The inner world of a literary work Likhachev. The inner world of the work

Inner world artwork

Source // Questions of Literature, No. 8, 1968. - P. 74-87.

Studying the reflection of the world of reality in the world of a work of art, literary critics are limited for the most part to paying attention to whether individual phenomena of reality are depicted correctly or incorrectly in the work. Literary scholars enlist the help of historians in order to ascertain the accuracy of the depiction of historical events, psychologists and even psychiatrists in order to ascertain the correctness of the depiction of the mental life of the characters. When studying ancient Russian literature, besides historians, we often turn to the help of geographers, zoologists, astronomers, etc. And all this, of course, is quite correct, but, alas, not enough. We usually do not study the inner world of a work of art as a whole, limiting ourselves to searching for "prototypes": prototypes of this or that character, character, landscape, even "prototypes", events and prototypes of the types themselves. Everything is "retail", everything is in parts! Therefore, the world of a work of art appears in our studies in bulk, and its relation to reality is fragmented and devoid of integrity.

At the same time, the mistake of literary critics, who note various “fidelities” or “infidelities” in the artist’s depiction of reality, lies in the fact that, by splitting up the whole reality and the integral world of a work of art, they make both incommensurable: they measure the area of \u200b\u200ba apartment in light years.

True, it has already become stereotyped to point out the difference between a real fact and an artistic fact. We can come across such statements when studying War and Peace or Russian epics and historical songs. The difference between the world of reality and the world of a work of art is already realized with sufficient acuteness. But the point is not to "be aware" of something, but to define this "something" as an object of study.

In fact, it is necessary not only to state the very fact of differences, but also to study what these differences consist of, what causes them and how they organize the inner world of the work. We should not simply establish differences between reality and the world of a work of art, and only in these differences should we see the specifics of a work of art. The specificity of a work of art by individual authors or literary movements can sometimes be just the opposite, that is, that there will be too few of these differences in certain parts of the inner world, and there will be too much imitation and accurate reproduction of reality.

In historical source studies, once the study of a historical source was limited to the question: true or false? After the works of A. Shakhmatov on the history of chronicle writing, such a study of the source was recognized as insufficient. A. Chess studied historical source as an integral monument in terms of how this monument transforms reality: the purposefulness of the source, worldview and Political Views author. Thanks to this, it became possible to use even a distorted, transformed image of reality as historical evidence. This transformation itself has become an important testament to the history of ideology and public thought. The historical concepts of the chronicler, no matter how they distort reality (and there are no concepts that do not distort reality in the chronicle), are always interesting for the historian, testifying to the historical ideas of the chronicler, about his ideas and views on the world. The concept of the chronicler has itself become historical evidence. A. Shakhmatov made all the sources to some extent important and interesting for the modern historian, and we have no right to reject any source. It is only important to understand about what time the source under study can testify: about the time when it was compiled, or about the time about which he writes.

The same is true in literary criticism. Each work of art (if it is only artistic!) reflects the world of reality in its own creative perspectives. And these angles are subject to comprehensive study in connection with the specifics of a work of art and, above all, in their artistic whole. Studying the reflection of reality in a work of art, we should not limit ourselves to the question: "true or false" - and admire only fidelity, accuracy, correctness. The inner world of a work of art also has its own interconnected patterns, its own dimensions and its own meaning as a system.

Of course, and this is very important, the inner world of a work of art does not exist by itself and not for itself. He is not autonomous. It depends on reality, "reflects" the world of reality, but the transformation of this world, which allows a work of art, has a holistic and purposeful character. The transformation of reality is connected with the idea of the work, with the tasks that the artist sets for himself. The world of a work of art is the result of both a correct display and an active transformation of reality. In his work, the writer creates a certain space in which the action takes place. This space may be large, spanning a series of strange travel novels, or even extending beyond the terrestrial planet (in fantasy and romantic novels), but it may also shrink to the narrow confines of a single room. The space created by the author in his work may have peculiar "geographical" properties, be real (as in a chronicle or historical novel) or imaginary, as in a fairy tale. The writer in his work also creates the time in which the action of the work takes place. A work may span centuries or only hours. Time in a work can go quickly or slowly, intermittently or continuously, be intensely filled with events or flow lazily and remain “empty”, rarely “populated” with events.

Quite a few works are devoted to the issue of artistic time in the literature, although their authors often replace the study of the artistic time of a work with the study of the author’s views on the problem of time and make simple selections of writers’ statements about time, not noticing or not attaching importance to the fact that these statements may be in conflict. with the artistic time that the writer himself creates in his work 1.

1 For literature on artistic time and artistic space, see: D. S. Likhachev, Poetics ancient Russian literature, "Nauka", L. 1967, pp. 213-214 and 357. Additionally, I will indicate: Em. S t a i g s, Die Zeit als Einbil-dungskraft des Dichters. Untersuchungen zu Gedichton Von Brentano, Goethe und Kcllor, Ziirich, 1939, 1953, 1963; H. W e i n r i c h, Tempus. Besprochene und crzahltc Welt, Stuttgart, 1964.

Works can also have their own psychological world, not the psychology of individual characters, but the general laws of psychology that subjugate all characters, creating a “psychological environment” in which the plot unfolds. These laws may be different from the laws of psychology that exist in reality, and it is useless to look for exact matches in psychology textbooks or psychiatry textbooks. So, the heroes of a fairy tale have their own psychology: people and animals, as well as fantastic creatures. They have a special type of reaction to external events, special argumentation and special responses to the arguments of the antagonists. One psychology is characteristic of the heroes of Goncharov, another - of the characters of Proust, another - of Kafka, a very special one - of the characters of the annals or the lives of the saints. Psychology of historical characters Karamzin or romantic heroes Lermontov is also special. All these psychological worlds must be studied as a whole.

The same should be said about the social structure of the world of works of art, and this social structure of the artistic world of a work should be distinguished from the author's views on social issues and not confuse the study of this world with its scattered comparisons with the world of reality. The world of social relations in a work of art also requires study in its integrity and independence.

You can also study the world of history in some literary works: in the annals, in the tragedy of classicism, in historical novels of realistic trends, etc. And in this area, not only exact or inaccurate reproductions of the events of real history will be found, but also their own laws, according to which historical events, its own system of causality or "causelessness" of events - in a word, its own .. inner world of history. The task of studying this world of the history of the work is just as different from studying the writer's views on history, just as the study of artistic time is different from studying the artist's views on time. One can study Tolstoy's historical views as expressed in the well-known historical digressions of his novel War and Peace, but one can also study how the events in War and Peace unfold. These are two different tasks, although they are related. However, I think that the last task is more important, and the first serves only as a guide (far from being paramount) for the second. If Leo Tolstoy had been a historian and not a novelist, perhaps these two tasks would have been reversed in their significance. Curious, by the way, is one regularity that emerges when studying the difference between writers' views on history and its artistic depiction. As a historian (in his discussions on historical topics), the writer very often emphasizes the regularity of the historical process, but in his artistic practice he involuntarily emphasizes the role of chance in the fate of the historical and ordinary characters in his work. Let me remind you of the role of the hare sheepskin coat in the fate of Grinev and Pugachev in " Captain's daughter» at Pushkin. Pushkin the historian hardly agreed with Pushkin the artist on this.

The moral side of the world of a work of art is also very important and, like everything else in this world, has a direct “constructive” meaning. So, for example, the world of medieval works knows absolute good, but evil in it is relative. Therefore, a saint cannot not only become a villain, but even commit bad deed. If he did this, then he would not be a saint from a medieval point of view, then he would only pretend, be hypocritical, wait until the time, etc., etc. But any villain in the world of medieval works can change dramatically and become a saint. Hence a kind of asymmetry and "one-pointedness" of the moral world of the artistic works of the Middle Ages. This determines the originality of the action, the construction of plots (in particular, the lives of saints), the interested expectation of the reader of medieval works, etc. (the psychology of reader interest - the reader's "expectation" of continuation).

The moral world of works of art is constantly changing with the development of literature. Attempts to justify evil, to find objective reasons in it, to consider evil as a social or religious protest are characteristic of the works of the romantic direction (Byron, Njegosh, Lermontov, etc.). In classicism, evil and good, as it were, stand above the world and acquire a peculiar historical coloring. In realism, moral problems permeate everyday life, appear in thousands of aspects, among which social aspects steadily increase as realism develops. Etc.

Building materials for building the inner world of a work of art are taken from the reality surrounding the artist, but he creates his own world in accordance with his ideas about how this world was, is or should be.

The world of a work of art reflects reality at the same time indirectly and directly: indirectly through the artist’s vision, through his artistic representations, and directly, directly in cases where the artist unconsciously, without attaching artistic significance to this, transfers phenomena of reality or representations and concepts into the world he creates of his era.

I will give an example from the field of artistic time created in a literary work. This time of a work of art, as I have already said, can flow very quickly, “in jerks”, “nervously” (in Dostoevsky’s novels) or flow slowly and evenly (in Goncharov’s or Turgenev’s), mate with “eternity” (in ancient Russian chronicles), capture a larger or smaller range of phenomena. In all these cases, we are dealing with artistic time - time that indirectly reproduces real time, artistically transforming it. If, like us, the writer of modern times divides the day into 24 hours, and the chronicler - in accordance with church services - into 9, then there is no artistic "task" and meaning in this. This is a direct reflection of modern writer time reckoning, which is transferred from reality without changes. For us, of course, the first, artistically transformed time is important.

It is this that gives the possibility of creativity, creates the “maneuverability” necessary for the artist, allows you to create your own world, different from the world of another work, another writer, another literary movement, style, etc.

The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of "reduced", conditional version. The artist, building his world, cannot, of course, reproduce reality with the same degree of complexity inherent in reality. In the world of a literary work, there is not much of what is in the real world. This world is limited in its own way. Literature takes only certain phenomena of reality and then conventionally shortens or expands them, makes them more colorful or faded, organizes them stylistically, but at the same time, as already mentioned, creates its own system, an internally closed system with its own laws.

