunin.
	Creativity A. I. Kuprin.
	Creativity M. Gorky.
	ʼʼNew peasantʼʼ poetry. Creativity N. a. Klyuev, S. A. Klychkova.
	Creativity S. Yesenin.
	Proletarian poetry of the 1910s. Creativity D. Poor.
	Vanguard. Modernism. Symbolism. Symbolism of the 1890s. and youth symbolism.
	ʼʼElderʼʼ symbolists. D. S. Merezhkovsky. V. Ya. Bryusov. K. D. Balmont.
	Young symbolism. Creativity A. Bely.
	Creativity of A. A. Blok.
	Acmeism. Creativity N. S. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam.
	Creativity A.A. Akhmatova.
	literary vanguard. Futurism. ʼʼEgofuturismʼʼ. ʼʼCubofuturismʼʼ.
	Creativity V.V. Mayakovsky.
	Creativity L.N. Andreeva.
	The results of Russian literature at the turn of the century. The fate of the writers of the ʼʼSilver Ageʼʼ in emigration.
	ʼʼSmall demonʼʼ F. Sologub as a symbolist novel.
	Total

Introduction

The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century as a special, critical period in the history of the social and artistic life of Russia.

Growing social crisis, a sense of ʼʼemergencyʼʼ time.

The collapse of the populist ideology, the search for new ideological concepts of social development. Spreading the ideas of Marxism.

Crisis of positivism. New trends in Russian philosophical thought. Opposition to principles rational cognition world and its laws of principles of irrationalism. The emergence of religious and philosophical societies and meetings. Sermon of the ʼʼnew religious consciousnessʼʼ. The idea of ​​the completeness of the era and culture, the catastrophism of time. The emergence on this basis of apocalyptic motifs in art and literature at the beginning of the century. At the same time - the idea of ​​an era not only as an era of crisis, but as a time of renaissance, spiritual and cultural upsurge.

Rapprochement of literature and philosophy in understanding the new role of the spiritual principle in society. Understanding the problem in various currents of philosophical and aesthetic thought (in particular, in populist, symbolist, Marxist, futuristic criticism). L. Tolstoy, Vl. Solovyov, G. Plekhanov about art.

A new understanding of the relationship between the individual and the environment in the work of writers of various artistic movements in the 1890-1910s. The problem of the fate of culture and ʼʼNietzscheanismʼʼ in Russian literature at the beginning of the century. The perception of ethics and aesthetic ideas Nietzsche in the artistic consciousness of M. Gorky, ʼʼznanevtsevʼʼ, symbolists.

Place and significance in the literary process of the era of "living classics" - L. Tolstoy and A. Chekhov.

The role of the traditions of F. Dostoevsky in the spiritual life of Russia at the beginning of the century. Dostoevsky - thinker and artist, ʼʼaccompliceʼʼ literary life era.

Discussions about the fate of realism in Russian art and literature of the beginning of the century in criticism and literary criticism (from symbolism to the present day).

Periodization of the literary process of the late XIX - early XX century.

1890-1910 years. Completion of the creative path of L. Tolstoy and A. Chekhov. New features of realism in their work. Writers-realists of the generation of the 1890s as the successors of their traditions and creative searches. Formation of new socio-historical ideas in Gorky's work. Discussions about the fate of realism in criticism.

The first modernist trends in literature and art. Philosophical and aesthetic substantiations of ʼʼʼʼ new trends in literature. The problem of art synthesis. Symbolism of the 1890s and Young Symbolism.

The beginning of creative interaction in art and literature artistic principles realism and modernism.

Revolution of 1905. Its role in the development of the philosophical and aesthetic thought of the era. The problem of ʼʼrevolution and the intelligentsiaʼʼ. Collection ʼʼMilestonesʼʼ. ʼʼScatteringʼʼ (I. Bunin) ʼʼZnanevtsevʼʼ. ʼʼNeo-naturalisticʼʼ tendencies in literature. The beginning of the crisis of symbolism as a literary school.

1910-1922 years. The Crisis of Symbolism. The emergence of new literary schools. Acmeism as a post-symbolist movement. ʼʼSchoolʼʼ and originality of creative individuals. literary vanguard. Futurism in Literature and Fine Arts of the 1910s. General development trends.

Realist writers of the 1910s. The concept of ʼʼneorealismʼʼ.

War and revolutions of 1917. A split in the writers' environment on the basis of attitudes towards the October Revolution and Soviet power.

From 1922 ᴦ. - the third period of development of creativity of the writers of the ʼʼsilver ageʼʼ.

Expulsion from Russia of writers, philosophers, scientists who refused to cooperate with the Soviet government.

The problem of ʼʼtwo streamsʼʼ of Russian literature. Unity of National Literature and Difference literary processes XX century in Russia and abroad.

Writers of the ʼʼsilver ageʼʼ in emigration and their place in the literary life of the Russian diaspora and Russia.

The fate of Russian realism at the turn of the century and at the beginning of the 20th century.

Crisis or stages of renewal?

1. ʼʼLiving classicsʼʼ. New features of realism in the works of L. Tolstoy and A. Chekhov. Tolstoy and Chekhov are the spokesmen for the social and spiritual world of Russia at the beginning of the century, the ethical and aesthetic quests of the time.

Tolstoy's novel ʼʼResurrectionʼʼ as a result of public and literary activity writer. The embodiment in the novel of the basic problems of the era. Exposure of those who live contrary to the "spiritual truth"; denial of the state structure of Russia.

Changes in the realistic principles of Tolstoy's writing at the beginning of the century. Strengthening the author's intervention in action. New principles for creating the character of a hero. Understanding the conflict of man with the environment as an internal conflict in the spiritual and moral nature of man. The emergence of a journalistic trend in the realism of the writer. Strengthening the subjective author's principle. A characteristic expression of this trend is in the play ʼʼThe Living Corpseʼʼ.

Tolstoy in the controversy about art (ʼʼWhat is art?ʼʼ, 1897-1898). Ethical criterion for Tolstoy is the highest criterion of art. Tolstoy against art outside moral idea- ʼʼfalse realismʼʼ - ʼʼnaturalistic copying of realityʼʼ, decadence. According to Tolstoy, the meaning of art is in the affirmation of an active life in all its moral manifestations (ʼʼHadji Muradʼʼ, ʼʼFather Sergiusʼʼ, ʼʼLiving Corpseʼʼ).

L. Tolstoy and the revolution of 1905 ᴦ. Rejection of violence. Tolstoy's active participation in public life and the simultaneous strengthening in his work of interest in the ʼʼeternalʼʼ problems of being.

The Influence of Tolstoy's Philosophical and Creative Quests on the Literature of the 20th Century (from the Znanievites to the Late I. Bunin).

The work of A.P. Chekhov as an expression of the mood of the ʼʼtransitional timeʼʼ is the phenomenon of the ʼʼtransitionʼʼ from literary classics to the literature of the new era (Chekhov as ʼʼpoet of the endʼʼ and ʼʼpoet of the beginningʼʼ). The idea of ​​spiritual freedom and freedom of spiritual creativity is the basis of the writer's world outlook. Chekhov's creativity as an expression of a new moral state of society in an era of spiritual and social upsurge.

