In the 1980s, in connection with the study of the structure of the genetic code, there was a "silent revolution" in anthropology. A new branch of science has emerged, called paleogenetics or molecular paleontology. It turned out that in the man himself, more precisely, in his genotype, which is the totality of all the genes of the organism, traces of the evolutionary history of the species can be found. For the first time, genes appeared as reliable historical documents, with the only difference being that they were written not with ink, but with the chemical components of the DNA molecule. Geneticists have learned to extract information literally from the "ashes of the earth" - petrified remains that belonged to very ancient creatures. The data obtained by paleogenetics radically transformed previous ideas about the early stages of "human" evolution.
Mitochondrial Eve is the name given by molecular biologists to a woman who was the last common maternal ancestor of all living humans. Since mitochondrial DNA is inherited only through the maternal line, all living people have received such DNA from "Eve". Similarly, the DNA of the male Y-chromosome in all males must be derived from "molecular biological Adam."
Unlike nuclear DNA, which contains the vast majority of genes and undergoes recombination during sexual reproduction, so that the offspring receive half of the genes from the father and the other half from the mother, the child receives mitochondria and their DNA only from the mother's egg. Since mitochondrial DNA does not undergo recombination, changes in it can only occur through rare random mutations, about once every 3000 years. By comparing the sequence of mitochondrial DNA and the mutations that have arisen in it over time, one can not only determine the degree of relatedness of living people, but also approximately calculate the time required for the accumulation of mutations in a particular population of people.
After conducting a comparative analysis of mtDNA, in 1980 A. Wilson built a family tree that clearly indicated the presence of the greatest differentiation of mitochondrial genes in Africa. Moreover, the entire six billionth modern humanity traces its origins to one woman who once lived in East Africa, since all studied mtDNA samples can be traced back to a single initial nucleotide sequence. A. Wilson, having found a place that is the "cradle" of mankind, went further. Knowing the rate of mutation, he was able to determine the approximate time when "Eve" appeared on Earth. The “mitochondrial clock” showed that she lived approximately 200-150 thousand years ago (surprisingly, “Eve” turned out to be even older than the Neanderthal, who was stubbornly imposed on her by the “evolutionary fathers”).
Data on mtDNA analysis have been independently obtained by many other researchers. “mtDNA analysis,” writes Satoshi Horai,- indicates that modern man arose about 200 thousand years ago in Africa, from where he moved to Eurasia, where he quickly replaced Homo erectus and presumably completely (if Bigfoot is not found) Neanderthal. At the same time, there was practically no mixing of mitochondrial genotypes.”
In 1987 Rebecca Cann and colleagues suggested that mitochondrial Eve could have lived between 140 and 280 thousand years ago. According to more recent calculations in 2004, mitochondrial Eve lived about 140 thousand years ago in East Africa. Modern MT and ME estimates in 2009 usually give an age range for Eve of 140,000–230,000 years, with a probability maximum at values of the order of 180,000–200,000 years.
Of particular interest is the L. Cavalli-Sforza an attempt to compare the data of molecular genetics and linguistics. He showed that the spread of genes correlated remarkably well with the spread of languages. Thus, a family tree built on the basis of genetic research, corresponds to the linguistic family tree. So genogeography was combined with ethnic geography.
Even during the lifetime of A. Wilson, an attempt was made to analyze the Y-chromosome of men in order to trace the "line of fathers" in the genealogy of mankind. The preliminary data he reports, obtained by the French scientist J. Lucotte, also confirmed the African origin of "Adam".
More detailed studies were carried out by a professor at Stanford University P. Underhall, collected material for analysis in almost all regions of the world. As you know, the Y-chromosome is present only in the genotype of men, and, therefore, is transmitted in generations strictly from father to son. The result of studying several thousand samples taken from representatives different nationalities, showed that the same East Africa was the birthplace of "Adam". According to researchers, the appearance of the male Homo sapiens is about 150-160 thousand years. Some variation in the ages of "Eve" and "Adam" is within the error of the method.
Similar data were obtained by another independent group led by Michael Hammer(University of Arizona, USA). The specified age of the hypothetical "Adam" is 160-180 thousand years.
So, it was on the African continent that our ancestors appeared about 150-200 thousand years ago. Approximately 100 thousand years ago, their descendants migrated throughout the ecumene, replacing all other hominids living there, but at the same time, which is important, they did not interbreed with the latter. About 40-60 thousand years ago they reached Europe.
But the surprises presented by paleogenetics to anthropologists did not end there. Professor Svante Paabo succeeded in extracting mtDNA from a fragment of a Neanderthal vertebra, first discovered in 1856 and living about 50,000 years ago. This work is truly the highest pinnacle of molecular genetic art, its result can hardly be overestimated. As shown by comparative studies of the mitochondrial DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals, the latter is not at all our ancestor, or even a close relative. way comparative analysis“Our” and “Neanderthal” genes found that the differences between them are so great that the evolutionary branches of these two species could (or should) have diverged 600 thousand years ago, that is, at a time when the species themselves simply did not exist.
findings S. Paabo change the concept of anthropogenesis so radically that the question arose of verifying these results by an independent group of researchers. This time I worked with a fragment of a Neanderthal bone Mark Stoneking, group scientist A. Wilson, also the highest authority in paleogenetics. After conducting mtDNA studies from another sample (the remains of a Neanderthal child who lived 30 thousand years ago), he received the same data as S. Paabo, fully confirming his findings. In this regard, in an interview, S. Paabo noted: “We adhered to the strict criteria of forensic medicine, as if we were preparing to present physical evidence to the court.”
A few years later, a group of German scientists also conducted an independent study of Neanderthal mtDNA, which showed: "The hypothesis is confirmed that Neanderthals represent a dead-end evolutionary branch and are not the ancestors of modern humans."
Paleontologist Christopher Stringer this is how he sees the future: "Perhaps we are on the verge of creating a unified theory that will combine paleoanthropological, archaeological, genetic and linguistic evidence in favor of the African monogenetic model" .