Literature "replays" reality. This “replaying” occurs in connection with those “style-forming” tendencies that characterize the work of this or that author, this or that literary trend or “style of the era”. These style-forming tendencies make the world of a work of art in some respects more diverse and richer than the world of reality, despite all its conditional brevity.

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The inner world of a work of art exists, of course, and this is very important, not by itself and not for itself. He is not autonomous. It depends on reality, “reflects” the world of reality, but the artistic transformation of this world that art makes has a holistic and purposeful character. The transformation of reality is connected with the idea of a work, with the tasks that the artist sets for himself. The world of a work of art is not a phenomenon of passive perception of reality, but of its active transformation, sometimes more, sometimes less.
In his work, the writer creates a certain space in which the action takes place. This space can be large, encompassing a number of countries (in a travel novel) or even go beyond the boundaries of the earthly planet (in fantasy and romantic novels), but it can also narrow down to the narrow boundaries of a single room. The space created by the author in his work may have peculiar "geographical" properties; be real (as in a chronicle or historical novel) or imaginary (as in a fairy tale).
It can have certain properties, one way or another "organize" the action of the work. The last property of artistic space is especially important for literature and folklore. The fact is that space in verbal art is directly connected with artistic time. It is dynamic. It creates an environment for movement, and it itself changes, moves. This movement (in movement unites space and time)" can be easy or difficult, fast or slow, it can be associated with a known resistance of the environment and with cause-and-effect relationships.
ARTISTIC SPACE FAIRY TALE
One of the main features of the inner world of a Russian fairy tale is the low resistance of the material environment in it, the "superconductivity" of its space. And another fairy-tale specificity is connected with this: the construction of the plot, the system of images, etc.
But first of all, I will explain what I mean by "environmental resistance" in the inner world of a work of art. Any action in a work of art can meet more or less resistance from the environment. In this regard, the actions in the work can be fast or inhibited, slow. They can capture more or less space. The resistance of the medium can be uniform and non-uniform. In this regard, the action, encountering unexpected obstacles or not encountering obstacles, can be sometimes uneven, sometimes even and calm (quietly fast or calmly slow). In general, depending on the resistance of the environment, actions can be very diverse in nature.
Some works will be characterized by the ease of fulfilling the wishes of the characters at low potential barriers, while others will be characterized by the difficulty and height of potential barriers. One can therefore speak of varying degrees of predictability of the course of events in individual works, which is extremely important for studying the conditions that determine "interesting reading." Such phenomena as "turbulence", "drag crisis", "fluidity", "kinematic viscosity", "diffusion", "entropy", etc. the world of a literary work, its artistic space, environment.
In the Russian fairy tale, the resistance of the environment is almost absent. The heroes move at an extraordinary speed, and their path is not difficult and not easy: “he rides the road, rides a wide one, and ran into the golden feather of the Firebird.” The obstacles that the hero meets along the way are only plot, but not natural, not natural. The physical environment of the fairy tale itself, as it were, knows no resistance. Therefore, formulas like "it is said and done" are so frequent in the fairy tale. The fairy tale has no psychological inertia either. The hero knows no hesitation: he decided - and did it, thought - and went. All decisions of the heroes are also quick and are made without much thought. The hero sets out on a journey and reaches the goal without fatigue, road inconvenience, illness, random, unrelated, passing meetings, etc. The road in front of the hero is usually “straight ahead” and “wide”; if she can sometimes be “bewitched”, it is not because of her natural state, but because someone has bewitched her. The field in the fairy tale is wide. The sea does not hinder shipbuilders by itself. Only when the hero's opponent intervenes does a storm rise. The resistance of the environment can only be “purposeful” and functional, plot-conditioned.
Therefore, space in a fairy tale does not serve as a hindrance to action. Any distance does not interfere with the development of a fairy tale. They only bring into it the scale, significance, a kind of pathos. The significance of what is being done is estimated by space.
In the fairy tale, it is not the inertia of the environment that makes itself felt, but offensive forces and, at the same time, mainly “spiritual” ones: there is a struggle of ingenuity, a struggle of intentions, magical powers sorcery. Intentions do not meet the resistance of the environment, but collide with other intentions, often unmotivated. Therefore, obstacles in a fairy tale cannot be foreseen - they are sudden. This is a kind of ball game: the ball is thrown, it is beaten off, but the flight of the ball itself in space does not meet air resistance and does not know the force of gravity. Everything that happens in the fairy tale is unexpected: “they drove, they drove, and suddenly ...”, “they walked, walked and saw a river ...” (L. N. Afanasyev. Folk Russian fairy tales, No. 260). The action of the tale seems to meet the desires of the hero: as soon as the hero thought of how to exterminate his enemy, Baba Yaga gives him advice (Afanasiev, No. 212). If the heroine needs to run, she takes a flying carpet, sits on it and rushes on it like a bird (Afanasiev, No. 267). Money is obtained in a fairy tale not by labor, but by chance: someone instructs the hero to dig it out from under a damp oak (Afanasiev, No. 259). Everything the hero does, he does on time. The heroes of the tale seem to be waiting for each other. The hero needs to go to the king - he runs straight to him, and the king seems to be already waiting for him, he is in place, you don’t have to ask him to accept or wait (Afanasiev, No. 212). In a fight, a fight, a duel, the heroes also do not offer each other long-term resistance, and the outcome of the duel is decided not so much by physical strength as by intelligence, cunning or magic.
The dynamic lightness of a fairy tale finds its correspondence in the ease with which the characters understand each other, in the fact that animals can speak, and trees can understand the words of the hero. The hero himself not only moves easily, but also easily turns into animals, plants, and objects. The hero's failures are usually the result of his mistake, forgetfulness, disobedience, the fact that someone deceived or bewitched him.
Very rarely, failure is the result of the hero's physical weakness, his illness, fatigue, and the severity of the task before him. Everything in a fairy tale is done easily and immediately - “like in a fairy tale”.
The dynamic lightness of a fairy tale leads to an extreme expansion of its artistic space. The hero, in order to accomplish a feat, travels to distant lands, to a distant state. He finds the heroine "at the end of the world." Sagittarius-well done gets the king's bride - Vasilisa the princess - "at the very end of the world" (Afanasiev, No. 169). Each feat is performed in a new place. The action of the tale is the hero's journey through big world fairy tales. Here is "The Tale of Ivan Tsarevich, the Firebird and the Gray Wolf" (Afanasiev, No. 168). At first, the action of this tale takes place "in a certain kingdom, in a certain state." Here Ivan Tsarevich accomplishes his first feat - he gets the feather of the Firebird. For the second feat, he goes, "not knowing himself where he is going." From the place of his second feat, Ivan Tsarevich travels again, to accomplish his third feat, "to distant lands, to a distant state." Then he moves to perform his fourth feat for new distant lands.
The space of a fairy tale is extraordinarily large, it is boundless, infinite, but at the same time it is closely connected with the action, not independently, but also has nothing to do with real space.
As we will see later, the space in the chronicle is also very large. The action in the annals is easily transferred from one geographical point to another. The chronicler in one line of his chronicle can report what happened in Novgorod, in another - about what happened in Kyiv, and in the third - about the events in Constantinople. But in the annals, geographic space is real. We even guess (although not always) in which city the chronicler writes, and we know exactly where the real events take place in the real geographical space with real cities and villages. The space of a fairy tale does not correspond to the space in which the storyteller lives and where listeners listen to the fairy tale. It is very special, different from the space of sleep.
And from this point of view, the fairy-tale formula that accompanies the actions of the hero is very important: "is it close, is it far, is it low, is it high." This formula also has a continuation, which is already connected with the artistic time of the fairy tale: “soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the deed is done.” The time of the fairy tale also does not correlate with real time. It is not known whether the events of the tale took place long ago or recently. Time in a fairy tale is special - “fast”. An event can take place for thirty years and three years, but it can also take place in one day. There is no particular difference. Heroes do not get bored, do not languish, do not grow old, do not get sick. Real time has no power over them. Powerful only event time. There is only a sequence of events, and this sequence of events is artistic time fairy tales. But the story cannot go back, nor skip over the sequence of events. The action is unidirectional, and artistic time is closely connected with it.
Due to the peculiarities of artistic space and artistic time, the fairy tale has exceptionally favorable conditions for the development of action. Action in a fairy tale is accomplished more easily than in any other genre of folklore.
The ease with which all actions are performed in a fairy tale is, as it is easy to see, in direct connection with the magic of the fairy tale. Actions in a fairy tale not only do not meet with the resistance of the environment, they are also facilitated by various forms of magic and magical objects: a flying carpet, a self-assembled tablecloth, a magic ball, a magic mirror, Finist Yasna Sokol’s feather, a wonderful shirt, etc. In the fairy tale “Come there - I don’t know where, bring it - I don’t know what” (Afanasiev, No. 212) a magic ball rolls in front of the hero of a fairy tale - an archer: “... where the river meets, the ball will be thrown over by a bridge; where the archer wants to rest, there the ball will spread like a downy bed. These magical helpers also include the so-called "helping animals" (gray wolf, humpbacked horse, etc.), the magic word that the hero knows, living and dead water, etc.
Comparing this magical relief of the characters' actions with the absence of environmental resistance in the tale, we can see that these two essential properties of the tale are not of the same nature. One phenomenon is obviously of an earlier origin, the other of a later one. I suppose that magic in a fairy tale is not primary, but secondary. It was not the absence of environmental resistance that was added to magic, but the very absence of environmental resistance demanded its “justification” and explanation in magic.
Magic invaded the fairy tale more than any other genre of folklore in order to give a “real” explanation - why the hero is transported from place to place with such speed, why certain events take place in the fairy tale that are incomprehensible to the mind, which has already begun to look for explanations and does not satisfied with the statement of what is happening.
Paradoxical as it may seem, but magic in a fairy tale is an element of a “materialistic explanation” of the miraculous ease with which individual events, transformations, escapes, feats, finds, etc. take place in a fairy tale. spells, incantations, etc., are not miracles themselves, but only "explanations" of the miraculous lightness of the inner world of a fairy tale. The absence of environmental resistance, the constant overcoming of the laws of nature in a fairy tale is also a kind of miracle that required its own explanation. This "explanation" was all the "technical armament" of the tale: magic items, helper animals, magical properties of trees, witchcraft, etc.