New features of realism in the later works of the writer. The emergence of the novel type of story and a new type of drama. Impressionist tendencies, widespread symbolism. The principle of ʼʼʼʼʼ' of expressing the spiritual movements of heroes (ʼʼThree sistersʼʼ, etc.). character image and inner world personality ʼʼ in new forms of interweaving, merging, opposition and interaction of elements of the author and subjective-expressive, coming from the character...ʼʼ (V. V. Vinogradov).

The general formula of Chekhov's realism, adopted by his contemporaries and followers, is ʼʼyou need to look at the root and look for the cause of all causesʼʼ in every phenomenon.

New features of realism in the work of V. Korolenko. Korolenko's theory of realism as a synthesis of realism and romanticism. Korolenko about the heroic in realism.

Korolenko's theory of realism as a reflection of the general interest in the romantic tradition of writers of the beginning of the century of all creative trends (M. Gorky, ʼʼznanevtsʼʼ, symbolists).

2. Writers of realistic movements of the 1890s-1990s. as ʼʼheirsʼʼ of the traditions of L. Tolstoy and A. Chekhov. New trends in the development of their realism. Writers of the circle ʼʼEnvironmentsʼʼ and ʼʼKnowledgeʼʼ (Y. Teleshov, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, L. Andreev, I. Shmelev and etc.); Significance of the ʼʼKnowledgeʼʼ publishing partnership in the artistic life of Russia at the turn of the century and the beginning of the 20th century. Collections of ʼʼKnowledgeʼʼ. The democratic nature of the social and moral ideals of the writers. Traditions of Democratic Fiction in the 1860s-1870s, Their Transformation in the Works of the Znanievists. A new understanding of the relationship between the individual and the environment, characters and circumstances. Strengthening attention to the spiritual life of a person from the people. Different perceptions of the artistic principles of L. Tolstoy and A. Chekhov by the Znanievites (A. Kuprin, I. Bunin) at different stages of their creative journey

Manifestation of the impressionistic tendency in the realism of B. Zaitsev, early I. Bunin, expressionist - in the prose and dramaturgy of L. Andreev, in the dramaturgy of D. Aizman, S. Yushkevich.

Public upsurge and the revolution of 1905. New socio-historical ideas in the works of ʼʼZnanevtsʼʼ. The problem of the revolution, its fate and the historical paths of Russia. The theme of the awakening in a person of a sense of personality, the liberation of the individual from social and spiritual oppression. Dramaturgy E. N. Chirikova, S. A. Naydenova (ʼʼChildren of Vanyushinʼʼ, ʼʼWallsʼʼ).

Socialist tendencies in the work of M. Gorky. The idea of ​​an active effective attitude of man to life. Idealization of a vitally active personality. The joyful feeling of being by a person as the basis of romance in the work of the young Gorky and at the same time - as a heightened sense of the dramatic nature and catastrophism of time.

Two types of hero in Gorky's work: a man with a "motley soul" and an integral, vitally active creative personality. Traditions of Dostoevsky as an artist in the image of Russian ʼʼvariegationʼʼ national character(ʼʼThreeʼʼ, novels of the Okurovsky cycle).

Gorky about the search by a person from the people of the social and spiritual truth of life (ʼʼMotherʼʼ, ʼʼConfessionʼʼ, autobiographical stories ʼʼChildhoodʼʼ, ʼʼIn Peopleʼʼ). Gorky and religion. The place of the theme of the religious and moral quest of man in the writer's work.

The evolution of the ʼʼznańevitesʼʼ after the defeat of the 1905 revolution. The crisis of the publishing house ʼʼKnowledgeʼʼ. ʼʼZnanevtsyʼʼ in magazines and almanacs of various artistic movements. Emergence of the ʼʼneo-naturalisticʼʼ trend in the work of writers (M. Artsybashev and etc.). Changing the nature of Russian journalism. Return from the satirical journalism of the era of the revolution to the traditions of the journals of the 1880s. Restoration of censorship restrictions.

I. A. Bunin (1870-1953)

Poetry of I. Bunin. Collections ʼʼUnder the open skyʼʼ, ʼʼLeaf fallʼʼ. The theme of the motherland, Russian nature. Understanding the traditions of A. Fet͵ Y. Polonsky, A. K. Tolstoy. Bunin's break with the Symbolists after the publication of Falling Leaves. ʼʼCountersymbolismʼʼ Bunin. Bunin's speech at the anniversary of ʼʼRusskiye Vedomostiʼʼ (1913); Bunin about the writers of the "new type" and the state of the modern Russian language.

Bunin translator. ʼʼSong of Hiawathaʼʼ.

Prose of the 1890s-1900s. ʼʼAntonov applesʼʼ, ʼʼPineʼʼ, ʼʼNew roadʼʼ. Motives for the collapse of the patriarchal estate, foundations. Bunin in ʼʼKnowledgeʼʼ.

Bunin's work of the pre-October decade. Christian attitude (stories ʼʼThird cocksʼʼ, ʼʼLentʼʼ). Ideas of earthly life as God's gift (Bunin's diaries, ʼʼMr. from San Franciscoʼʼ). Motifs of the immortality of the soul (ʼʼChang's Dreamsʼʼ, ʼʼLight Breathʼʼ). The concept of love as an ʼʼholy property of the soulʼʼ (ʼʼSaintsʼʼ). Philosophical problems of the story ʼʼBrothersʼʼ. The theme of noble nests and peasant foundations (ʼʼSukhodolʼʼ, ʼʼVillageʼʼ). Perception of national character.

Bunin's style (painting, external pictoriality, rhythmic organization). New in the ratio of subjective and objective principles. Tolstoy's psychological realism and psychological drawing in Bunin's prose.

Rejection of October. ʼʼ cursed daysʼʼ. Emigration.

V. V. Veresaev (1867-1945)

V. Veresaev is an artist-chronicler of the public searches of the Russian democratic intelligentsia at the beginning of the century. The novels ʼʼWithout a roadʼʼ, ʼʼFreakʼʼ, ʼʼAt the turnʼʼ. The book ʼʼDoctor's Notesʼʼ. Veresaev in ʼʼEnvironmentʼʼ and ʼʼKnowledgeʼʼ.

Creativity Veresaev 1900-1910s. The concept of ʼʼliving lifeʼʼ in the story ʼʼTo lifeʼʼ. Veresaev against ʼʼliterary decayʼʼ. Veresaev's book ʼʼ living lifeʼʼ. Controversy with D. Merezhkovsky's interpretation of creativity and ethical theories of L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. Dispute with F. Nietzsche's ʼʼlife philosophyʼʼ. Contradictions in the philosophical views of Veresaev. Influence on the writer of A. Bergson's philosophy of intuitionism. Features of Veresaev's realism. Orientation to the traditions of aesthetics N. Chernyshevsky, D. Pisarev. Publicism of Veresaev's prose.