Indeed, the synthesis of these sciences is likely to bring us closer to understanding the mystery of our origin.
Human mtDNA haplogroup tree
| Mitochondrial Eve | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| pre-JT | N1a | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Human Y-DNA haplogroup tree(Y-DNA haplogroups by people)
| A1b | A1a-T | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A1a | A2-T | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A2 | A3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| IJK | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| K | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| K(xLT) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Consider K- Y-chromosomal haplogroup followed by subclades (L, T, M, NO, P and S). K - Y-chromosomal haplogroup appeared 40-50 thousand years ago. presumably in Asia Minor.
According to the latest descendants:
- L haplogroup(the time of appearance is 25-30 thousand years in Hindustan, the predominant modern carriers are the inhabitants of India and Pakistan, the Dravidians; subclade - L1, L2 and L3).
Distribution of haplogroup L.
Average Hindu
. For haplogroup L, there is a high frequency and diversity of subclasses in southwestern Pakistan in Balochistan along the coast (28%). The national variety arose 24-30 thousand years ago.
- Mhaplogroup(the time of appearance is 32-47 thousand years ago, presumably Oceania or Southeast Asia, the predominant modern carriers are the inhabitants of Oceania, the subclade is the Papuans).
Papuan. The national variety arose 32-47 thousand years ago.
- Shaplogroup(the time of appearance is 28-41 thousand years ago, presumably Oceania or Southeast Asia, the predominant modern carriers are the inhabitants of Oceania, the Papuans ekari 74%).
Papuan Ekari. The national variety arose 28-41 thousand years ago.
- Thaplogroup(the time of appearance is 19-34 thousand years ago, possibly Western Asia, the predominant modern speakers are Kurru Andhra Pradesh (56%), Bauris West Bengal (53), West African Fulbe (18%), Somalis (10.4%), Omanis (8.3%), Egyptians (8.2%), Iraqis (7.2%) Represented in Europe, above all Serbs (7%) In Russians from southwestern Russia, it was found in 1.7% people But the haplogroup was not found in anyone from the northern European part of Russia.
Distribution of haplogroup T.
The Fulbe are a people living in a vast area in West Africa: from Mauritania, Gambia, Senegal and Guinea in the west to Cameroon and even Sudan in the east. For haplogroup T, there is a high frequency and diversity of subclasses (18%). The national variety arose 19-34 thousand years ago.
- NO (and its descendants N and O), occurred in the gametes of a person who belonged to haplogroup K (XLT) and who probably lived somewhere in Asia east of the Aral Sea 34 ± 5 thousand years ago. This person became a direct male line of ancestors of a very large percentage modern people, since it is the ancestor of the haplogroup N and O, which together are overwhelmingly dominant in most populations of Northern and Eastern Eurasia. NO itself is rare. The largest percentage - about 6% (or 2 out of 35 people) was found among the Buitans (China). Then come the Japanese Yamatos 3% (6 out of 210), among which the most common is found in Tokushima Prefecture (4 out of 70). In addition, the NO haplogroup has been found in some Han, Malays, Mongols, as well as Daurs, Manchu Evenks, Nanais, Huizu, Yao, and Koreans.
- N haplogroup. This haplogroup is found in Central and Northern Europe and throughout the European and Asian parts of Russia. The most genetically “pure” representatives are the Yakuts (74%), the Nenets (74%), the Udmurts (68%), the Finns (61%), the peoples of the Uralic languages, and the Eskimos. The vast majority of modern representatives of this group belong to the N1 branch, the most likely place of occurrence of which is the region of Altai, the Baikal region, southern Siberia, Mongolia or northern China, and the time is between 20,000 and 15,000 years ago. It is believed that it was brought across Eurasia by a large migration of Siberian forest peoples to the west, the last phase of which - settling along the Urals and further from it along the Volga and northeastern Europe (Russian North, Finland, Baltic states) - is associated with the spread of Uralic peoples in this region. languages.
The Nenets are a Samoyedic people inhabiting the Eurasian coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kola Peninsula to Taimyr. For haplogroup T, the most high rate (74%) . Nationality arose 15-20 thousand years ago.
- Haplogroup O- Y-chromosomal human haplogroup, is a descendant of the haplogroup NO haplogroup, first appeared in accordance with various theories, either in Southeast Asia or East Asia 28-41 thousand years ago; characteristic of representatives Mongoloid race. It is related to the "Finno-Ugric" haplogroup N. This haplogroup appears in 80-90% of the majority of the population in the region of East and Southeast Asia among the Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Malays, Austronesians, as well as among neighboring peoples whom they influenced as substrate. This haplogroup is completely absent in Europe, Western Siberia, the Middle East, Africa and America. Represents about 21% of the entire global human population.
Distribution of haplogroup O.
Average Chinese - includes all 56 groups living in China and officially recognized by the government such as the Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans, and other established ethnic groups living in China since at least the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). For haplogroup T, there is high frequency and variety of subclasses, the highest rate (60-80%). Nationality arose 28-41 thousand years ago.
- P(and its descendants Q and R). The haplogroup appeared about 32 thousand years ago and was among many of the paternal ancestors of most Europeans, Siberian and Far Eastern peoples, almost all Indians of North and South America, about a third among the various peoples of Central and South Asia, the indigenous peoples of Oceania.
Reconstruction of the physical appearance of Neoanthropes-Caucasoids of the Russian Plain of the Upper Paleolithic:
on the left is a Sungir woman (the settlement of Sungir, Vladimir, ca. 30 thousand years ago), on the right - a Kostenkovite (the settlement of Kostenki, Voronezh region, ca. 45 thousand years ago). Reconstructions by M.M. Gerasimov.