The primacy of the absence of environmental resistance and the secondary nature of magic in a fairy tale can be supported by the following consideration. The environment in a fairy tale has no resistance as a whole. The magic in it explains only some and at the same time an insignificant part of the wonderful lightness of the fairy tale. If magic were primary, then the absence of environmental resistance would occur in a fairy tale only on the path of this magic. Meanwhile, in a fairy tale, events very often develop with extraordinary ease "just like that", without having an explanation by magic. So, for example, in the fairy tale "The Frog Princess" (Afanasiev, No. 267), the tsar orders his three sons to shoot an arrow, and "as a woman brings an arrow, that is the bride." All three arrows of sons are brought by women: the first two are “princely daughter and general’s daughter”, and only the third arrow is brought by the princess turned into a frog by witchcraft. But neither the king has witchcraft when he offers his sons to find brides in this way, nor the first two brides. Witchcraft does not "cover", does not explain by itself all the miracles of a fairy tale. All these invisibility hats and flying carpets are “small” in a fairy tale. Therefore, they are clearly the latest.
ARTISTIC SPACE IN OLD RUSSIAN LITERATURE
The space of the fairy tale is very close to the space of ancient Russian literature.
The forms of artistic space in ancient Russian literature do not have such a variety as the forms of artistic time. They don't change by genre. In general, they do not belong only to literature and, on the whole, are the same in painting, in architecture, in chronicles, in hagiographies, in preaching literature, and even in everyday life. The latter does not exclude their artistic nature - on the contrary, it speaks of the power of aesthetic perception and aesthetic awareness of the world. The world is subordinated in the consciousness of a medieval person to a single spatial scheme, all-encompassing, indestructible and, as it were, reducing all distances, in which there are no individual points of view on this or that object, but there is, as it were, an overworld awareness of it - such a religious rise above reality that allows you to see reality not only in a huge scope, but also in its strong decrease.
Perhaps the easiest way to show this medieval perception of space is through examples of fine art. It has already been written above (pp. 604-605) that ancient Russian art did not know perspective in the modern sense of the word. For there was no single individual spectator's point of view on the world. There was still no "window to the world" opened by Renaissance artists. The artist did not look at the world from any one, immovable position. He did not embody his point of view in the picture. Each depicted object was reproduced from the point from which it was most convenient for viewing. Therefore, in a picture (in an icon, in a fresco or mosaic composition, etc.) there were as many points of view as there were individual objects of the image in it. At the same time, the unity of the image was not lost: it was achieved by a strict hierarchy of the depicted. This hierarchy provided for the subordination of secondary objects to primary ones in the picture. This subordination was achieved both by the ratio of the sizes of the depicted objects, and by the turn of the depicted objects towards the viewer. Indeed, how is the ratio of the magnitudes of the depicted objects built in the icon? Closest to the viewer is what is more important - Christ, the Mother of God, saints, etc. Stepping back and greatly reduced in size, buildings are depicted (sometimes even those inside which the depicted event should take place), trees. The reduction in size does not occur proportionally, but through a certain kind of schematization: not only the crown of the tree decreases, but also the number of leaves in this crown - sometimes up to two, three.
The miniatures depict the whole city, but it is reduced to one highly schematized city tower.
The tower, as it were, replaces the city. This is the symbol of the city. Household furnishings (table, chair, couch, crockery, etc.) decrease relative to human figures relatively little: both are too closely interconnected. AT real ratios horses are depicted with a man. Meanwhile, the size of secondary saints (secondary not in general, but in their significance in the icon) decreases, and the objects associated with them (weapons, chairs, horses, etc.) are reduced strictly in proportion to them.
As a result, a certain hierarchy of image sizes is created inside the icon.
This makes the world of the icon different from the rest of the world. Therefore, an icon is a “thing”, an “object”. The image on the icon is written on the object (a painting on canvas is not a thing, but an image). The icon has a thickness underlined by the husk. The frame is not in the picture, not on the canvas, it is separated from the image, it frames the image; on the contrary, the fields in the icon are part of the icon, connected with the image. Therefore, in the icon the entire image is compact, the composition is saturated, there is no “air”, there is no free space that could connect the image on the icon with the rest of the world.
Another technique for combining the image depicted into a whole is as follows: the objects, as I said, turn towards the center (located a little in front of the icon), towards the person praying (the person praying, and not just the viewer). An icon is, first of all, an object of worship, and this should not be forgotten when analyzing its artistic system. The depicted faces, as it were, are turned towards the person who is praying. They are in contact with him: either they look directly at the person praying, as if “coming” to him, or they are slightly turned towards him even when, according to the meaning of the plot, they should address each other (for example, in the scene of “Candlemas”, in the composition of "The Nativity of Christ", "Annunciation", etc.). But this applies only to Christ, the Mother of God, the saints. Demons never look at the viewer. They are always turned to him in profile. Judas is also turned in profile: he also should not be in contact with the one who is praying. Angels can also be turned in profile (in the scene of the Annunciation, the evangelizing archangel Gabriel can be turned in profile to the praying one). Buildings and household items are facing the worshiper. The whole composition is addressed to the one who stands in front of the icon. With all its content, the icon seeks to establish a spiritual connection with the one who is praying, to “answer” him to his prayer. Since the praying person outside the icon serves as the center to which the image depicted on the icon is turned, the appearance of a “reverse perspective” is created in the image of individual objects and buildings. This last term is far from being accurate, since the medieval perspective was by no means preceded by any "correct", "straight" perspective. But he conveys the external effect of depicting objects that, taken separately, really reveal themselves as if in the opposite way to how it is accepted in modern times: their parts that are most distant from the viewer are larger than those that are closer to him. So, the edge of the table closest to the viewer is usually shown smaller than the edge farthest from it. The front of the building is smaller than the back.
(1) On the "contact" of the image with the viewer, see Mathew G. Byzantine Aesthetics. London, 1963. P. 107.
(2) The concept of "reverse perspective" was introduced by O. Wolf. Cm.: . Die ungekehrte Perspektive und die Niedersicht. Leipzig, 1908. A. Grabar quite correctly, it seems to me, explains the “reverse perspective” from the philosophy of Plotinus, according to which the visual impression is created not in the soul, but where the object is located (Grabar A. Plotin et les origines de l "esthetique medieval. Cahiers Archeologiques, fasc. 1. Paris, 1945. A. Grabar believes that the medieval artist considers the object as if it were in the place occupied by the depicted object. On perspective in Byzantine painting, see: Michelis P. A. Esthetique de l "art Byzantin. Paris, 1959. P. 179-203. Our considerations about the inaccuracy of the term "reverse perspective" were received in the first edition of this book (1967). confirmation in the very important detailed observations of B. V. Raushenbakh “Spatial constructions in ancient Russian painting” (M., 1975), in particular in the special chapter of this book “Reverse perspective” (p. 50-80), the entire bibliography is also indicated there question.
Buildings, tables, chairs, beds are usually arranged in the image so that they seem to be directed towards the viewer, converge on it with their horizontal lines. In addition to people, the rest of the world of the icon is depicted slightly from above, from a bird's eye view. The objects are both turned towards the worshiper and, as it were, turned in front of him in such a way that they seem to be shown somewhat from above. This image from above is also emphasized by the fact that the horizon line in icons is often raised; it is for the most part higher than in the painting of modern times. But in this kind of image there is no strict system. Each object is depicted independently of the other, from "its own", as I said, point of view.
In illusionistic ("perspective") painting, the plane of the picture is the screen onto which the world is projected. Perspective in painting destroys the materiality of the picture. It's like a "pre-invention" of a magic lantern. In a "multi-point" perspective, on the contrary, the plane is material. That is why it is not on canvas, not on any other "two-dimensional" material, but on wood or a wall; that is why the image plane does not destroy the plane of that “thing”, “object”, on which the image is placed.
Of particular importance for artistic perception spaces in Ancient Russia had methods of its reduction. Icons, fresco compositions, miniatures included huge spaces. The miniatures of the Radzivilov Chronicle simultaneously depict two cities or "the entire city, astronomical phenomena, the desert in general, two troops and the river separating them, etc., etc. The coverage of geographical limits is unusually wide - it is wide due to the fact that medieval man strives to cover the world as fully and as widely as possible, reducing it in one's perception, creating a "model" of the world - like a microcosm. And this is constant. A man of the Middle Ages always, as it were, feels the countries of the world - east, west, south and north; he feels his position relative to them. Each church was facing the altar to the east. In his own house, in his own hut, he hung icons in the eastern corner - and he called this corner "red". Even the dead were lowered into the grave facing east. In accordance with the countries of the world, they were located in the world hell and paradise: heaven in the east, hell in the west.The system of church murals corresponded to these ideas about the world.The church, in its murals, reproduced the structure of the universe and its history, was a microcosm. History was also arranged according to the cardinal points: ahead, in the east, were the beginning of the world and paradise, behind, in the west, the end of the world, its future, and the Last Judgment. The movement of history follows the movement of the sun: from east to west. Geography and history were in line with each other.
John, Exarch of Bulgaria, writes about the state of a person standing in a church at prayer: , in those red messes. And shame (a spectacle. - D. L.) you see marvelous, and fun. Yes, what a mind this soul is in this mortal body, and brought a temple over itself, having a cover, and over that packs of air, and ether (ether. - D.L.), and the whole heaven. And there with your thought you ascend to the invisible God. How did the mind fly through the temple and all that height, and the heavens, rather than having arrived at the sight ... ".
But the vastness of the image in a literary work required, just as in the icon, the compactness of the image, its “abbreviated ™”. The writer, like the artist, sees the world in relative terms. Here is how, for example, Christ and the universe are related in the word of Cyril of Turov “In the week of color”. Cyril says about Christ: "Today the way to Jerusalem, measuring the sky and the earth with a span of a hand, into the church to enter into the heavens." Cyril imagines Christ as on an icon - more than the world around him.