A. I. Kuprin (1870-1938)

Kuprin and the traditions of Russian realism of the 19th century. Traditions of L. Tolstoy, the influence of the principles of Chekhov's creativity. The nature of their understanding.

Early poetic work of Kuprin. Prose of the 1890s. ʼʼPsychology of passionsʼʼ (ʼʼIn the darkʼʼ, ʼʼ moonlit nightʼʼ, ʼʼMadnessʼʼ, etc.). Travels in Russia. Press work. Kuprin-essayist (Essays ʼʼKiev typesʼʼ).

Socio-psychological story ʼʼMolochʼʼ. Features of artistic conflict. The problem of ʼʼnatural personʼʼ in the works of the writer of the 90s (the story ʼʼOlesyaʼʼ). I. Turgenev's influence on Kuprin's ʼʼlandscape paintingʼʼ.

Creativity Kuprin 900 gᴦ. Novelistics. Genre and style features of the Kuprin short story. ʼʼProblemʼʼ short story and traditions of the late Chekhov story. The ethical nature of the conflict. Disclosure of the inner life of the hero, who is aware of the wrongness of the surrounding social reality. From a ʼʼproblemʼʼ short story of this type - to the psychological realism of ʼʼDuelʼʼ.

duel. The theme of the awakening of the social consciousness of man. Utopian illusions of the author about the ways of reorganizing the world. Romantic tendencies of realism in the work of Kuprin.

Kuprin's work in the 1910s. Statement of high moral ideals (ʼʼ Garnet bracelet and etc.). The story ʼʼYamaʼʼ. humanistic ideals of the writer.

Philosophical themes: flowing away of life (ʼʼSnyʼʼ), eternal soul and ʼʼ unearthly bliss ("Light end", "In the bear's corner")ʼʼ. Orthodox truths in the stories-parables ʼʼGarden of the Blessed Virginʼʼ, ʼʼTwo Saintsʼʼ, ʼʼPiebald Horsesʼʼ.

The artistic world of R. Kipling and D. London and the work of A. Kuprin (the nature of the plot, the features of the interpretation of human nature, etc.). Emigration.

I. S. Shmelev (1873-1950)

First literary steps. Essays ʼʼOn the rocks of Valaamʼʼ. Creativity of the 900s. Moral and social searches of Shmelev's heroes. Shmelev is an artist of the ʼʼdispossessedʼʼ with a keen sense of human suffering. The story ʼʼThe man from the restaurantʼʼ. Influence on Shmelev of the ideas of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. Narrative and its function in the story.

Shmelev's enthusiastic attitude towards the February Revolution and negative attitude towards the October Revolution. Emigration.

Maxim Gorky (1868-1936)

The beginning of the creative path. Connection with the traditions of Russian realism. Gorky and Tolstoy. Gorky and Chekhov.

Ideological and creative searches of young Gorky. Gorky is a poet.

Traditions of romantic literature in the stories of the 1890s: the concept of personality, the principle of two worlds, the author's principle.

Gorky and Nietzsche. N. Mikhailovsky, M. Menshikov and other critics about the cult of strength and individualism in Gorky's heroes. Spiritual journalism about Nietzsche's morality in early stories Gorky (magazines ʼʼVera i Tserkovʼʼ, ʼʼVera i Razumʼʼ, ʼʼWandererʼʼ). Marxist criticism of Gorky.

D. Merezhkovsky and M. Gorky. D. Merezhkovsky about ʼʼRussian trampsʼʼ and ʼʼGerman Nietzscheʼʼ in the article ʼʼThe Coming Hamʼʼ. The controversy of 1913 in the ʼʼRussian Wordʼʼ: ʼʼAbout ʼʼKaramazovismeʼʼ, ʼʼMore about ʼʼKaramazovismeʼʼ by M. Gorky and ʼʼGorky and Dostoevskyʼʼ by D. Merezhkovsky. Article by D. Merezhkovsky 1916 ᴦ. ʼʼNot Holy Russia. Religion Gorkyʼʼ. G. Adamovich's view of Gorky's work in the context of the traditions of F. Dostoevsky (ʼʼLoneliness and freedomʼʼ).

Novels ʼʼFoma Gordeevʼʼ and ʼʼThreeʼʼ. Features of the conflict. New heroes of Gorky's prose. Gorky's historical concept. Gorky's novels and the traditions of the Russian novel. Traditions of Dostoevsky as an artist in the depiction of the ʼʼvariegationʼʼ of the Russian national character.

Dramaturgy. ʼʼPhilistsʼʼ. Gorky's dramatic method. Gorky and Chekhov the playwright. ʼʼAt the bottomʼʼ and the theme of ʼʼthe bottomʼʼ in Russian and Western literature. The concept of an ʼʼformerʼʼ person. Truth and Religion. Philosophy of passive consciousness and author's position, artistic means her expressions. philosophical character dramatic conflict. Gorky's dramatic innovation. composition features. Genre.
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stage history plays.

Plays about the intelligentsia (ʼʼSummer Residentsʼʼ, ʼʼChildren of the Sunʼʼ, ʼʼBarbariansʼʼ). Revolution and culture, people and intelligentsia. Gorky on the role of the masses in history. M. Gorky's controversy with L. Andreev. ʼʼChildren of the Sunʼʼ Gorky and ʼʼTo the Starsʼʼ Andreev. The unity of the idea and the difference of its artistic solution.

Novel ʼʼMotherʼʼ, play ʼʼEnemiesʼʼ: features socialist realism. Christian morality and ethics of a revolutionary in the novel. Concept ʼʼ little manʼʼ in the context of Russian and Western literature (Dickens, Zola, Dostoevsky, Shmelev). The concept of a proud person. The theme of fathers and children in the novel. Mother and son: spiritual and book culture. The cult of the mother in the work of Gorky (ʼʼVassa Zheleznovaʼʼ, ʼʼLife of Matvey Kozhemyakinʼʼ, ʼʼConfessionʼʼ, ʼʼAcross Russiaʼʼ, etc.). Andrey Nakhodka: idea and personality. ʼʼMotherʼʼ and ʼʼConfessionʼʼ: a man's search for social and spiritual truth.

Gorky's perception of the ideas of god-building by A. Bogdanov and A. Lunacharsky. Gorky's lectures on the history of Russian literature at the Capri School.

Dramaturgy of the late 1900s-1910s. ʼʼVassa Zheleznovaʼʼ, ʼʼOld Manʼʼ, ʼʼZykovyʼʼ. Ethical and philosophical problems of plays. New in the poetics of plays. The nature of the dramatic conflict.

People and revolution, philistinism and revolution in the ʼʼOkurov cycleʼʼ (ʼʼGorodok Okurovʼʼ, ʼʼLife of Matvey Kozhemyakinʼʼ).