This haplogroup is divided into subclades Q and R:
- Q haplogroup, time of appearance 15-20 thousand years BC. BC, common among some Siberian peoples, as well as among indigenous American peoples, and, to some extent, throughout Asia. It is assumed that the carriers of this haplogroup were the Huns of Siberian origin. In Eurasia, it occurs within a triangle with peaks in Norway, Iran and Mongolia. But mostly among all these peoples is rare. In Europe, this haplogroup is common among Hungarians (2%) and Slovaks (5%). However, the Kets (95%) and Selkups (70%) are significant among the small Siberian peoples. Typical of Native Americans.
Family of Kets or Yenisei.
Anthropology is similar for native Indians and peoples of Oceania, such as Polynesians (New Zealand). This is a possible image of a person of this haplogroup for 15-20 thousand years.
- R haplogroup, haplogroup R originated between 30,000 and 35,000 years ago. Unlike Q, it undergoes changes and has subclades, which indicates its antiquity. It is likely that the group IJ belonged to the Cro-Magnons (or most of them), the first representatives
Distribution of haplogroup R in subclades R1a (lilac) and R1b (red).
- Haplogroup R2- is extremely rare, mainly in Iran, India, Pakistan, the North Caucasus.
- Haplogroup R1- the most common subgroup of Haplogroup R. Its two main subclades R1a and R1b (other variants are extremely rare) are the most common throughout Europe and western Eurasia. This is due to migrations after the last glacial maximum. It is assumed that the R1 haplogroup could have originated 25,000-30,000 years ago.
- Haplogroup R1a, presumably originated in the south of the Russian Plain about 10-15 thousand years ago. It is believed that, in particular, the Slavic ethnic group was formed on their basis. Distribution area from Iceland to India, modern center haplogroup is located on the territory of Poland. This haplogroup became a marker of the spread of the Kurgan culture, which, in turn, most authoritative researchers today consider to be the core of the Proto-Indo-European culture (Kurgan hypothesis). Geneticists have shown that burial mounds Scythian skeletons contain haplogroup R1a. The expansion contributed to the migration of the haplogroup R1a to Iran and India, where about 30% of men in the upper castes are its carriers. It is most common in Eastern Europe: among Lusatians (63%), Poles (about 56%), Russians (53%), Belarusians (49%), Ukrainians (about 52%), Tatars (34%), Bashkirs ( 26%) (up to 48% among the Bashkirs of the Saratov and Samara regions); and in Central Asia: among the Khujand Tajiks (64%), Kyrgyz (63%), Ishkashims (68%). Moderate distribution in the Scandinavian countries (23% in Iceland, 18-22% in Sweden and Norway), in Iran (25%?). Among the Brahmins of the Indian states of West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, this haplogroup occurs with a frequency of 72% and 67%, respectively.
Average Pole. For haplogroup R1a, the highest rate is observed (56%).
- Haplogroup R1b, different authors attribute the appearance of this haplogroup to 16 - 5 thousand years BC. e.; it is most common in the west of the European continent, the percentage of its carriers is especially high among the peoples of western England, the Basques, the Bashkirs in the Southern Urals and the Spaniards. In Eastern Europe and in the east, Haplogroup R1b is found among Armenians, in Dagestan. The bearer was also Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The current concentration of R1b is maximum in southern England - about 70%, in northern and western England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more, in Spain - 70%, in France - 60%, Basques - 88.1% and Spaniards - 70%. Italians - 40%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9%
Average Englishman. For haplogroup R1b, the highest rate is observed (about 70%).Nationality arose 10-15 thousand years ago.
For a complete picture of the birth of branches of modern nationalities to the one described above haplogroup K it is also necessary to single out others that determine or reinforce belonging to a nationality.
Along with the Kna haplogroup, a few thousand years later, haplogroupIJ (and her descendants I and J ) . The time of its appearance is 38.5 (30.5-46.2) thousand years ago. It is likely that the Cro-Magnons (or most of them), the first representatives of of people modern type caucasian who came to Europe about 40 thousand years ago, met Neanderthals there and coexisted with them for 15 millennia until they disappeared in the last ice Age. The descendants of these Cro-Magnons (haplogroup I+R) make up the majority of Europe's population today.
- Haplogroup I, which arose 20-25 thousand years ago, stood out from the local European haplogroup IJ, thus being the only "large" haplogroup that arose in Europe, with the exception of the southern part of the European Mediterranean, namely the southern regions of Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece and Antalya. The predominant speakers are the descendants of the Germans, Slavs (especially southern), Scandinavians, Sardinians, Basques, Albanians, Romanians.
Distribution of haplogroup I.
- haplogroup J- one of the human Y-DNA haplogroups, the ancestor of the haplogroup IJ distributed mainly in the northern part of the African Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, Antalya, as well as the southern regions of Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Mesopotamia and Central Asia. The predominant speakers are Arabs, residents of the Middle East, the Mediterranean, the North-Eastern Caucasus.
Distribution of haplogroup J.
The average Arab of Media, Saudi Arabia. For haplogroup J, the highest rate is observed (about 50%). Nationality arose 20-25 thousand years ago.
Haplogroup G WHO
20 genera of mankind: what label does each one carry?
Why can't you read about haplogroups on Wikipedia? How does DNA genealogy work? How many gene mutations were there during the development of the human race? What was the first ancestor of man like 200-250 thousand years ago? What is the difference between 20 basic DNA - 20 genera of mankind? Are ethnic groups, nations, religions related to the haplogroup? How did it happen that Pushkin is a carrier of the haplogroup R1a? Why are there so many representatives of the haplogroup R1b in Africa? Can different races meet along the way? Why do races keep separate? Does the Russian genome exist? Anatoly Klyosov, founder of DNA genealogy, Doctor of Chemistry, Vice President of the American pharmaceutical company Galectin Therapeutics, tells how anthropology is changing, but the haplogroup remains unchanged.