Lotman has a significant article on geographical representations in ancient Russian texts. We will not state its content: the reader himself can familiarize himself with it. For us, one of her conclusions is important: geographical and ethical ideas were also connected with each other. Apparently, this is due to the fact that ideas about eternity were combined with ideas about immortality. The world therefore turned out to be populated and, I would even say, overpopulated by beings and events (especially events of sacred history) of the past and future. In the microcosm of medieval man, the future (“the end of the world”) already exists - in the west, the sacred past still exists - in the east. Above is the sky and everything divine. These ideas about the world were reproduced in the arrangement and paintings of temples. Standing in the church, the worshiper saw the whole world around him: heaven, earth and their connections with each other. The church symbolized heaven on earth. To rise above the ordinary was the need of a medieval man.
(1) Shestodnev, compiled by John, Exarch of Bulgaria, according to the charate list of the Moscow Synodal Library of 1263. M., 1879. L. 199.
(2) Lotman Yu. M. On the concept of geographical space in Russian medieval texts // Works on sign systems. II. Tartu, 1965, pp. 210-216. (Uchen. Notes of Tartu University. Issue 181).
Let's turn to literature.
Events in the annals, in the lives of saints, in historical stories are mainly movements in space: campaigns and crossings, covering vast geographical areas, victories as a result of the transfer of troops and transitions as a result of the defeat of the army, moving to and from Russia of saints and shrines, arrivals as a result of the invitation of the prince and his departures - as the equivalent of his exile. The occupation of a position by a prince or abbot, a bishop is conceived in the same way as an arrival, ascension to the table. When the abbot is deprived of his position, they say about him that he was "driven" out of the monastery. When the prince is put on the throne, it is reported about him that he was "erected" on the table. Death is also conceived as a transition to another world - to a "breed" (paradise) or hell, and birth - as a coming into the world. Life is a manifestation of oneself in space.
This is a journey on a ship among the sea of \u200b\u200blife. When a person enters a monastery, this “departure from the world” is presented mainly as a transition to immobility, to the cessation of all transitions, as a renunciation of the eventful course of life. Tongue is associated with a vow to remain in a holy place until the grave. In those rare cases when the chronicle speaks of a historical figure that he thought, this is also presented in spatial forms: with the mind and thought they fly, they rise to the clouds.
Thinking is compared to the flight of a bird. When Theodosius of the Caves planned to go to Anthony of the Caves, he rushed to his cave, "inspired by the mind."
John, the Bulgarian Exarch, admiringly describes a person’s thought about the world: “In how small a body a thought is lofty, offending the whole earth and ascending above the heavens. Where is the mind of that one brought? How will it come out and pass from the body, the blood will pass on itself, the air and clouds will blow, the sun and the moon, and all the belts, and the stars, and the same and all the heavens. And in that hour he will find packs in his body. Will you take off Kyma with wings? Is it the way to arrive? I can't trace!
(1) Shestodnev, compiled by John, exarch of Bulgaria ... L. 196-196v.; in the same place about the "soaring of thought" on l. 199, 212, 216. Cf. in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign": "... it spreads with thought on the tree, with a gray wail on the ground, with a chiseled eagle under the clouds", "flying with the mind under the clouds."
The plot of the story is very often the “arrival” and “arrival” of either the Varangian Shimon from Scandinavia (the beginning of the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon), or the masters from Tsargrad (the story of the construction of the Assumption Church in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery). When Vladimir Monomakh talks about his life, he talks mainly about his "paths", campaigns and hunts associated with large journeys. He seeks to calculate all his moves, stays in different cities. Big life means big transitions.
Vladimir Monomakh begins to tell his life from the moment when his first "paths" began, from the age of 13: and the 2nd packs to Smolinsk with Headquarters with Gordyatich, that packs and departed for Berestia with Izyaslav, and the ambassador Smolinsk then and Smolinsk went to Volodimer. Toe of the winter of that brother Berestia was sweetened on a smut, where they burned the biakha lyakhov, that city is quiet. That idoh Pereyaslavl father, and according to Velitsa the days of Pereyaslavl and Volodymyr - to create peace on Suteiska from the Poles. From there, packs for the summer Volodimer again. That sent me Svyatoslav to Lyakhy; walking behind the Glogovs to the Czech forest, walking in their lands for 4 months ... ”And this is how the whole life is described. He tries to celebrate each of his moves, is proud of their speed and quantity: “And I-Schernigov did not go to Kiev (more than a hundred times. - D. L.) I went to my father, in the afternoon I moved until vespers. And all the ways are 80 and 3 great, but I won’t remember the smaller ones for the time being.
This describes not only the life of a prince, but also the life of a saint, unless he is a monk who has renounced life. “Blessed Boris ... went away with a howl to the army and did not know all that. The warriors, as if they had heard the blessed Boris, walking with a howl, running away: not daring to be blessed. Tache reached, blessed, having pacified all the cities, return back. I’m going to him, having told him the dead father, the brother of the elder Svyatopolk, sitting on the father’s table. in the campaign, Boris was killed by assassins sent by Svyatopolk. After death, his body is again, as it were, on a campaign: they carry it, bring it to Vyshgorod. In the campaign, Gleb is killed and his body is “weared out”, “thrown” in the desert “under the treasure”, carried “in the ship”. In a swift flight, their killer Svyatopolk dies - in the desert between "Chakhy and Lyakhy". The distances are enormous, the movements are swift, and the speed of these crossings is even more increased because they are not described, they are spoken of without any details. The actors in the chronicle are transferred from place to place, and the reader forgets about the difficulties of these transitions - they are schematized, they have as few “elements” as in medieval images of trees, cities, rivers.
(1) Laurentian Chronicle under 1097
(2) Lives of St. martyrs Boris and Gleb ... S. 8.
The feeling of a "bird's eye view" from which the chronicler conducts his narration is enhanced because, without a visible pragmatic connection, the chronicler often combines a story about various events in various places of the Russian land. He is constantly moving from place to place.
It costs him nothing, briefly reporting on the event in Kyiv, in the next phrase to say about the event in Smolensk or Vladimir. For him there is no distance. In any case, the distances do not interfere with his narrative.
“In the summer of 6619. Ide Svyatoplk, Volodimer, Davyd and the whole land is simply Russian on Polovtsy, and I won, and taking their children, and the city along Dnovi Surtov and Sharukan. At the same time, Podolia burned down Kiev, and Tsyrnigov, and Smolnsk, and Novgorod. That same summer John, Bishop of Chernigov, reposed. Tom same summer go Mstislav to Ochela.
In the summer of 6620.
In the summer of 6621. Yaroslav went to the Yatvyags, the son of Svyatoplch; and come from the warrior, singing the daughter of Mstislavl. The same summer, Svyatoplk reposed, and Volodymyr sat on the table of Kiev. In the same summer, David Igorevich reposed. For seven years, defeat Mstislav on Bora Chud. In the same summer, the church of St. Nicholas was founded in Novgorod. In the same summer it burned down, on the same side the city of Kromny, from Lukin's fire.
In the summer of 6622. Repose Svyatoslav Pereyaslavli. In the same summer, Fektist was appointed Bishop of Chernigova.
In the summer of 6623. The brothers of Vyshegorod came together: Volodymyr, Olga, Davyd, and the whole Russian land, and consecrated the church to the stone of May at 1, and at 2, transferring Boris and Gleb, indict at 8. In the same summer, there was a sign in the sun, as if dying . And in the autumn, Olga, the son of Svyatoslavl, reposed, on August 1. And in Novgorod, the whole horse was killed by Mstislav and his squad. In the same summer, lay the foundation of the Church of St. Theodore Tiron in Voigost, April 28.
(1) Novgorod First Chronicle according to the Synodal list.
The vast coverage of space in the annals is in visible connection with the absence of a clear storyline. The presentation moves from one event to another, and at the same time from one geographical point to another. In this mixture of news from different geographical points, not only a religious rise above reality, but also the consciousness of the unity of the Russian land, a unity that was almost lost in the political sphere at that time, appears with complete distinctness.
The Russian land of the chronicle appears before the reader as if in the form of a geographical map - a medieval one, of course, in which cities are sometimes replaced by their symbols - patronal churches, where Novgorod is spoken of as Sophia, Chernigov as the Savior, etc. events, the medieval scribe looks at the country as if from above. The entire Russian land fits in the author's field of vision. Here, for example, is a description of the Russian land in The Tale of Bygone Years: “A glade who lived in a person along these mountains, be the way from the Varangians to the Greeks and from the Greeks along the Dnieper, and dragged the top of the Dnieper to Lovot, and along Lovot enter Ylmer, the lake great, from the same lake the Volkhov will flow and flow into the great lake Nevo, and that lake will enter the mouth into the Varangian Sea. And go along that sea to Rome, and from Rome go along the same sea to Tsaryugorod, and from Tsaryagorod go to the Pont-more, but the Dnieper river will flow into it. The Dnieper will flow from the Okovsky forest, and flow at noon, and the Dvina will flow from the same forest, and go at midnight and enter the Varangian Sea. From the same forest, the Volga will flow to the east, and seventy bellies will flow into the Khvalsky Sea. In the same way, from Russia you can go along the Volza to the Bolgars and Khvalisy, and go east to the lot of the Sims, and along the Dvina to the Varangians, from the Varangians to Rome, from Rome to the Khamov tribe. And the Dnieper to flow into the Ponet Sea with a chute, to catch the Russian sea, according to which St. Ondrei, brother Petrov, taught, as if deciding ... ". The "active" character of this picture of the Russian land is essential. This is not a fixed map - it is a description of future actions historical figures, their "ways" and intercourse. The main element of this description is river routes, routes of campaigns and trade, "routes of events", a description of the position of the Russian land among other countries of the world. This impression is intensified because before that the chronicler gives a description of the world, talks about the settlement of peoples throughout the earth. The feeling of the whole world, its vastness, the Russian land as part of the universe does not leave the chronicler in the further presentation.
It is no coincidence that the glory that surrounds the most significant princes and their deeds is conceived in a movement that embraces the entire Russian land and its neighbors. When Monomakh died, his "rumour spread throughout all countries," and his son Mstislav "driven the Polovtsians beyond the Don and the Volga, beyond Yaik."
(1) The Tale of Bygone Years. Ed. V. P. Adrianovoi-Peretz. T. 1. M.; L., 1950. S. 11-12.
(2) Ipatiev Chronicle under 1126
(3) Ibid., under 1140.
The description of the borders of the Russian land is the main element of the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”, the glory of Alexander Nevsky is said in the life of Alexander Nevsky on a geographical scale: “His name is heard byst in all countries from the Varyaskago sea to the Pontsky sea, to the country of Tiverska, obu country Give the mountains of Gavatsky even to the great Rome, fearing his name spread before the darkness of the darkness and before a thousand thousand. ”
The glory of Prince Boris Alexandrovich of Tver has passed "the whole earth and at the end of it" ("Monk Thomas A Word of Praise for the Blessed Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich"). Boris Alexandrovich is glorified as a builder of cities and monasteries. His ambassador, going to the ecumenical council, passed through Novgorod land, and then Pskov, “and from there to German land, and from there to Kurva land, and from there to Zhmotsky land, and from there to Prussian land, and from there to Slovenian land, and from there to Zhyubutskaya land, and from there to the Morskaya land, and from there to the Zhunskaya land, and from there to the Sveiskaya land, and from there to Florenza. Geography is given by enumerations of countries, rivers, cities, frontier lands.