ʼʼRussian fairy talesʼʼ, ʼʼAcross Russiaʼʼ, ʼʼTales about Italyʼʼ. The image of the motherland and people. Style diversity and internal unity of cycles. The new character of Gorky's romance and satire.

Autobiographical novels ʼʼChildhoodʼʼ, ʼʼIn peopleʼʼ. Aesthetic and moral quest of a man from the people. Autobiographical genre in Russian literature of the 19th century and Gorky's story. Gorky's stories and autobiographical works of his contemporaries (V. Korolenko, N. Garin-Mikhailovsky).

The variety of stylistic forms of realism by M. Gorky in the 1910s. The role of romantic pathos in the realism of Gorky's prose.

Gorky during the February and October revolutions. Work in the newspaper ʼʼNew Lifeʼʼ.

ʼʼUntimely thoughtsʼʼ: rejection of violence in the revolution; morality and politics; culture and revolution; freedom of speech, historical and informational truth. Disagreement with the ʼʼanarcho-communists and dreamers from Smolnyʼʼ, rejection of ʼʼexperimentʼʼ over the Russian people. ʼʼUntimely thoughtsʼʼ - the experience of national self-criticism. ʼʼUntimely thoughtsʼʼ and article 1915 ᴦ. ʼʼTwo soulsʼʼ: East and West in the Russian psyche.

Creativity of Gorky of the Soviet era. Gorky's traditions in Soviet literature, his role in the Russian and world literary process.

3. Literature of the 1910s.

The arrival of a new generation of realist writers in literature - A. Tolstoy, M. Prishvin, K. Trenev, S. Sergeev-Tsensky. Exposure in their work of ʼʼall kinds of serfdomʼʼ in social and spiritual life. Attraction to the natural ʼʼlivingʼʼ life. Rejection of decadent moods in life and in art.

Interest in the ʼʼmaterial worldʼʼ and at the same time - aspiration for philosophical generalizations, a kind of ʼʼphilosophical lyricismʼʼ.

Controversy in Criticism about Neorealism. Discussions about artistic heritage, about the relationship between classical realism and the art of modern times, about the relationship between the epic and lyrical principles in a work of art, about the role of the author's subjectivity.

A. N. TOLSTOY (1883-1945)

The beginning of the creative path. Early Poems. The influence of the ideas and poetics of the symbolists. The book ʼʼBeyond the blue riversʼʼ. Russian and Slavic mythology. Orientation to the tradition of oral folk and classical Russian poetry. Prose of Tolstoy. Book ʼʼMagpie Talesʼʼ. The desire to understand the ʼʼfundamentals of lifeʼʼ. The nature of Tolstoy's poetic conventionality. The cycle of stories ʼʼZavolzhyeʼʼ, the novels ʼʼCranksʼʼ, ʼʼThe Lame Masterʼʼ - about the epigones of the noble world, ʼʼcolorful and ridiculous eccentricsʼʼ. Tolstoy's depiction of their lives as a comedy of the ending history of the Russian nobility. Features of the writer's realistic style: the historical authenticity of the characters, their inseparability from the "life of things" of the environment. Mastering the satirical Gogol traditions in describing the characters' characters. The idea of ​​redemptive suffering in the works of A. Tolstoy and the tradition of Dostoevsky. First plays (ʼʼKasatkaʼʼ, ʼʼ Devilryʼʼ), their problems, artistic originality.

Negative perception of the October Revolution (ʼʼhurricane of blood and horrorʼʼ). Historical analogies and historical themes in the work of the writer. The play ʼʼThe Death of Dantonʼʼ (1918). The problem of revolutionary terror. Affirmation of the uselessness of bloodshed and the denial of any violence against a person. The theme of the historical past of Russia and the present. The problem of relations between Russian history and the Russian national character (ʼʼObsessionʼʼ, ʼʼPeter's Dayʼʼ, ʼʼThe Tale of the Time of Troublesʼʼ). Emigration.

4. ʼʼNew peasantʼʼ poetry of the 1910s.

Creativity of S. Klychkov, N. Klyuev, S. Yesenin, A. Shiryaevts, P. Karpov, A. Ganin, P. Oreshin. Poetry of peasant poets and symbolism (S. Klychkov, S. Yesenin). N. Klyuev and ʼʼWorkshop of Poetsʼʼ.

Kitezh worldview. Philosophical concept of earthly paradise. Orthodoxy, Khlystism and paganism in the early lyrics of peasant poets. S. Yesenin and N. Klyuev in ʼʼScythianʼʼ.

Peasantry in the philosophical and political views of Russian symbolists. Philosophical searches of the ʼʼsilver ageʼʼ and Russian sectarianism. Nietzsche and the peasantry. Carlyle and the peasantry. Socialist-Revolutionaries and the peasantry. Mythological school and peasant culture.

Traditions of patristic literature and folklore in the poetics of peasant poets .

S. A. Yesenin (1895-1925)

Philosophical views of the young Yesenin, heretical perception of Christ ͵ the concept of ʼʼone soulʼʼ (letters to G. Panfilov).

Poetry of the period ʼʼRadunitsaʼʼ. Christian and peasant beginnings in Yesenin's early lyrics. Landscape in the context of Orthodox imagery. The image of a peasant paradise. Russia as a country chosen by the saints.

The duality of the lyrical hero Yesenin - a meek shepherd and a rebel.

metaphorical style. Romance verse. Color in landscape poetry. The problem of dating early lyrics.

The role of N. Klyuev and Ivanov-Razumnik in the worldview searches of the poet. Metaphysical perception of Russian revolutions, Yesenin's religious-revolutionary utopia.

N. A. Klyuev (1884-1937)

Books of poems ʼʼSosen chimeʼʼ and ʼʼBrotherly songsʼʼ. Orthodox motifs in Klyuev's lyrics. Klyuev and Calvary Christianity. Klyuev's worldview in the context of the Old Believers and Khlysty. Klyuev's letters to Blok; their motives, quotes from letters in Blok's texts (articles, ʼʼSong of Fateʼʼ, etc.). Bryusov and Klyuev. Gumilyov about Klyuev. Klyuev and ʼʼScythianismʼʼ.

Myth-making of Klyuev. Metaphor in his poetry.

Differences in the poetics of N. Klyuev and S. Yesenin, N. Klyuev and S. Klychkov. A. Bely on the poetics of N. Klyuev (ʼʼAaron's Rodʼʼ). Metaphysical perception of the October Revolution and imminent disappointment in it (ʼʼSongbookʼʼ, ʼʼBronze Whaleʼʼ, ʼʼThe Fourth Romeʼʼ, ʼʼLion's Breadʼʼ, ʼʼMother Saturdayʼʼ). Tribal culture in Klyuev's poems, the theme of the confrontation between the Commune and Mother Russia. Mythological image of Lenin-Lion. Blood motif. Klyuev as a spokesman for the ʼʼexcessiveʼʼ, ʼʼselfishʼʼ peasant in L. Trotsky's assessments.