Anatoly Klesov: First, when you ask about haplogroups, don't open Wikipedia. Waste of time and getting wrong information. The thing is, Wikipedia is a great source, but when you're looking for information set to, say, how many digits are in pi, there's no question, or the definition of a triangle. These things have long been debugged and docked to consensus, for such things Wikipedia. When you want to look at haplogroups, I’ll say right away that they are written there by people who don’t understand anything about it. People who think, perhaps, that they understand, but in fact do not understand anything, are guided by something incomprehensible, there is just a dump of information that is absolutely empty and distorted. The fact is that for this it will be necessary to explain to answer the question of what a haplogroup and genus are, and why it is completely unrelated, these are such perpendicular concepts. For example, ethnicity, nationality, party membership, profession, all these things, in fact, are not related to the concept of haplogroup and gender to the same extent. The point is, what is a haplogroup? And there is a scientific explanation for this, there is scientific criteria. When DNA began to be studied, this, I think, is a well-known concept, even people do not know the details of what it is, but they know that DNA is something in us, in the body, which determines our anthropology and appearance, and hair color, often behavior, in short, all the characteristics that we express, show to each other, it's all in the DNA. DNA is a giant molecule, there are billions of links in this DNA, and every generation it intertwines, half comes from mom, half from dad, and therefore contributes from the male, female side, and again a new interweaving is formed. DNA has the form of such a double helix. One part of the spiral is from mom, the other is from dad, here it is a double helix, to some extent also connected with this, and then the next children again come from a new mom, dad of the weave, so each branch is a change. However, part of the DNA is called the Y chromosome, scientifically speaking, the male sex chromosome, it is precisely the sex chromosome, because it determines the sex, only men have it, women do not have it, so now archaeologists who are digging find a little finger, a fragment of a little finger , earlier, of course, it was impossible to determine male or female. And then DNA is extracted, if it works, and there is a Y-chromosome, then this is a man, a boy, there is no Y-chromosome - a woman. Such things are now much easier to define in archeology, something that was practically not defined before. So, the fact is that a woman does not have a Y chromosome, and she has nothing to do with sex, she bears a child, a boy or a girl. This is actually such a function from the point of view of the DNA of things. And now the DNA is received by a person, that is, a man, in this case He receives the Y chromosome only from his father, his mother does not. And the father from his father, the father from his father, and so on for millions of years without attraction. From the ancient ancestors of man, the most ancient ancestors of man comes the same Y-chromosome. Moreover, it is almost identical in structure to the one we have. Now, if you take a chimpanzee from a zoo, and take a Y-chromosome from it, a DNA test, then 98% of it is the same as ours. Can you imagine how much time has passed, that is, from an ancient common ancestor, there was once a common ancestor of a chimpanzee and a man, he had a fork, and a person along one branch, and a chimpanzee along the other, and these paths continue for about 5 million years in one way and 5 million years in the other direction, that is, our chimpanzee is separated by 10 million years, back to the ancestor and there, you cannot directly measure it naturally. And for 10 million years, 98% of the Y chromosomes remained unchanged, so the data here are reliable and can be determined, DNA is being studied. And since such an almost unchanged chromosome is transmitted, the Y chromosome, it is clear that there are few changes from father to son. Indeed, in the entire Y chromosome, only one mutation occurs per generation, that is, in 22 years, let's mathematically take about a generation, just for the entire Y chromosome. And that is why such one mutation per generation, some 1,000 generations, 25,000 years, only 1,000 mutations are formed, which is elementarily determined by modern methods, each of them can be counted, and each has already been counted and numbered. And it turned out that if we start from about 200,000 years ago, it was a common ancestor of Homo sapiens, a reasonable person, the data can be as follows - the first human ancestor lived 200,000-250,000 years ago, and before that there were already deeper, more archaic ancestors , they had a different anthropology, a different shape of the chest, they are no longer considered Homo sapiens, a reasonable person. So it turned out that there are 20 lines of basic DNA, over these 200,000 years they diverged, here are 20 lines, it was called 20 human genera. And each lineage is defined by one particular mutation that only that lineage has. Here the word "line" can be misunderstood, not a line, but a bush in fact. At the base of each line there is a point, that is, a person, from him a bunch of descendants, from another line, from him his own bush of descendants, and the third has his own. There are 20 such bushes - this is all of humanity, and each has its own mark, which no other bush has, therefore this mark determines which bush any of us belongs to. This is a haplogroup, this bush, it is also a genus. Why genus? The same definition was based on the ancestor, the patriarch, from which the bush was formed. The word "kind" in everyday life has a somewhat vague concept, let's say so. For example, I am from the Klyosov family, and before that, there were no surnames when, the family continued to be, so we can say that I am from the family of my grandfather, great-grandfather, and I am from the family of Prince Golitsyn. But before that, there were no princes either, so the clan, it shifts, what concept is invested in the genus, then they are invested, this is in everyday life. But this does not contradict anything that exists in science, because in science it is all one big genus, but it breaks up into many small subgenera, up to families, everyday cells of mankind. Therefore, I repeat, the haplogroup is one bush, and the age of the haplogroup often, moreover, it happens that the bush, it then diverges into different bushes, some of which are more massive, and they cover most of the population, there are hundreds of millions of people in one bush. And now a bush, it happens, isolate one, which later formed, but very massive, while the others almost all died out from the previous bush, so this bush, which is very massive, is called a haplogroup. Now a conditional definition has been adopted, let's say that a haplogroup is a bush in which there are at least 100 million people, this is a genus, at the heart of this genus there was also one person. Moreover, you understand that it has nothing to do with nationality, because the haplogroup was formed according to various sources, some young 20 thousand years ago, some 40 thousand years ago, 60 thousand years ago, and the oldest 200 thousand years ago. Of course, the concept of "nationality" does not correspond in any way with the concept of "haplogroup", nationalities have recently formed according to historical standards. Ethnoi quite recently, too. Ethnos is a community, again, of territory, language and place of residence, well, yes, territory is the place of residence, language, and often cultural things, often religion invests in