The ornate “Life of Stephen of Perm”, written by Epiphanius the Wise, uses the enumeration of the peoples living around the Perm land, and the enumeration of the rivers as a kind of rhetorical decoration: “And these are the names of the place and the countries, and the lands, and the foreigner living around Perm: Ustyuzhan, Vilezhany, Vychezhane, Penezhane, Southerners, Syryan, Galicians, Vyatchyans, Lop, Korela, Yugra, Pechera, Gogulichi, Samoyed, Pertasy, Perm Velikaa, verb Chyusovaya. The river is one, its name is Vym, and it goes around the whole land of Perm and into Vychegda. The river is a friend, named Vychegda, emanating from the land of Perm and marching to the northern country, and with its mouth into the Dvina, the city of Ustyug for 50 fields ... "etc.
(1) Mansikka V. Life of Alexander Nevsky. SPb., 1913. Application. S. 11.
(2) Monk Thomas A commendable word about the noble Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich. N. P. Likhachev's message. SPb., 1908. S. 5.
(3) Life of Stephen of Perm ... S. 9.
It is characteristic that in The Tale of Igor's Campaign we meet with the same idea of space as in all other works of ancient Russian literature. The scene of the "Word" is the entire Russian land from Novgorod in the north to Tmutorokan in the south, from the Volga in the east to the Ugrian mountains in the west.
The world of the Word is Big world easy, uncomplicated action, the world of rapidly occurring events unfolding in a vast space. The heroes of The Word move with fantastic speed and act almost effortlessly. Point of view prevails; from above (cf. "raised horizon" in ancient Russian miniatures and icons). The author sees the Russian land as if from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if "flies with his mind under the clouds", "prowls through the fields to the mountains."
In this lightest of worlds, as soon as the horses begin to neigh behind the Sula, the glory of victory is already ringing in Kyiv; the trumpets will only begin to sound in Novgorod-Seversky, as the banners are already in Putivl - the troops are ready to march. The girls sing on the Danube - their voices wind across the sea to Kyiv (the road from the Danube was sea); The author easily transfers the story from one area to another. Heard in the distance and the ringing of bells.
He reaches Kyiv from Polotsk. And even the sound of a stirrup is heard in Chernigov from Tmutorokan. The speed with which the characters move is characteristic: animals and birds rush, jump, rush, huge ones fly; space; people roam the fields like a wolf, are transported, hanging on a cloud, soar like eagles. As soon as you mount a horse, as you can already see Don, it definitely does not exist; many days and laborious transition through the waterless steppe. The prince can fly "from afar". He can soar high, spreading in the winds. His thunderstorms flow through the lands. Yaroslavna is compared with a bird and wants to fly over a bird. Warriors are light as falcons and jackdaws. They are living shereshirs - arrows. Heroes not only move with ease, but effortlessly stab and cut enemies. They are strong as animals: tours, pardus, wolves. For Kuryans there is no difficulty and no effort. They gallop with strained bows (stretching a bow in a gallop is unusually difficult), their bodies are open and their sabers are sharp. They run around in the field Gray wolves. They know the paths and the yarugas. Vsevolod's warriors can scatter the Volga with their oars and pour out the Don with their helmets.
People are not only strong, like animals, and light, like birds - all actions are performed in the "Word" without much physical stress, as if by themselves. The winds easily carry arrows. As soon as fingers fall on the strings, they themselves rumble glory. In this atmosphere of ease of any action, the hyperbolic exploits of Vsevolod Bui Tur become possible.
The special dynamism of the Lay is also associated with this “light” space. The author of The Lay prefers dynamic descriptions to static ones. It describes actions, not stationary states. Speaking of nature, he does not give landscapes, but describes the reaction of nature to events occurring in people. He describes the approaching thunderstorm, the help of nature in Igor's flight, the behavior of birds and animals, the sadness of nature or its joy. Nature in the Lay is not the background of events, not the scenery in which the action takes place - it is itself the character, something like an ancient choir.
Nature reacts to events as a kind of "narrator", expresses the author's opinion and author's emotions.
The "lightness" of space and environment in the "Word" is not in everything similar to the "lightness" of a fairy tale. It is closer to the "lightness" of the icon. The space in the "Word" is artistically reduced, "grouped" and symbolized. People react to events in masses, peoples act as a single whole: Germans, Venetians, Greeks and Moravians sing the glory of Svyatoslav and the "cabins" of Prince Igor. As a single whole, like "coups" of people on the icons, gothic red maidens, Polovtsy, and a squad act in the "Word". As on icons, the actions of the princes are symbolic and emblematic. Igor disembarked from the golden saddle and moved into the saddle of Koshchei: this symbolizes his new state of captivity. On the river on Kayala, darkness covers the light - and this symbolizes defeat. Abstract concepts - grief, resentment, glory - are personified and materialized, acquire the ability to act as people or living and inanimate nature. Resentment rises and enters the land of Troyan as a virgin, splashes with swan wings, lies awaken and are lulled to sleep, joy droops, tightness fills the mind, it ascends the Russian land, strife is sown and grows, sadness flows, melancholy spills.
"Light" space corresponds to the humanity of the surrounding nature. Everything in space is interconnected not only physically, but also emotionally and morally.
Nature sympathizes with the Russians. Animals, birds, plants, rivers, atmospheric phenomena (thunderstorms, winds, clouds) take part in the fate of Russian people. The sun shines for the prince, but the night groans for him, warning him of danger. Div shouts so that the Volga, Pomorye, Posulye, Surozh, Korsun and Tmutorokan can hear him. The grass droops, the tree bows to the ground with tightness. Even the walls of cities respond to events.
This method of characterizing events and expressing the author's attitude towards them is extremely characteristic of the Lay, giving it emotionality and, at the same time, a special persuasiveness of this emotionality. It is, as it were, an appeal to the environment: to people, nations, to nature itself.
Emotionality, as if not authorial, but objectively existing in the environment, is “spilled” in space, flows in it.
Thus, emotionality does not come from the author, the “emotional perspective” is multifaceted, as in icons. Emotionality is, as it were, inherent in the events themselves and nature itself. She pervades everything around her. The author acts as a spokesman for the emotionality objectively existing outside of him.
All this is not in the fairy tale, but much is suggested in the Lay by the annals and other works of ancient Russian literature.
In the XVI and XVII centuries. the perception of geographical spaces is gradually changing. Hiking and crossings are filled with travel experiences and events. The ordeals of Avvakum are still connected with his travels, but the event side of his life is no longer reduced to them. Avvakum no longer lists his journeys, as Monomakh does, he describes them. Avvakum's movements in Siberia and Russia are filled with a rich content of emotional experiences, meetings, and spiritual struggle. Avvakum compares his life with the ship that he dreamed of in a dream, but his life is not limited to the movements of this ship in space. Avvakum's life would have been no less eventful even if he had not traveled anywhere, remained in Moscow or some other point in the Russian land. He looks at the world not from a height below the clouds, but from the height of ordinary human growth: the world of Avvakum is human in its spatial forms.
Filled with details, literary works of the 17th century. they no longer consider events from the height of a religious upsurge above life. In reality, small and large events, everyday life, spiritual movements become distinguishable. In literature, the individual character appears not only of individual people, regardless of their position in the hierarchy of feudal society, but also the individual character of individual localities and nature.
The artistic soaring of the authors over reality becomes slower, lower and more vigilant to the details of life. Artistic space ceases to be "light", "superconductive".
We have outlined only some questions of studying the spatial "model of the world". There are much more of them, and these “models” need to be studied in their changes.
WHY STUDY THE POETICS OF OLD RUSSIAN LITERATURE?
INSTEAD OF CONCLUSION
Perhaps the question of why it is necessary to study the poetics of ancient Russian literature so far from modernity should have been put at the beginning of the book, and not at its end. But the fact is that at the beginning of the book the answer to it would be too long ... In addition, it leads us to another, much more complex and responsible question - about the meaning of the aesthetic development of the cultures of the past in general.
The aesthetic study of monuments of ancient art (including literature) seems to me extremely important and relevant. We must place the monuments of the cultures of the past at the service of the future. The values of the past must become active participants in the life of the present, our fighting comrades-in-arms. Questions of the interpretation of cultures and individual civilizations are now attracting the attention of historians and philosophers, art historians and literary critics all over the world.
But first - about some features of the development of culture.
The history of culture stands out sharply in the general historical development of mankind. It constitutes a special, red thread in the retinue of the many threads of world history. Unlike the general movement of "civil" history, the process of the history of culture is not only a process of change, but also a process of preserving the past, a process of discovering the new in the old, of accumulating cultural property. The best works of culture, and in particular the best works of literature, continue to participate in the life of mankind. The writers of the past, insofar as they continue to be read and continue to have an impact, are our contemporaries. And we need to have more of these good contemporaries of ours. In works that are humanistic, humane in the highest sense of the word, culture never ages.
The continuity of cultural values is their most important property. “History is nothing else,” F. Engels wrote, “as a successive change of separate generations, each of which uses materials, capital, productive forces transferred to it by all previous generations ...”. With the development and deepening of our historical knowledge, the ability to appreciate the culture of the past, humanity gets the opportunity to rely on the entire cultural heritage. F. Engels wrote that without the flourishing of culture in a slave-owning society it would have been impossible "all our economic, political and intellectual development ...". All forms of social consciousness, ultimately determined by the material basis of culture, at the same time directly depend on the mental material accumulated by previous generations and on the mutual influence of different cultures on each other.
(1) Marx K., Engels F. Op. Ed. 2nd. T. 3. S. 44-45.
(2) Engels F. Anti-Dühring // Ibid. T. 20. S. 185-186.
That is why an objective study of the history of literature, painting, architecture, and music is just as important as the very preservation of cultural monuments. At the same time, we should not suffer from myopia in the selection of "living" cultural monuments. In expanding our horizons, and in particular aesthetic, is the great task of cultural historians of various specialties. The more intelligent the person, the more the more he is able to understand, assimilate, the wider his horizons and ability to understand and accept cultural values - past and present. The less a person's cultural outlook is, the more he is intolerant of everything new and "too old", the more he is in the grip of his usual ideas, the more he is stagnant, narrow and suspicious. One of the most important evidence of the progress of culture is the development of an understanding of the cultural values of the past and the cultures of other nationalities, the ability to preserve, accumulate, and perceive their aesthetic value. The entire history of the development of human culture is the history of not only the creation of new, but also the discovery of old cultural values. And this development of understanding of other cultures to a certain extent merges with the history of humanism. It is the development of tolerance in good sense this word, peacefulness, respect for man, for other peoples.