S. A. Klychkov (1889-1937)

Symbolist attitude and imagery in the poetry of the period of ʼʼSongsʼʼ and ʼʼSecret Gardenʼʼ. peasant culture in the themes and poetics of the early S. Klychkov. Christianity and paganism. Myth-making of Klychkov and folklore tradition. The Slavic image of Russia in the works of Klychkov and Russia as White India in Klyuev's interpretation, N. Gumilyov's attitude to these views.

Drama in the intimate lyrics of the period of ʼʼHouse Songsʼʼ. Philosophical themes in the poetry of the 1920s. Dualism. Eschatological attitude of the poet.

5. The development of proletarian poetry in the 1910s.

Books of working poets ʼʼOur songsʼʼ (1913-1914). Poems by Demyan Bedny, V. Aleksandrovsky, A. Pomorsky, A. Gastev, I. Sadofiev and others.
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Appearance in working poetry of the 10s. the collective image of the people and the heroic personality of the Protestant wrestler. The combination of political satire and romantic pathos is a characteristic stylistic feature of poets' poems. Genres of working poetry: fable, satirical feuilleton, parody, epigram, landscape and love lyrics. Traditions of lyric poetry of the 19th century.

The work of Demyan Bedny (E. A. Pridvorova - 1883-1945). D. Poor is a satirist. Fables of the Poor. The story ʼʼAbout the land, about freedom, about the working shareʼʼ is the final work of the pre-revolutionary work of the poet.

6. Formation in 1910 of new features of Russian satirical journalism.

The magazines ʼʼSatyriconʼʼ and ʼʼNew Satyriconʼʼ - as a new direction in the development of Russian satirical literature at the beginning of the century. New trends and traditions of Russian democratic satire of the 19th century. ʼʼSatyricistsʼʼ and European satirical journalism.

Writers - ʼʼsatirikontsʼʼ: Sasha Cherny, Teffi, A. Averchenko.

A. T. Averchenko (1881-1925)

Averchenko in ʼʼSatyriconʼʼ and ʼʼNew Satyriconʼʼ. Collections of short stories ʼʼFunny Oystersʼʼ, ʼʼCircles on the Waterʼʼ, ʼʼWeedsʼʼ, etc.
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Themes of Averchenko's satires (urban life, the life of a Russian inhabitant, ʼʼʼʼ trends in Russian art and literature). Installation on ʼʼcontemplationʼʼ satire. The positive ideal of the writer's satire is ʼʼhealing laughterʼʼ. The fall of the social severity of Averchenko's satyrs during the war.

Enthusiasm for the February Revolution. Rejection of the October Revolution. Emigration.

Teffi (N. A. Buchinskaya - 1872-1952)

Creativity of the 1900s. Collection of poems ʼʼSeven lightsʼʼ. The influence of symbolist poetry. early prose. Collections of the 10s. ʼʼHumorous storiesʼʼ, ʼʼInanimate beastʼʼ. Stories about Russian life in the epoch of reaction. The theme of the little man. Perception of life as a merry-go-round, twisted by some evil forces.

Chekhov's traditions in her work. Taffy and revolution. Rejection of ʼʼtruthʼʼ by none of the contending forces. Emigration.

Sasha Cherny (A. M. Glikberg - 1880-1932)

Work in satirical magazines during the first revolution. Satyricon verses. Collections ʼʼSatireʼʼ and ʼʼSatire and Lyricsʼʼ. Criticism of the ideals of the Russian inhabitant, the renegade intelligentsia, who renounced the ʼʼpreceptsʼʼ, decadent moods in modern literature and art. Cherny's translation work (translations of Heine, Hamsun, etc.).

richness of rhythm. Peculiar colloquial vocabulary, ʼʼdesigned verseʼʼ (Gumilyov) as features of Sasha Cherny's poetry. Sasha Cherny at the front during the war. Emigration.

1. Formation of the first modernist trends in literature and fine arts. Approval of a new concept of a work of art. Shifting emphasis from the depicted object to the way it is interpreted. The idea of ​​the intrinsic value of art, the artist's creative transformation of reality, penetration through the outer shell into the true essence of phenomena. Attempts to revive the art of mythological thinking.

The concept of modernism, decadence and symbolism. Symbolism of the 1890s. and young symbolism (symbolists of the 1900s).

The role of Vl. Solovyov's philosophy and poetry in the formation of philosophical and aesthetic views of the symbolists. Influence of Russian and Western idealistic philosophy. Understanding art as an intuitive comprehension of the world. The concept of a symbol in the theoretical and literary works of the symbolists. Two concepts of symbolist art of the 90s. D. Merezhkovsky about symbolism as an ideological category, V. Bryusov - as literary school. Religious-philosophical ʼʼAssembliesʼʼ and their role in the formation of a ʼʼnew religious consciousnessʼʼ. The role of Merezhkovsky in ʼʼAssembliesʼʼ.

Magazine ʼʼMir Iskusstvaʼʼ (1899-1904) as the first association of artists and writers of ʼʼʼʼʼ new directions. The problem of artistic individualism, the autonomy of art, beauty as the eternal and main problem of artistic creativity. Writers and philosophers in the magazine (D. Philosophers, D. Merezhkovsky, V. Rozanov, L. Shestov).

Program design of symbolism as an artistic movement in 1900. Role in this magazine ʼʼVesyʼʼ and its editor V. Bryusov.

Traditions of F. Tyutchev, A. Fet͵ of Russian pre-symbolist poetry (K. Fofanova, K. Sluchevsky) in the formation of the poetic system of Russian symbolists.

Symbolism and I. Annensky. Creativity I. Annensky. Books of poems ʼʼQuiet Songsʼʼ and ʼʼCypress Casketʼʼ. I. Annensky-playwright. Role ancient mythology in his dramaturgy. Annensky - literary critic.

ʼʼBooks of reflectionsʼʼ are examples of Russian impressionist criticism.

I. Annensky and A. Blok. I. Annensky and A. Akhmatova. I. Annensky

and B. Pasternak.

Russian symbolism in the context of world literary development. Russian symbolism and the work of French and German poets - symbolists.

2. ʼʼElderʼʼ symbolists

D. S. Merezhkovsky (1865-1941)

Poet, prose writer, theorist of symbolism, literary critic. Merezhkovsky's lyrics of the 1880s, motifs of loneliness, emptiness, illusiveness of life. The ambiguity of the image of the lyrical hero of a gloomy romantic, a desperate skeptic and a dreamer. Influence of S. Nadson's poetry. Motives of Civil Poetry of the 1880s.

Merezhkovsky's substantiation of the new symbolist art in the book ʼʼOn the Causes of Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literatureʼʼ. Symbol and word. Three features of the new art (mystical content, symbols, expansion of artistic impressionability) and Russian classical literature.

Merezhkovsky in ʼʼNorthern Bulletinʼʼ and ʼʼThe World of Artʼʼ. Religious views of Merezhkovsky in the work ʼʼLeo Tolstoy and Dostoevskyʼʼ. Neo-Christianity of Merezhkovsky, the idea of ​​the Third Testament.