the concept of "ethnos". Let's say there is an ethnos, a common large group Slavs, and ethnic groups are different. The ethnos of Poles, for example, is not the ethnos of Russians. The ethnos of Ukrainians, the ethnos of Belarusians may well, because the language is slightly different, again, they have a difference in language and territory, and cultural characteristics. Therefore, ethnic groups, nationalities, religion, party membership, have nothing to do with a haplogroup, with a clan, but it happens that it so happened that this group was formed, it lives in one place, and this ethnic group was formed just within this framework, and then this may well correspond with the haplogroup, this cannot be ruled out. For example, there are Basques, they have 90% of the same haplogroup, R1B. And there is the Basque ethnos, that is, in this case, the ethnos and the haplogroup, they are almost cute, almost overlap each other. The fact is that race is a very flexible concept, let's remember Pushkin, such a visiting example. Pushkin has the haplogroup R1A, we learned this from his children, from his grandchildren, great-grandchildren, this question is already clear. Moreover, Pushkin comes from this not the most important, but noble family , his long-time ancestor was the governor Radsha, who is sometimes called Racha, and he served with Alexander Nevsky. He just has R1A, the classic Russian titular, if you like, haplogroup in terms of numbers. And he is R1A, but we know that he is not terrible, not to a small extent, he, in scientific terms, is a mestizo, that is, he has anthropology, race, he already has somewhere at the junction between the Caucasoid race and the Negroid, African . And, let's say, he would marry again a black woman, and his children would be even more black, and they would marry more, that is, 2-3 generations, and it would no longer be distinguishable from black Africans, and the haplogroup was R1A, Pushkins. Here is an example that R1A, and this is Negroid. All haplogroups live in Africa, I don’t know, R1A has not yet met, but R1B millions of people, that is, those who at one time did not come to Europe, but chose freedom, South Africa, their migration path, they settled in the Cameroon region and Chads, and there are millions of people, they speak the local Bantu languages, but they are in the haplogroup R1B. The same, the race is black, and R1B. Therefore, the race changes, I repeat, literally in 2-3 generations. I have a collection of photographs, let's say one of them, Khakass. Khakasses, they are Mongoloid, Siberian people, and he, Khakass, purely Mongoloid in face, married a blonde Muscovite, it happened, and children went, children have grandchildren. And I have a photograph of my granddaughter, they are already Muscovites, as I understand it, and they are playing somewhere in the sandbox, completely blond blondes, you can’t distinguish from Russians, and grandfather or great-grandfather was a complete Mongoloid. Therefore here anthropology changes at the moment. You will leave, I repeat, although it is already clear to everyone, you will leave for the American Indians, 2-3 generations cannot be distinguished, but the haplogroup will remain. Therefore, the usual concept, they ask, how can it be, R1A is in Altai, Mongoloids live there, this cannot be, that is, people do not understand that these are different things. The genus that comes from ancient times, on this path of the genus there can be any kind of variation in the race, there is no correlation here. For the same reason that at one time the ancient Aryans, they passed through the territory of the entire Russian Plain, passed further along the southern territories, passed through Central Asia and left many descendants among the Kirghiz. Among the Kyrgyz, anyone who lived there, was there or passed by, knows that there are many blue-eyed, fair-haired Kyrgyz, completely different, he is a Kyrgyz, and therefore here again the anthropology of the race, the shape of the eyes, and so on, are in no way connected with R1A. Related, in what sense, if you go to the Russian village, of course, you are unlikely to meet many Australian aborigines, American Indians or black Africans there, everyone will be more or less the same person, they will all be fair-haired, the type is known. Why? Yes, because they marry their own. The point is, why do the races continue to keep separate? Because they usually marry their own. Why would a peasant from a Russian village rush to marry the daughter of an American Indian? This happens, but extremely rarely. Firstly, this is true, purely geographically, in terms of capabilities, they are always on their own. Further, their standards of beauty, the Mongols have their own standard of beauty, a flat round face, they are like the moon, but for a Russian this is not included in the standard of beauty, he has his own ideas about beauties, so they choose again according to their standards of beauty. And so it turns out that one more or less holds. If we take the genome, by the way, the question is asked, but how is the genome, is there a Russian genome? No, there is no Russian genome, but, nevertheless, because the Russian genome is again three different, as a rule, basically, three different genera folded it, and each made contributions, where more, where less, but if you take all of Russia go through, make an averaged genome, and then an averaged genome across Africa, across Australia, let’s say, an averaged genome across an aboriginal, then, of course, it will be different, so the question always comes down to what we want to see, and what question can you answer with this answer, and with what methods we work, what we, in fact, do. Therefore, the answer, I repeat once again, is important, a haplogroup is neither an ethnic group, nor a race, nor a nationality, and as I say, neither party membership, to emphasize that this is not connected in any way, and not a profession, a profession can have different kinds. This must be distinguished, because thousands of people are mistaken in thinking that this is due to nationalities and races.
Haplogroup(in human population genetics, the science that studies the genetic history of mankind) is a large group of similar haplotypes, which are a series of alleles on non-recombinable regions of the Y chromosome. Halpogroups are divided into Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) and mitochondrial (mt-DNA). Y-DNA is the direct paternal line, i.e. son, father, grandfather, etc., and mtDNA is the direct maternal line, i.e. daughter, mother, grandmother, great-grandmother, and so on. The term "haplogroup" is widely used in genetic DNA genealogy.
Haplogroup R1a1 has about 300 million males. The first common ancestor of modern R1a1 carriers lived about 300 generations ago.
Distribution of haplogroup R1a:
The percentage indicates the share of R1a from the total number of the ethnic group
- Russians 48%
- Poles 56%
- Ukrainians 54%
- Belarusians 51%
- Czechs 34%
- Kyrgyz 63%
- Shors 56%
- Altaians 54%
- Chuvash 31.5%
- Tajiks 53%
- Punjabis 54% (Pakistan-India)
- India as a whole 30%, upper castes 43%
It originated about 15,000 years ago in Asia and subsequently broke up into several subclades, or, as they are also called, child haplogroups. We will consider the main ones - these are Z283 and Z93. R1a1-Z93 is an Asian marker characteristic of the Turks, Jews, Indians. With the participation of the haplogroup R1a1-Z93, they invented the wheel in the steppe, designed the first wagons and tamed the horse. These were the cultures of the Andronov circle. The haplogroup quickly mastered the entire strip of the Eurasian steppes from the Caspian Sea to Transbaikalia, breaking up into many different tribes with different ethnocultural characteristics.