Let me remind you of some facts. The Middle Ages were deprived of a sense of history, they did not understand antiquity or understood it only in their own aspect. If the Middle Ages turned to history, they dressed it up in their own contemporary clothes. The greatness of the Renaissance was associated with the discovery of the value of ancient culture, primarily its aesthetic value. Discoveries of the new in the old accompanied the movement forward and the development of humanism. The creators of genuine values are always fair to their predecessors. One of the most striking revivalists of Italian sculpture and its reformers, Nicolo Pisano, was in love with antiquity. Sensitivity to the artistic achievements of his predecessors characterizes Giotto, whose name is associated with the largest innovative revolution in painting of the XIII-XIV centuries. It is known that subsequently, in the 18th century, the expansion in the aesthetic understanding of ancient art, associated with the activities of Winckelmann and Lessing, led not only to the collection and preservation of ancient monuments, but also to a revolution in contemporary art and to a new development of humanism and tolerance.
The movement of world culture towards a gradual expansion of understanding of the cultures of the past and other national cultures in order to enrich the cultural present was not uniform and easy. It met resistance and often retreated back. Early Christianity hated antiquity. Ancient sculpture was associated with paganism. It was reminiscent of the idolatry and immoral cult of the Roman emperors. Early Christians superstitious fear before the pagan gods, they broke ancient statues, justifying their barbarism by the fact that the old men and old women still continued to worship them. Equestrian statue Marcus Aurelius survived only because it was mistaken for a statue of the holy Christian emperor Constantine the Great. How many heads from the best antique statues were beaten off for these "ideological" reasons, how many works of literature were lost forever. The new religion, replacing the old one, has always shown extreme intolerance towards monuments. old culture engaged in destructive activities. The iconoclastic movement that developed within the old Christianity also destroyed thousands of masterpieces of the old art of Byzantine painting.
In Rome, on the Capitol, where the marble temples of Jupiter and Juno were located, a quarry was made in the Middle Ages, and only the great Raphael, an innovative artist, became the first to excavate there. The crusaders, who imagined themselves to be radical reformers of life, destroyed the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus and built a castle from its stones to enslave the conquered country.
In the history of world culture, the cultural conquests of the 19th century are especially significant. The discovery of the richness of the spiritual life of past epochs was one of the greatest conquests of precisely the entire world culture (an enormous merit in this belongs, in particular, to Hegel). The establishment of the common development of all mankind, the equality of the cultures of the past - all these are the achievements of the 19th century, evidence of its deep historicism. The 19th century supplanted the idea of the superiority of European culture over all other cultures. Of course, in the XIX century. much was still unclear, there was an internal struggle between different points of view, and the historicism of the 19th century. won not only victories, but in the 20th century. it even became possible to revive misanthropy and the emergence of fascism.
The humanities are now becoming more and more important in the development of world culture.
It has become banal to say that in the XX century. Distances have shortened due to advances in technology. But perhaps it will not be a truism to say that they have been further reduced between people, countries, cultures and epochs thanks to the development of the humanities. That is why the humanities are becoming an important moral force in the development of mankind.
We know how humanity suffered from the fascists' desire to exterminate foreign cultures, from their unwillingness to recognize any value behind them. The extermination of cultural monuments of non-European civilizations reached a terrible force during the era of colonialism. The history of world culture, even in its most external manifestations, has been devastated by the system of colonialism. The "European Quarters" of Hong Kong and other cities have nothing to do with the history of their countries. These are foreign bodies, reflecting the unwillingness of their builders to reckon with the culture of the people, their history and testifying to the desire to assert the superiority of the ruling nation over the oppressed - to approve the so-called "international" American style over the diversity of local architectural styles and cultural traditions.
Now the world science faces a huge task - to study, understand and preserve the monuments of the cultures of the peoples of Africa and Asia, to introduce their culture into the culture of modernity.
(1) This is well said in the excellent article by N. I. Konrad “Notes on the Meaning of History” // Bulletin of the History of World Culture. 1961, No. 2. See: He. West and East. M., 1966.
The same task stands with regard to the cultural history of the past of our own country.
What is the situation with the study of Russia's cultural heritage of the first seven or eight centuries of its existence? The ability to appreciate and understand the monuments of the Russian past came especially late. In Notes on Moscow Landmarks, none other than Karamzin, speaking of the village of Kolomenskoye, does not even mention the now world-famous Church of the Ascension. He did not understand the aesthetic value of St. Basil's Cathedral, indifferently noted the death of the ancient monuments of Moscow. V. I. Grigorovich in 1826 in the article “On the state of art in Russia” wrote: “Let the hunters of antiquity agree with the praises attributed to some Rublev ... and other painters who lived much before the reign of Peter: I trust little these praises … arts were established in Russia by Peter the Great.” The 19th century did not recognize the painting of Ancient Russia. Artists of Ancient Russia were called "bogomazes". Only at the beginning of the 20th century, mainly due to the activities of I. Grabar and his entourage, was the value of ancient Russian art discovered, which is now world-famous and has a fruitful, innovative influence on the art of many artists of the world. Now reproductions of Rublev's icons are sold in Western Europe next to reproductions of Raphael's works. Editions dedicated to the masterpieces of world art open with reproductions of Rublev's Trinity.
However, having recognized the icon and partly the architecture of Ancient Russia, the Western world has not yet revealed anything else in the culture of Ancient Russia. The culture of Ancient Russia is therefore presented only in the forms of "silent" arts, and it is spoken of as a culture of "intellectual silence".
(1) Northern flowers for 1826. SPb., 1826. S. 9-11.
(2) See about this in the article by prof. James Billington "Images of Moscovy" (Slavic Review. 1962, no. 3). The culture of Ancient Russia, according to J. Billington, did not continue in culture new Russia and turned out to be alien and incomprehensible in subsequent post-Petrine Russia, which, in particular, allegedly explains the neglect in which the monuments of its culture are located.
From this it is clear that the disclosure of the aesthetic value of the monuments of the verbal art of Ancient Russia, an art that cannot in any way be recognized as "silent" is a task of very great importance. Attempts to reveal the aesthetic value of Old Russian literature were made by F. I. Buslaev, A. S. Orlov, N. K. Gudziy, V. P. Adrianov-Peretz, I. P. Eremin, who made a huge contribution to understanding Old Russian literature as an art. But much remains to be done in the study of her poetics.
This study must begin with the discovery of its aesthetic originality. It is necessary to begin with what distinguishes ancient Russian literature from modern literature. We must dwell primarily on the differences, but scientific study must be based on the conviction that the cultural values of the past are knowable, on the conviction that they can be assimilated aesthetically. In this aesthetic assimilation of ancient Russian literature, of course, the study of poetics should play a leading role, but in no case should it be limited to it. Artistic analysis inevitably presupposes an analysis of all aspects of literature: the totality of its aspirations, its connections with reality. Any work, snatched from its historical environment, also loses its aesthetic value, like a brick taken out of the building of a great architect. A monument of the past, in order to be truly understood in its artistic essence, must be explained in detail with; all of its seemingly “non-artistic” aspects. An aesthetic analysis of a literary monument of the past should be based on a huge real commentary. You need to know the era, the biographies of writers, the art of that time, the patterns of the historical and literary process, the language - literary in its relationship to the non-literary, etc., etc. Therefore, the study of poetics should be based on the study of the historical and literary process in all its complexity and in all its multiple connections with reality. A specialist in the poetics of ancient Russian literature must be at the same time a historian of literature, an expert on texts and manuscript heritage as a whole.
Penetrating into the aesthetic consciousness of other epochs and other nations, we must first of all study their differences among themselves and their differences from our aesthetic consciousness, from the aesthetic consciousness of modern times. We must first of all study the peculiar and inimitable, the "individuality" of peoples and past epochs. It is precisely in the diversity of aesthetic consciousnesses that their special instructiveness, their richness and the guarantee of the possibility of their use in modern artistic creativity are found. To approach the old art and the art of other countries only from the point of view of modern aesthetic norms, to look only for what is close to ourselves, means to extremely impoverish the aesthetic heritage.
Human consciousness has a remarkable ability to penetrate the consciousness of other people and understand it, despite all its differences. Moreover, consciousness also cognizes what is not consciousness, what is different in nature. The unique is not therefore the incomprehensible. In this penetration into someone else's consciousness - the enrichment of the knower, his movement forward, growth, development. The more human consciousness takes possession of other cultures, the richer it is, the more flexible it is and the more effective it is.
But the ability to understand what is alien is not illegibility in accepting this alien. The selection of the best constantly accompanies the expansion of understanding of other cultures. Despite all the differences in aesthetic consciousnesses, there is something in common between them that makes their evaluation and use possible. But the discovery of this commonality is possible only through the preliminary establishment of differences.
In our time, the study of ancient Russian literature is becoming more and more necessary. We are gradually beginning to realize that the solution of many problems in the history of Russian literature of its classical period is impossible without the involvement of the history of ancient Russian literature.
Peter's reforms marked a transition from the old to the new, and not a break, the emergence of new qualities under the influence of trends that lay in the previous period - it is clear, just as it is clear that the development of Russian literature from the tenth century. and to this day is a single whole, no matter what turns may be encountered on the path of this development. We can understand and appreciate the significance of the literature of our day only on the scale of the entire thousand-year development of Russian literature. None of the issues raised in this book can be considered definitively resolved. The purpose of this book is to outline the paths of study, and not close them to the movement of scientific thought. The more controversy this book causes, the better. And there is no reason to doubt that it is necessary to argue, just as there is no reason to doubt that the study of antiquity should be carried out in the interests of modernity. 1979