Religious and philosophical meetings. Merezhkovsky and ʼʼNew Wayʼʼ. The idea of ​​a single and universal Church in the worldviews of V. Solovyov and D. Merezhkovsky. Merezhkovsky and Rozanov; Merezhkovsky about his disagreements with Rozanov in an open letter to N. Berdyaev ʼʼOn a new religious actionʼʼ. Differences between D. Merezhkovsky and S. Bulgakov's group.

Trilogy ʼʼChrist and Antichristʼʼ. Merezhkovsky's philosophy of history, its metaphysical content. Solution of the question of the relationship between the truth of Christ and the truth of the devil: Julian the Apostate, Leonardo, Peter.
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The motif of royal blood (ʼʼAntichrist. Peter and Alexeiʼʼ).

Metaphysical perception of the first Russian revolution. ʼʼComing Hamʼʼ. Three faces of Ham. Merezhkovsky's dispute with the late K. Leontiev (ʼʼTerrible childʼʼ). The heyday of philosophical journalism in Russia, Merezhkovsky's book ʼʼNot the world, but the sword. To the future criticism of Christianityʼʼ, ʼʼIn the still waterʼʼ, ʼʼSick Russiaʼʼ. D. Merezhkovsky and G. Plekhanov.

Participation of Merezhkovsky in the religious and philosophical society of N. Berdyaev. their religious differences.

Dramaturgy Merezhkovsky (ʼʼPavel Iʼʼ, ʼʼThere will be joyʼʼ).

Trilogy ʼʼThe Beast from the Abyssʼʼ: ʼʼPaul Iʼʼ, ʼʼAlexander Iʼʼ, ʼʼDecember 14ʼʼ. Antichrist and Power. The beast, ruling name God. Motif of wasted blood in ʼʼDecember 14ʼʼ. The motive of the unity of Christ and liberty.

Literary and critical works of Merezhkovsky the Neo-Christian. Merezhkovsky and Gorky.

Denial of ʼʼOctoberʼʼ as the coming of the Antichrist. Emigration.

V. Ya. Bryusov (1873-1924)

Creativity of Bryusov in the 1890s. Decadent motifs in the collections ʼʼRussian Symbolistsʼʼ. The programmatic nature of the collections. Books of poems ʼʼChefs d oeuvreʼʼ (ʼʼMasterpiecesʼʼ), ʼʼMe eum esseʼʼ (ʼʼThis is meʼʼ). Romantic subjectivism of perception of the world, formalistic attitudes of the poet. Influence on Bryusov of Western Symbolist Poetry (Rimbaud, Mallarme, Verdun). Aesthetic views of early Bryusov. The first attempts to update the metrics of Russian verse.

A new stage in the creative development of Bryusov in the 1900s. Bryusov - organizer of the symbolist movement in Russia and editor of the central organ of the symbolists ʼʼBalanceʼʼ (1904-1909). Books of poems ʼʼTertia Vigiliaʼʼ (ʼʼThird Guardʼʼ), ʼʼUrbi et orbiʼʼ (ʼʼTo the city and the worldʼʼ), ʼʼStephanosʼʼ (ʼʼWreathʼʼ). The search for objectively significant themes and characters. Images of mythology, history, modernity. Universalism of Bryusov's historical images. Social predictions and reflections on the fate of history. Fiction Bryusov. urban poetry. Bryusov and E. Verharn. Genres and style of Bryusov's urban poetry. Bryusov and urban lyrics by A. Blok.

Bryusov and the Revolution of 1905. The idea of ​​the collapse of culture in the revolution. Contradictions of Bryusov's aesthetic views.

Normativity of Bryusov's Poetics of the 1910s. Orientation to classical traditions.

Bryusov is a prose writer. Genres of his short prose. Influence on her short stories by E. Poe, S. Pshibyshevsky. Bryusov's attempt to combine the decadently pointed content of short stories and the forms of classical Russian short stories of the 19th century. Historical novels by Bryusov. Bryusov's concept of the historical development of human civilization. History and stylization of history. Novels of Bryusov and Merezhkovsky from the era of early Christianity. difference in historical concept. Roman ʼʼFiery Angelʼʼ. Combination of modern and historical content. Controversy with the theurgic concept of the Young Symbolists. Bryusov is a critic and translator.

Post-October creativity of Bryusov. Bryusov's contribution to Russian culture.

3. N. Gippius (1869-1945)

Early lyrics by Gippius. The search for ʼʼout-of-this-world beautyʼʼ. Motives of romantic poetry (loneliness, captivity, freedom). Ballad genre. The theme of God's covenant. The ideas of Merezhkovsky's neo-Christianity in the poetry of Gippius (ʼʼTo Christʼʼ, ʼʼFor the Devil I pray to You...ʼʼ, ʼʼThe dying confession of a Christianʼʼ, etc.). genre of prayer. Religious Doubts Gippius. The problem of a loving God and human suffering in the poetry of Gippius.

Collections of short stories, novels ʼʼDevil's Dollʼʼ, ʼʼRoman Tsarevichʼʼ. Dostoevsky traditions. Dramaturgy. Critical works of Gippius (A. Extreme) .

V. Zlobin (ʼʼHeavy soulʼʼ) about hereticism 3. Gippius. Khlyst's motives in the story ʼʼSokatilʼʼ.

Motivations for the Justification of the Antichrist. Poem 3. Gippius ʼʼGriseldaʼʼ and ʼʼFiery Angelʼʼ by V. Bryusov. S. Makovsky (ʼʼOn Parnassus of the Silver Ageʼʼ) on the interpretation of Satan in the prose of Gippius (ʼʼΟʜᴎ look likeʼʼ, ʼʼHe is whiteʼʼ).

Interpretation of Love in Gippius' Prose in the Context of the Philosophy of Love of the Symbolists. The theme of the holy flesh. S. Makovsky about

Modernism. Formation and development of modernist trends in literature at the turn of the century and in the first decades of the 20th century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Modernism. Formation and development of modernist trends in literature at the turn of the century and in the first decades of the 20th century" 2017, 2018.

Realism- in literature and art - a direction striving to depict reality. Indication of social ulcers. At the end of the first third of the 19th century, arose in European literature as opposed to romanticism. R. excludes the approach to art as a free "creative" game and assumes the recognition of the reality and cognizability of the world. The thought of the environment made it possible to remove responsibility (“the environment stuck”). Realism as an attempt to justify. Realism is aimed at depicting middle-class people. If a person's behavior determines a class, then there is little individuality in it. Hence the tendency to typification, generalization. There is more typical in images than individual.

To one degree or another, all fiction has elements of realism, since reality, the world of social relations, is its only material. literary image, completely divorced from reality, is unthinkable, and an image that distorts reality beyond known limits is devoid of any effectiveness. The inevitable elements of reflecting reality can, however, be subordinated to tasks of a different kind and stylized in such a way in accordance with these tasks that the work loses any realistic character. Only such works can be called realistic, in which the installation on the image of reality is predominant. Hence the two opposite directions in the theory; one thing - realism - sets before art the task of faithfully reproducing reality; the other - idealism - sees the purpose of art in the "replenishment of reality", in the creation of new forms. Moreover, the starting point is not so much the facts as the ideal representations.