R1a1-Z283 is a European marker and is typical for the most part for the Slavs, but not only, the Scandinavians and the British also have their own separate subclades. In general, today ancient haplogroup R1a1 is most typical for Slavic, Turkic and Indian ethnic groups.
The excavations of the "Country of Cities" in the Southern Urals confirmed that already about 4000 years ago in the fortified settlement of Arkaim there were premises for personal and public use, residential and workshops. In some rooms, not only pottery workshops, but also metallurgical production were found.
During the excavations, about 8,000 sq. m of the area of the settlement (about half), the second part was investigated using archeomagnetic methods. Thus, the layout of the monument was completely established. Here, for the first time in the Trans-Urals, the reconstruction method was applied, and L.L. Gurevich made drawings of a possible type of settlement. R1a1-Z93 was probably one of the main haplogroups in Arkaim and Sintasht.
Currently, most of Europe speaks Indo-European languages, while the haplogroup R1b more specific to Western Europe, and R1a- Eastern Europe. In countries closer to central Europe, both of these haplogroups are present. So haplogroup R1a occupies about 30% of the population of Norway, and about 15% in East Germany - apparently the remnants of the direct Y-lines of the Polabian Slavs once assimilated by the Germans.
In the second millennium BC, presumably due to climate change or due to military strife, part of R1a1 (subclade Z93 and other haplogroups of Central Asia) began to migrate south and east beyond the steppe, part (subclade L657) went towards India and, having joined to local tribes, took part in the creation of a caste society. Those distant events are described in ancient literary source humanity - "Rig Veda".
The other part began to move in the Middle East direction. On the territory of modern Turkey, they presumably founded the Hittite state, which successfully competed with ancient Egypt. The Hittites built cities, but could not become famous for building huge pyramids, because, unlike Egypt, the Hittite society was a society free people, and they were alien to the idea of using forced labor. Hittite state disappeared suddenly, swept away by a powerful wave of barbarian tribes known as the "peoples of the sea." In the middle of the last century, archaeologists found the richest library of clay tablets with Hittite texts, the language turned out to belong to the Indo-European group of languages. So we gained detailed knowledge about the first state, part of the male lines of which presumably consisted of the haplogroup R1a1-Z93.
Slavic subclades of the haplogroup R1a1-Z283 form their own cluster of haplotypes, which is completely unrelated to any Western European subclades haplogroup R1a, nor Indo-Iranian, and the separation of European R1a1-Z283 speakers from Asian R1a1-Z93 speakers occurred about 6,000 years ago.
In October 539 (BC), the Iranian tribe of Persians captured Babylon, the leader of the Persians, Cyrus, decided not to leave, but to seriously settle in the captured city. Subsequently, Cyrus managed to significantly expand his possessions, so the great Persian Empire arose, which lasted longer than all the empires in the world - 1190 years! In 651 AD, Persia, weakened by civil strife, fell under the onslaught of the Arabs, and this may have led to a change in the haplogroup composition of the population. Now in present-day Iran haplogroup R1a makes up about 10% of the population.
Three world religions are associated with the Indo-Aryans - Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster was a Persian and possibly a carrier of R1a1, and the Buddha came from the Shakya Indian tribe, among whose modern representatives haplogroups O3 and J2 were found.
Most peoples consist of many haplogroups, and there is no genus that would dominate the rest. There is also no connection between the haplogroup and the appearance of a person, and as you can see, many representatives of the haplogroup R1a1 even belong to different races. many R1a1-Z93 are characterized by Mongoloid features (Kyrgyz, Altaians, Khotons, etc.), while the carriers of R1a1-Z283 are mostly European in appearance (Poles, Russians, Belarusians, etc.). A large number of Finnish tribes have high percentages haplogroup R1a1, some of which were assimilated with the arrival of the Slavic colonists of the 9th century.
Achievements that R1a1 may be related to:
Wheel, wagons, horse domestication, metallurgy, trousers, boots, dresses, the world's first paved "autobahn" with a length of more than 1000 km with "refueling" stations - replacing horses, and much more.
In a small article it is difficult to tell the whole history of the first Indo-Europeans, it is possible to arouse interest in the history of the ancient ancestors of the Slavs only with some historical fragments. Type words in the search engine Indo-Aryans, Turks, Slavs, Scythians, Sarmatians, Persia, and you will plunge into a fascinating journey through the glorious history of the Indo-European and Slavic peoples.
haplogroup tree.
Until 2007, no one carried out detailed reconstructions of childbirth, no one came up with this idea, and it was not possible to solve such a grandiose task. Many population geneticists have worked with small samples of short 6-marker haplotypes, which make it possible to obtain general genographic ideas about the distribution of haplogroups.
In 2009, a professional population geneticist set out to build a detailed family tree of this haplogroup. Faced with a number of problems, for example, the calculation of large samples over long haplotypes by conventional methods was impossible due to the astronomical number of operations, not a single computer was able to sort through the required number of combinations, but thanks to resourcefulness and the desire to build a tree of its haplogroup, these problems were overcome.
After R1a1 many haplogroups began to create their own trees.
The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of bygone days, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.
Haplogroup R1b
Haplogroup R1b is a parallel subclade for haplogroup R1a. The ancestor of the haplogroup R1b was born about 16,000 years ago in Central Asia from the parent genus R1. About 10,000 years ago, the R1b haplogroup broke up into several subclades, which began to diverge in different directions. The eastern branch, subclade R1b-M73, is associated by some scientists with the ancient Tocharians, who took part in the ethnogenesis of such a people as the modern Uighurs.