Ticket. The specificity of fiction as an art form. Word and image.

Two aspects can be distinguished in the composition of works of art. This is an "external material product" (M.M. Bakhtin), often referred to as an artifact (material object), i.e. something that consists of colors and lines, or of sounds and words (spoken, written or stored in someone's memory). And the aesthetic object is the totality of what is fixed materially and has the potential to have an artistic impact on the viewer, the reader. In a number of its qualities, the external material product is neutral to the aesthetic object. But the artifact partly enters the aesthetic object and becomes an active factor in the artistic impression.

World artistic creativity is not continuous: it is discontinuous, discrete. Art, according to M.M. Bakhtin, necessarily breaks up "into separate, self-sufficient, individual wholes - works", each of which "occupies an independent position in relation to reality".

The most important form of blurring the boundaries between literary works is their cyclization. The combination by the poet of his poems into cycles (widely used in the 19th-20th centuries) often turns out to be the creation of a new work that unites what was created earlier. In other words, cycles of poems become, as it were, independent works (Blok - "poems about a beautiful lady", in prose - "Notes of a hunter" by I.S. Turgenev.)

Artistic works (in particular, literary ones) are created on the basis of a single creative idea (individual or collective) and appeal to their comprehension as a kind of unity (semantic and aesthetic), and therefore have completeness. They are a kind of final given: they are not subject to any "post-author" transformations, completions and alterations. But the author can again and again refer to the already published text, refine and rework it.

In theoretical literary criticism, with the allocation of two fundamental aspects of the work (a dichotomous approach, where form and content are distinguished), other logical constructions are also widely used. So, A.A. Potebnya and his followers characterized three aspects of works of art, which are: external form, internal form, content (as applied to literature: word, image, idea).

An important principle of artistic activity: installation on the unity of content and form in the created works. The fully implemented unity of form and content makes the work organically integral, and not rationally (mechanically) constructed.

In a work of art, the beginnings of formal content and content proper are distinguishable. As part of the form that carries the content, three sides are traditionally distinguished.

1.subject (subject-pictorial) beginning", all those single phenomena and facts that are indicated with the help of words and in their totality constitute the world of a work of art

2. the actual verbal fabric of the work: artistic speech, often fixed by the terms "poetic language", "stylistics", "text".

3.correlation and arrangement in the work of units of subject and verbal "series", i.e. composition = structure (ratio of elements of a complexly organized object).

A special place in a literary work belongs to the actual content layer. It is legitimate to characterize it not as another (fourth) side of the work, but as its substance. Artistic content is a unity of objective and subjective principles. This is a combination of what came to the author from the outside and is known to him, and what is expressed by him and comes from his views, intuition, personality traits

ticket. The inner world of a literary work.

The world of a literary work- this is the objectivity recreated in it through speech and with the participation of fiction. It includes not only material things, but also the psyche, the consciousness of a person, and most importantly, the person himself as a mental and bodily unity. The world of the work constitutes both "material" and "personal" reality. In literary works, these two principles are unequal: in the center is not "dead nature", but a living, human, personal reality.

The world of a work is an integral facet of its form (content). It is located between the actual content (meaning) and the verbal fabric (text).

The most important properties of the world of the work - its non-identity primary reality, the participation of fiction in its creation, the use by writers of not only life-like, but also conditional forms of representation. In a literary work, special, strictly artistic laws reign.

The world of the work is an artistically assimilated and transformed reality. He is multifaceted. The largest units of the verbal and artistic world are the characters that make up the system, and the events that make up the plots. The world includes, further, what can be legitimately called components of figurativeness (artistic objectivity): acts of behavior of characters, features of their appearance (portraits), phenomena of the psyche, as well as facts of the life around people (things presented within the framework of interiors; pictures of nature - landscapes). A small and indivisible link of artistic objectivity is the individual details (details) of the depicted, sometimes clearly and actively singled out by writers and acquiring a relatively independent significance.

1.Character - either the fruit of the writer’s pure fiction (Gulliver and the Lilliputians in J. Swift; Major Kovalev who lost his nose in N.V. Gogol) ", the result of inventing the appearance of a really existing person (whether historical figures or people biographically close to the writer, or even he himself); the result of the processing and completion of already known literary characters (Faust, Don Quixote). It is the subject of the depicted action, the stimulus for the unfolding of events that make up the plot and, at the same time, has an independent significance in the composition of the work, independent of the plot (event series): he acts as a carrier of stable and stable properties, traits, qualities.

There are several types of characters:

1. adventurous-heroic supertype (heroic epic) - they tend to actively participate in changing life situations, fight, achieve, win, a kind of chosen one or impostor, whose energy and strength are realized in an effort to achieve some external goals. (Aeneas)

2. hagiographic-idyllic (medieval hagiography) - not involved in any struggle for success. They stay in reality, free from the polarization of successes and failures, victories and defeats, and at the time of trials they are able to show resilience, moving away from the temptations and dead ends of despair. (Peter and Fevronia, Prince Myshkin).

3. negative supertype- and incarnations unconditionally negative traits or the focus of trampled, suppressed, failed humanity.

There is a distance between the character and the author. It takes place even in the autobiographical genre, where the writer comprehends his own life experience from a certain time distance. The author can look at his hero as if from the bottom up (the lives of the saints), or, on the contrary, from the top down (works of accusatory satirical nature). But the most deeply rooted situation in literature is the situation of the essential equality of the writer and the character ("Eugene Onegin").

3. Portrait - this is a description of appearance: bodily, natural and, in particular, age properties (facial features and figures, hair color), as well as everything in the appearance of a person that is formed by the social environment, cultural tradition, individual initiative (clothing and jewelry, hairstyle and cosmetics). The portrait can also capture body movements and postures characteristic of the character, gestures and facial expressions, facial expressions and eyes. The portrait thus creates a stable, stable complex of traits of the "outer man".

The portrait of the hero is localized in one place of the work. More often it is given at the moment of the first appearance of the character, i.e. exposure. But literature also knows another way of introducing portrait characteristics into a text. It can be called leitmotif.

4. Forms of behavior- a set of movements and postures, gestures and facial expressions, spoken words with their intonations. They are dynamic in nature and undergo endless changes depending on the situations of the moment. At the same time, these fluid forms are based on a stable, stable given, which can rightly be called a behavioral attitude or orientation.

They constitute one of the necessary conditions for interpersonal communication. They are very heterogeneous. In some cases, behavior is destined by tradition, custom, ritual, in others, on the contrary, it clearly reveals the features of this particular person and his free initiative in the sphere of intonation and gestures.

The forms of behavior of the characters are able to acquire a semiotic character. They often appear as conventional signs, the semantic content of which depends on the agreement of people belonging to a particular socio-cultural community.

WORKSHOPS

P.A. Nikolaev(any edition).

Questions highlighted in bold

Section 1.

Science literary criticism

Try to develop, illustrate the thoughts of M. Bakhtin in his publication “Answer to the question of the editors of Novy Mir” (1970).