This terminology, borrowed from philosophy, sometimes introduces artwork non-aesthetic moments: Realism is quite wrongly reproached for the absence of moral idealism. In current usage, the term "Realism" means the exact copying of details, mostly external ones. The untenability of this point of view, from which the preference for protocol over the novel and photography over the picture is a natural conclusion, is quite obvious; a sufficient refutation of it is our aesthetic sense, which does not hesitate for a minute between a wax figure, reproducing the finest shades of living colors, and a deathly white marble statue. It would be pointless and pointless to create another world, completely identical with the existing one.

Realism is a historically volatile concept. Each era has its own concepts of realism, which depended on the rules, views, and foundations of the era. F

According to N.V. Gogol, realism is a low topic of literature, “a mud of trifles”. According to R.O. Yakobson, a realistic work is 1) which the author conceived as plausible, 2) which the reader perceives as plausible.

It is hardly possible to speak of the history of Realism: it coincides with the history of art. One can only characterize certain moments in the historical life of art, when they especially insisted on a truthful depiction of life, seeing it primarily in emancipation from school conventions, in the ability to grasp and the courage to depict details that passed without a trace for the former artist or frightened him by inconsistency with dogmas.

Realism features:

Social engagement - art must meet the requirements of the people. The writer is a reflection of the environment in which he was born.

Careful motivation of moves, complication of the plot are characteristic of realism. Prose began to supplant poetry. And the main genre was the novel.

The system of images has become wider. They began to pay more attention to the methods of additional associative links between images. The importance of detailing and symbolizing individual details has increased. First of all, realism strove for psychological certainty, and not for historical. There was a democratization of the language (bookish elements were considered artificial, vernacular, jargon, barbarism, etc. penetrated into the artistic language). There were no prohibitions regarding the choice of subject for description.

Modernism in literature, it originates on the eve of WWI and reaches its peak in the twenties simultaneously in all countries Western Europe and in America. Modernism is an international phenomenon, consisting of different schools (Imagism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Constructivism, Surrealism, etc.). This is a revolution in literature, the participants of which announced a break not only with the tradition of realistic plausibility, but also with the Western cultural and literary tradition in general. Any previous trend in literature defined itself through its relation to the classical tradition: one could directly proclaim antiquity as a model of artistic creativity, like the classicists, or prefer the Middle Ages to antiquity, like romantics, but all cultural epochs before modernism are called today more and more often "classical", because developed in line with the classical heritage of European thought. Modernism is the first cultural and literary epoch that did away with this legacy and provided new answers to "eternal" questions. The generation of the first modernists keenly felt the exhaustion of the forms of realistic narrative, their aesthetic fatigue. For modernists, the concept of "realism" meant the absence of an effort to independently comprehend the world, the mechanistic nature of creativity, superficiality, the boredom of vague descriptions. Modernists above all put the value of an individual artistic vision of the world; the artistic worlds they create are uniquely dissimilar to each other, each one bears the stamp of a bright creative individuality.

Modernists conceive of human existence as a brief, fragile moment; the subject may or may not be aware of the tragedy, the frailty of our absurd world, and the artist's job is to show the horror, grandeur and beauty that are contained in spite of everything in the moments of earthly existence. Social problems, which played such an important role in the realism of the 19th century, are given indirectly in modernism, as an inseparable part of a holistic portrait of the individual. The main sphere of interest of modernists is the image of the relationship between the conscious and the unconscious in a person, the mechanisms of his perceptions, the whimsical work of memory. Modernist hero is taken, as a rule, in the whole integrity of his experiences, his subjective being, although the very scale of his life can be small, insignificant. In modernism, the main line of development of the literature of the New Age continues to the constant decline in the social status of the hero; the modernist hero is a "everymenus", any and every person. Modernists have learned to describe such mental states of a person that literature had not noticed before, and they did it with such persuasiveness that it seemed to bourgeois critics an insult to morality and a profanation of the art of the word. Not only the content - the big role of intimate and sexual issues, the relativity of moral assessments, the emphasized apoliticality - but first of all, the unusual forms of modernist narrative caused a particularly sharp rejection. Today, when most of the masterpieces of modernist literature have entered school and university curricula, it is difficult for us to feel the rebellious, anti-bourgeois character of early modernism, the sharpness of the accusations and challenges thrown by it.

The three major writers of modernism are the Irishman James Joyce (1882–1943), the Frenchman Marcel Proust (1871–1922), and Franz Kafka (1883–1924). Each of them in his own direction reformed the art of the word of the twentieth century, each is considered the great pioneer of modernism. Let's take Ulysses as an example. var begun_auto_pad = 179110770; var started_block_id = 179117399;

Another striking phenomenon in the literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries was impressionism. The term "Impressionism" comes from

fr - impression. The Impressionists creatively accepted Baudelaire's thesis about the artist's ability to see the world in a peculiar way. The transfer of a purely subjective impression by artistic means is the main feature of impressionism. This subjective impression is conveyed in the game of associations that evokes the subject of the image, complex subjective metaphors, lyricism of the story, color and sound images. A striking example of impressionist prose is the work of Guy de Maupassant, M. Kotsiubinsky, “Pan” by K. Hamsun. Features of impressionism are inherent in the poetry of R.M. Rilke, M. Tsvetaeva.

At the beginning of the 20th century phenomena arise that reflect the desire of modernism to interact with other trends in art, to creatively use the achievements of the culture of the past. This was most clearly manifested in neo-romanticism, the defining feature of which is the ability to overcome the gap between the ideal and reality thanks to the powerful force of the individual, capable of turning the desired into reality. These features are inherent in the work of K. Hamsun.

A striking manifestation of modernism was “ silver age” Russian poetry, which gave the poetry of the acmeists. The talented poet N. Gumilyov was the theorist of acmeism. The term " acmeism” comes from the Latin words akme - the highest level of something, a flowering power. N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, I. Mandelstam sought to return to the word its natural clarity, human feelings worried them as a manifestation of the spiritual life of a person, and not a symbolic reflection of the World Soul. Acmeists relied on the achievements of world culture, which brought them closer to the neo-romantics.

A striking phenomenon of Russian poetry was imagism, a peculiar manifestation on Russian soil of the modernist current of English poetry of Imagism. The Imagists, and after them the Imagists, considered the image to be decisive in their poetry. Previously, T.S. Elliot's work gives an idea of ​​the creative searches of the Imagists. The work of S. Yesenin is associated with Russian imagism; over time, he admitted that it was good school poetic skill.

In modernism, there were also currents that sought to radically update the artistic system, abandoning the cultural tradition. These currents are called avant-garde” (from fr avantgarte - advanced paddock). The most common currents of avant-garde are futurism and surrealism.