Promotion haplogroup R1b west to Europe probably took place in several stages. Some may be associated with Neolithic migrations from Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, and some with post-Neolithic migrations and the spread of the archaeological culture of the Bell-shaped Cups.
There is also a version about migration along the North African coast to the Strait of Gibraltar, with further transfer to the Pyrenees in the form of the archaeological culture of the Bell-shaped Cups - but this hypothesis is too much of a stretch. In any case, most European representatives of the R1b haplogroup have the P312 snip, which definitely occurred already in Europe.
After Egyptian scientists analyzed the mummy Tutankhamen, it was found that Pharaoh turned out to be a member of the haplogroup R1b.
Now the majority of representatives haplogroup R1b1a2 lives in Western Europe, where haplogroup R1b1a2 is the main haplogroup. In Russia, only the Bashkir people have a large percentage of this haplogroup. In the Russian people, the haplogroup R1b is no more than 5%. In the Petrine and Catherine eras, public policy massive attraction of foreign specialists from Germany and the rest of Europe, many Russian R1b are their descendants. Also, some part could enter the Russian ethnos from the East - this is primarily a subclade of R1b-M73. Some R1b-L23 may be migrants from the Caucasus, where they came from the Transcaucasus and Western Asia.
Europe
Modern concentration haplogroup R1b is maximum in the territories of the migration routes of the Celts and Germans: in southern England about 70%, in northern and western England, Spain, France, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more. And also, for example, among the Basques - 88.1%, Spaniards - 70%, Italians - 40%, Belgians - 63%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9% and others.
In Eastern Europe haplogroup R1b occurs much less frequently. Czechs and Slovaks - 35.6%, Latvians - 10%, Hungarians - 12.1%, Estonians - 6%, Poles - 10.2% -16.4%, Lithuanians - 5%, Belarusians - 4.2% , Russians - from 1.3% to 14.1%, Ukrainians - from 2% to 11.1%.
In the Balkans - among the Greeks - from 13.5% to 22.8%, Slovenes - 21%, Albanians - 17.6%, Bulgarians - 17%, Croats - 15.7%, Romanians - 13%, Serbs - 10, 6%, Herzegovinians - 3.6%, Bosniaks - 1.4%.
Asia
In the Southern Urals, it is significantly common among the Bashkirs - about 43%.
In the Caucasus, Digora was found among Ossetians - 23% and Armenians - 28.4%.
In Turkey it reaches 16.3%, in Iraq - 11.3% and in other countries of Western Asia.
In Central Asia, it was found, in particular, among Turkmens - 36.7%, Uzbeks - 9.8%, Tatars - 8.7%, Kazakhs - 5.6%, Uighurs - from 8.2% to 19.4%
In Pakistan - 6.8%, in India it is insignificant - 0.55%.
Africa
Among Algerian Arabs from Oran - 10.8%, Tunisian Arabs - 7%, Algerian Berbers - 5.8%, in Morocco - about 2.5%, in sub-Saharan Africa distributed in Cameroon - about 95% (subclade R1b-V88) .
Those who have been to the West, from time to time experienced distrust, a certain dislike, and sometimes even outright hostility on the part of Western Europeans. Research by sociologists shows that the British, Irish, Dutch, Belgians, Portuguese, whom the Russians never modern history the attackers feel much more distrust, fear and hostility towards us than the Finns, Swedes or Turks, with whom Russia has been at war for the past two centuries. Russians, in turn, also often experienced distrust, hatred and subconscious fear towards representatives of Western civilizations.
At the same time, on a conscious level, both of them can communicate perfectly with each other, make friends and love. What is the reason? Turns out it's all about genetics. Studies conducted by modern scientists have shown that the hostility between the ancestors of Russians and Western Europeans began 5000 years ago. What happened in those distant times?
According to research by scientists at Harvard University, each person has a kind of "biological marker" that is passed unchanged from father to son through a direct male line - the Y chromosome and persists for many thousands of years. Scientists have determined that all people are divided into 20 genera according to these genetic markers - i.e. at the base of all races and peoples many years ago there were only 20 people who gave offspring to modern humanity. Of course, there were more births, but only these 20 survived.
In Europe, there were only 4 such genera: genus I (first appeared in Europe about 15-20 thousand years ago), genus C (came to Europe about 3 thousand years ago and is associated with the Finno-Ugric population), genus R1A ( moved to Europe about 10 thousand years ago) and the genus R1B, which settled in Europe about 5 thousand years ago. The genus R1A includes mainly the population of the Russian Plain, as well as the southeastern Baltic. The genus R1B includes mainly the population Western Europe. In Central Europe, both genera are mixed and occur in approximately equal proportions.
Approximately 5 thousand years ago, a terrible tragedy occurred in Europe. From the East, huge hordes of wild conquerors burst into the continent, who not only destroyed everything in their path, but, as archaeological studies have shown, were cannibals. Now you will have a little shock. These were the ancestors of modern Anglo-Saxons and other Western Europeans (genus R1B). Having conquered the entire territory of Europe, they settled in its central and western parts. Most of the Indo-Europeans and other peoples of Europe were destroyed or assimilated by the Anglo-Saxons, but some fled to the Balkans, Scandinavia and the current Russian Plain, giving rise to the Slavs and other peoples. The language, which the Anglo-Saxons originally spoke, still cannot be attributed to any language group (its remnants have been preserved among the Gauls, Basques and Britons). Later, over the course of about 500 - 1000 years, most Western Europeans changed their native language to the language of the genus R1A (Indo-European), although more simplified. What it was connected with is still unknown, perhaps more high culture, which was among the peoples exterminated by them. For a long time, this information was diligently kept silent so as not to destroy the stereotypes about the cultural peoples of Europe.
At the turn of our era, the descendants of the R1A clan (Scythians, Sarmatians, Slavs, Germanic-Goths, Huns, Alans and others), who were called barbarians in Europe, tried to take revenge. They marched with sword and fire throughout Europe, destroying the Great Roman Empire.