Section 2

Philosophy of art

1. What is art and what significance does it have in human life?

2. What are the main types of art, what distinguishes them, what unites them?

3. What is the conceptual series (the definition of this series), in which the place of the concept of art?

5. What is art world?

6. How do you understand the expression "The artist creates according to the laws of beauty"?

7. What is the primary element of literature?

8. What are the functions of literature?

9. What brings together the artist of the word and the scientist of the humanities, what distinguishes them?

V. Shklovsky in the article "Art as a technique" (1917) doubts the correctness of the judgment "Art is thinking in images." Give your understanding of the problem.

R. Jacobson in the article “About artistic realism"doubts the legitimacy of the term" realism "as applied to literature. Give your understanding of the problem.

Section 3

The language of fiction. trails

1. What is the originality of the language of fiction?

3. What is called a poetic figure? Give examples and explain the content of poetic figures: inversion, antithesis, parallelism, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question (address, statement, exclamation), gradation.

4. What is called poetic style? Give examples and explain the purposes of use: polyunion, non-union, ellipsis, oxymoron.

5. What is called poetic phonetics? Give examples and explain the purposes of use: assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia.

6. Is there a separate series called poetic vocabulary? What are: barbarisms, dialectisms, provincialisms, neologisms, prosaisms?

7. What is called poetism?

Structural analysis of the poetic text according to Yu.M. Lotman. Outline the main provisions of the "Introduction" and the first section "Problems and methods of structural analysis of a poetic text." Collection: Yu.M.Lotman "On Poets and Poetry: An Analysis of a Poetic Text" (1996).

Section 4

Answers to below next questions link with examples from the literature.

1. Name three basic concepts related to the content of a literary work, give their definitions.

3. Name the concepts related to the form of a literary work, give their definitions.

3. What is the difference between the concepts of plot and plot?

4. What is the role of conflict in a work of art, what are the types of conflict?

4. Name the elements of the composition of a literary work .

6. Name the non-plot elements and their functions.

7. What is the role of a portrait in a literary work, what types of portrait stand out?

8. What is the role of the landscape in a literary work?

9. What is the role of artistic detail in a literary work?

10. What is the integrity of a work of art?

11. Expand the content and evaluate the article by B. Eikhenbaum "How Gogol's Overcoat" was made (1919). Give your understanding of the problem.

Section 5

literary subject

3. Explain the concept of a lyrical hero.

5. What is meant by role-playing lyrics, by lyrical "I" in role-playing lyrics?

Section 6

M. Bakhtin on the role of space-time representations in literary works: Bakhtin M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. Researches of different years. M., 1975.

Section 7

Literary genera and genres

Link your answers with examples from the literature.

1. Name the genera, genres of fiction, their characteristic features.

2. Name the "bikini" formations, their features.

3. What is included in the concept of literary type? What is "wider" type or genre?

What semantic meanings have the "derived" words acquired: epic, dramatic, lyric?

4. What are the features of drama as a literary genre?

5. What are the features of the lyric-epic work?

6. Prepare (orally or in writing) for reasoning on all the presented literary concepts:

Section 8

Poetry

Link your answers with examples from the literature.

1. What underlies the organization of poetic speech?

2. Name and describe the main systems of versification.

3. What evolution and why did the Russian system of versification go through?

4. What is called in poetry a foot, a size, a meter?

What are the classic poetic meters and their differences?

5. What caused deviations from the given scheme of poetic size in the texts of poems?

6. What is a pyrrhic, spondei, truncated verse?

7. Explain what rhyme is and name the main types of rhymes. What is a tercene? Monorhyme?

8. What is a stanza? Name the stanzas of Russian versification and their synonyms. What do you know about the Onegin stanza? About a sonnet?

9. Explain verse organizations called white verse, free verse, free verse.

Section 9

Art style

Link your answers with examples from the literature.

1. What evolution of content has the word, the concept of style experienced?

2. What is art style?

3. Name five main known styles.

4. What is an indicator of integrity, unity of style?

5. Name the known patterns, style dominants.

6. What are the features of styles: descriptive, plot, psychological, lifelike, fantastic, nominative, rhetorical, monologue, heterogeneous.

7. Name (three) forms of rhythmic order in artistic speech.

8. Give a description of a simple and complex composition.

Section 10

Section 11

School of Literature.

WORKSHOPS

Textbook: "Introduction to Literary Studies" ed. L.M. Krupchanova (any edition).

Reader: "Theory of Literature" ed. P.A. Nikolaev(any edition).

Questions highlighted in bold(they are in custody) you can cook according to the reader ...

Section 1.

Science literary criticism

Outline the main provisions of D. Likhachev's article "The inner world of a work of art."

The inner world of a work of verbal art (literary or folklore) has a certain artistic integrity. Separate elements of reflected reality are connected with each other in this inner world in a certain system, artistic unity. Studying the reflection of the world of reality in the world of a work of art, literary critics are limited for the most part to paying attention to whether individual phenomena of reality are depicted correctly or incorrectly in the work.

We usually do not study the inner world of a work of art as a whole, limiting ourselves to searching for "prototypes": prototypes of this or that character, character, landscape, even "prototypes", events and prototypes of the types themselves. Everything is "retail", everything is in parts! Therefore, the world of a work of art appears in our studies in bulk, and its relation to reality is fragmented and devoid of integrity.

In fact, it is necessary not only to state the very fact of differences, but also to study what these differences consist of, what causes them and how they organize the inner world of the work. We should not simply establish differences between reality and the world of a work of art, and only in these differences should we see the specifics of a work of art. The specificity of a work of art by individual authors or literary movements can sometimes consist in just the opposite, that is, that there will be too few of these differences in certain parts of the inner world, and there will be too much imitation and accurate reproduction of reality.

Each work of art (if it is only artistic!) reflects the world of reality in its own creative perspectives. And these angles are subject to comprehensive study in connection with the specifics of a work of art and, above all, in their artistic whole. Studying the reflection of reality in a work of art, we should not limit ourselves to the question: "true or false" - and admire only fidelity, accuracy, correctness. The inner world of a work of art also has its own interconnected patterns, its own dimensions and its own meaning as a system.

The world of a work of art is the result of both a correct display and an active transformation of reality.

(The inner world of a work of art does not exist by itself and not for itself. It is not autonomous. It depends on reality, “reflects” the world of reality, but the transformation of this world that a work of art allows has a holistic and purposeful character.)

The world of social relations in a work of art also requires study in its integrity and independence.

The inner world of history. The task of studying this world of the history of a work is as different from studying the writer's views on history as the study of artistic time is different from studying the artist's views on time.

The moral world of works of art is constantly changing with the development of literature. (additionally)

The world of medieval works knows absolute good, but evil is relative in it. Therefore, a saint cannot not only become a villain, but even commit an evil deed. But any villain in the world of medieval works can change dramatically and become a saint. Hence a kind of asymmetry and "one-pointedness" of the moral world of the artistic works of the Middle Ages.

Attempts to justify evil, to find objective reasons in it, to consider evil as a social or religious protest are characteristic of the works of the romantic direction.

In classicism, evil and good, as it were, stand above the world and acquire a peculiar historical coloring.

In realism, moral problems permeate everyday life, appear in thousands of aspects, among which social aspects steadily increase as realism develops. Etc.

The role and place of conflict in the poetics of the work

As a rule, a set of conflicts occurs in the work. Conflict drives the development of action. Grouping is possible taking into account the problems of the work. There are moral, philosophical, social, ideological, socio-political, domestic and other conflicts. There is no strict classification of conflicts.

There are local conflicts (closed within the work, where Karamzin's "Poor Liza" is exhausted), unresolvable - stable ("Turgenev's Fathers and Sons"). The conflict is associated with the pathos of the work: tragic conflict, comic, heroic, etc. (more understandable wording than in the textbook)

It is possible to consider the conflict in the work and from a historical perspective (antiquity - man and rock, the Middle Ages - the divine and the devilish in the human soul, etc.).

In literature, plots are most deeply rooted, the conflicts of which arise in the course of the events depicted, become aggravated and somehow resolved - they are overcome and exhaust themselves.

The conflict in the Othello tragedy (for all its intensity and depth) is local and transient. It is intra-plot.

Conflict in a work of art

Only the conflict informs the dynamic beginning of the sequence of private events and situations, creates the content of the artistic text.

Conflict is a confrontation, a contradiction either between characters, or between character and circumstances, or within character - a contradiction underlying action. Thus, conflict is the driving force of the novel. He acts as the motivating cause of all the actions of the hero.

In literary criticism, a tradition has developed to understand conflict as necessarily a collision, struggle, dispute, the expression of opposing assessments and the manifestation of polar inclinations, the confrontation of warring forces, both in the external space and in the space of the inner world of the characters. The character itself and the role that the conflict plays in a literary text are the best evidence that the reality reflected in this text is dualistic, and its dualism is oppositional. This opposition is the main structural principle of the structure and existence of reality: spiritual and material, darkness and light, good and evil, earth and sky, friends and enemies.

However, the modern vision of conflict in a literary text allows us to assert that conflict is not necessarily only a collision, but also the nature of relationships, a state.

The conflict in each particular work is a reflection author's position. From this point of view, it can be valence if the author's value-oriented participation is present in it and his predilections are clearly marked, and ambivalent if the author portrays the conflict from the position of maximum detached objectivity.

The conflict presupposes the presence of two oppositional components. Their role can be played by various structural elements of a literary text.

The increase or decrease in the tension of the narrative, the presence or absence of elements that hinder its development (for example, descriptions, portraits or reasoning of the hero, author, narrator) depends on the nature of the conflict, which is the source and main reason for the development of the plot.

Conflict expectation is the reader's anticipation of upcoming events, which can either collapse as you read, or be confirmed.

Based on the idea of opposites, contradictions between its constituent elements, the conflict determines the nature of the relationship between the characters and images of a work of art, as well as the stages of plot development, thus being the semantic core of any text.

Ticket 25

Character, type and character in fiction. Literature as "human science".

Women's Portal Flero

Practical lesson. Prepare a brief biographical note about D.S. Likhachev

What will we do with the received material:

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