Futurism(from lat futurum - future) originated in Italy. In 1909 F. Marinetti published the "Manifesto of Futurism", in which he announced a break with traditional culture, which cannot satisfy modern man. Futurists sang the city as the highest manifestation of the achievements of human civilization. They discovered the tragedy of modern urbanization - the tragedy of disobedience to the human person. They sought to recreate the worldview of the “impersonal” person.

Surrealism comes from fr surrealisme - superrealism. The surrealists relied on the human subconscious, one of the methods of surrealist art is the use of “automatic writing”: the subconscious mind prompts a record of the first thing that came to mind, what attention was focused on (a description of random objects and the associations they caused).

Kafka was considered the prophet of the 20th century, the founder themes of the absurd in the literature of the 20th century and a religious thinker, whose writings should be considered "in terms of holiness, but not literature." The following expressions have long entered the lexicon of the intelligentsia: "Kafka's situation", "Kafka's absurdity", "Kafka's nightmare". Among the writers before whom Kafka bowed, one should first of all recall I.V. Goethe, G. Kleist, G. Flaubert, C. Dickens, F. Dostoevsky. In describing his fantasies, Kafka reached levels of the subconscious that were closed to more conventional approaches. All of his best works are permeated with introspection based on an endless search in oneself. His stories and novels are built according to the laws of the fantastic logic of dreams, but at the same time reflect the realistic details of everyday life. First of all, the writer is interested in the universality of the relationship of the individual with the world, the most common questions of spiritual existence. Kafka's work is an example of modernist prose. The artistic world of Kafka is characterized by a combination of fantastic and ordinary, tragic and ironic, naturalistic details and complex, dark symbolism. The style and presentation of Kafka have become an integral part of modern literature, an essential component of the work of such original writers as Jean Paul Sartre, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Beckett.

The term " postmodernism"has different interpretations. As I.P. Ilyin writes, this is a "multi-valued, dynamically mobile complex of philosophical, epistemological, scientific-theoretical and emotional-ethical ideas, depending on the historical, social and national context." Postmodernism acts as a characteristic of a certain mentality, a specific way of perceiving the world, a sense of the place and role of a person in the world around.Since the beginning of the 80s of the XX century, postmodernism has been recognized as a general aesthetic phenomenon, a specific phenomenon in philosophy and literature.

M. Epstein believes that postmodernism is "an era in the history of culture that began with the Renaissance and ended in the middle of the 20th century, associated with a belief in the meaningfulness of the world and the progress of mankind. M. Shapir believes that postmodernism appeared in Russia after the avant-garde.
"Postmodernism is a protest against the evil infinity in the concept of the history of culture, placing one stage after another, building single line development,” writes L.G. Fedorova. Postmodernism does not at all cancel all previous culture, but builds on it, and for “the emergence of postmodernism as a specific worldview and idea of ​​culture, socio-historical and aesthetic experience of the 20th century was necessary.”

When talking about the first stage of the transition of modernism to postmodernism in Russian literature, they usually mention the period of Georgy Ivanov's work (1894-1958), which is considered a kind of bridge from the Silver Age to modern poetic experiments. It's about about the 30-50s, when in the works of Georgy Ivanov, and in particular in his poem "The Decay of the Atom" (1938), notes appear that clearly anticipate the era of postmodernism. The poem "Mirrors reflect each other ...", according to I.N. Ivanova, "plays the favorite themes of modernism, illuminating them with a postmodern light" (5, p. 80). However, in the seemingly most postmodernist works of G. Ivanov, through the "humor of the gallows" still shines through "a glimmer of unbearable radiance", an exit to some new humanism (5, p. 81).
In postmodernism, two categorical dominant qualities can be distinguished, writes Ya.V. Pogrebnaya: 1) the "iceberg principle", i.e. leaving the text roots deep into history and culture; 2) orientation of culture not to reality, but to culture. Forming a new reader, postmodernism also creates a new reality in which real life not only people and things live, but also symbols created by people. The true name is tabooed, replaced by a pseudonym, even turns into a pseudonym (Sasha Sokolov, Dmitry Alexandrovich Prigov) or is replaced by the name of a double (Alikhanov with S. Dovlatov, Memozov with V. Aksenov).

The aesthetic concept of V.V. Nabokov occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. His relationship with the reader is usually defined as a "game of hide and seek". Replacing the true name of the hero with a pseudonym "provides him with the possibility of superexistence, movement between worlds, none of which can be recognized as real." V.V. himself Nabokov talks about the vagueness of the concept of reality. The names Marina, Aqua and Lucinda ("Hell") are not so much called heroines, but rather point to the elements of the sea, water, light. The doubling names Herman ("Despair") and Humbert ("Lolita") indicate their isolation in the "metaphysical circle".

If postmodernism does not imply mandatory localization in historical time, then the ideas and symbols of OBERIU, characterized by N.A. Zabolotsky in the "OBERIU Manifesto", coincide with the modern invariants of the postmodern method. For creativity A.I. Vvedensky is characterized by deconstructivism, the methods of his poetic technique can be called "reverse interpretation". This means that simultaneously with the linguistic primary interpretation, another interpretation is included, associated with the system of linguistic symbols. This brings together the creative individuality of A.I. Vvedensky with the "situation of postmodernism". In the 30s, the Oberiuts were the first postmodernists in Russia and at the same time the last heirs of the traditions of modernism - futuristic and symbolist. "Virtuality" of the world, the phenomenon of "dual presence", the absence of the category of Truth - these are, in particular, signs of postmodernism in the poetry of A.I. Vvedensky. The poet's texts are also characterized by intertextuality (in connection with which the problem of authorship is actualized), the rejection of traditional thinking.

The appearance of Sasha Sokolov's novels in Russia coincided with the heyday of Russian postmodernism, reminds I.V. Ashcheulova. almost all foreign researchers of Sasha Sokolov's work classify him as a modernist, and all Russian literary critics and critics as a postmodernist. Indeed, when the space of the "School for Fools", being a world of horror and chaos, is transformed into the space of childhood, and the "school" is perceived as the "school of life", then this is nothing but a conflict of modernism. This theme will continue in the novel "Between the dog and the wolf." The mythopoetic prose of Sasha Sokolov is characterized not only by the creation of a myth, but also by its destruction. Mythological, religious, philosophical, literary archetypes are "parodied, collided, rethought, disputed" here.

Absurdity and logic coexist in the image of a person of the 20th century, and the first is classified based on what laws of the latter he violates, writes V.S. Voronin. In D. Kharms's story "The Falling Out Old Women" unreality merges with reality. So, the character of Kharms' "Sonnet" forgets that "it goes before 7 or 8", and in "Wild Animal Tales" by L. Petrushevskaya, insects "bought themselves an aerosol from insects so that it would not be boring on the road, and began to divide." In a word, absurdity violates the rules of logic: the law of identity, the law of non-contradiction, the law of the excluded middle, the law of sufficient reason.

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