Russians have many useful mutations
The Russian genome was deciphered at the Russian scientific center "Kurchatov Institute" [audio]
Yes, we have received the complete genome of a Russian male, - Konstantin Skryabin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, head of the genomic direction at the Kurchatov Institute, confirmed the achievement. - And now there is an opportunity to compare with him the previously compiled genetic "portraits" of Africans, Chinese, Koreans and Europeans. In addition, Russia has entered the club of countries that are capable of implementing such large-scale projects.
When reading genetic information, Russian researchers used the achievements of nanotechnology and a powerful Kurchatov supercomputer. And they deciphered the genome faster and cheaper than previously managed by foreign colleagues.
One of the authors of the study, leading researcher, head of the laboratory of genomic analysis, candidate of biological sciences Egor PROKHORCHUK, talks about the results.
SEARCH FOR "PRINTS"
- Egor Borisovich, how did you look for a “purely” Russian?
First, there were expeditions together with ethnographic specialists from institutes in Ufa, Tomsk, and Novosibirsk. Then they made collections of various ethnic groups: Russians, Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts, Buryats, Ukrainians, Mingrelians, Ossetians, Abkhazians, Karelians. In total, about 1.5 thousand people of 40 ethnic groups of the Russian Federation. Analyzed their genes. But not completely the genome, but only "typos" in it. This allowed us to find differences between ethnic groups. Now, if they brought me two tubes of blood belonging to people different nationalities, and asked to guess who is who, I could easily figure them out.
By the way, more than 100 nationalities live in Russia. But the Russians are the majority - there are about 70 million of them. The second largest ethnic group is the Tatars, then the Ukrainians. Most likely, the next genome that we will undertake to decipher will be the Tatar genome.
- So who is Russian? The one who speaks Russian? Who has a Russian mom and dad?
- It does not matter. The main thing is that it fits into the mathematical model of the Russian human genome that we have compiled. It is very complex and understandable only to specialists.
- But in the end you came up with a specific Russian that meets all the parameters of your model?
- Yes, it turned out to be one person from the cancer center who suffered from kidney cancer. And his genome was completely deciphered.
- Why did they take the patient?
- Hospital patients are under the constant supervision of doctors, and it is easy to take tests from them.
THE TRAIL OF THE TATARS IS ERASED
- There is a common expression that the Tatar seed watered the Russian land. How much of this seed do we have?
- Hardly ever. We find very little Tatar roots in modern Russians. Russians are much closer to Europeans. We have a lot in common with the Poles, East Germans, Balts - in general, with all the Slavic peoples living in Eastern Europe. And we are far from Tatars, Bashkirs, Khanty, Yakuts, Buryats.
- Do Russians differ in any way from everyone else?
- We cannot give a complete list of differences yet. For example, in order to understand how Russians differ from Chinese, it is necessary to decipher the genomes of at least 10 Russians and 10 Chinese. And find something in common among them. We still have the decoded genomes of one Chinese and one Russian. In general, the task is: to decipher 1000 genomes of each nation.
DRINK MUCH
In the meantime, it turned out, for example, that in Russians, unlike Asians, the alcohol dehydrogenase gene more actively produces the enzyme responsible for the decomposition of alcohol. And that's why Russians need a lot more booze to get drunk. Whereas for other Asians, a glass is enough.
Another difference has to do with the lactose gene, which is responsible for the digestion of milk. This gene is present in all northern people and absent in southern peoples. Its presence is associated with the development of dairy farming as people move north, when humanity settled on the Earth. Now the Italians, the Jews, don't digest milk, because historically they never drank it. And among the Scandinavians, the Dutch, and Russians, milk is one of the main foodstuffs.
Another interesting fact. It turned out that Russian Pomors living on the White Sea have some differences that make this population very resistant to HIV. In general, all northern peoples, including Russians, Scandinavians, especially Icelanders, residents of Northern Norway, have a very high percentage of such beneficial mutations that make these people resistant to HIV infection. Therefore, in northern countries, including Russia, the rate of development of AIDS turned out to be much lower than many doctors predicted. And at southern peoples there is no such strong protective function at the gene level.
- Can you find out which diseases are inherent in which nation?
- This is a matter for the future. But, for example, there is an Ashkenazi disease inherent in a closed group of Jews. And so that sick children are not born, many Jews, for example in the New York community, take a genetic compatibility test before marriage. But the Russians will definitely have fewer such problems, because we actively took other genes and did not accumulate harmful mutations.
Does cancer eat everyone?
- For Russia, this is not the most important disease. The first cause of death in our country is cardiovascular diseases, then injuries, cancer is in third position. In general, all complex diseases, including oncology, are not encoded by any one gene. Their development is influenced by a whole range of factors: ecology, nutrition, stress, lifestyle. Genetics is just one factor, maybe important, but not always 100% predictive.
- World renowned physiologist professor at Oxford
Dennis Noble in his acclaimed book The Music of Life. Biology Beyond the Genes states that the genome is not a "program of life" and does not determine anything in a person's life. Do you agree?
- No, this is an expression of extreme position. And there are scientists who are convinced that, on the contrary, everything and nothing depends on the genome - on external factors. We believe that it is necessary to adhere to the golden mean. For example, in America genetic testing of women for breast cancer brings very good results. When they find out that they are predisposed to this disease, they do a mammogram twice a year. And, surprisingly, the mortality in this group is significantly lower than that of those who did not turn to genetics.
SECOND PASSPORT
- Will each person have a genetic passport, where all his features and predispositions will be described?
- Of course, the whole world is moving towards the so-called personal medicine. In the USA, there is a company called "23 and I" - 23 chromosomes and I, where you can send a sample of your saliva and within 1.5 months get information via the Internet about your predisposition to some of the 150 diseases. It costs 600 - 700 dollars. In Russia, too, something similar will appear next year. But the world is moving toward the next step being to read the entire genome. And in Russia, genetic passports may appear in 5-10 years.
- How much does it cost to decipher the genome of one person?
- Now $150,000. But in the future, the price will not exceed $1,000. By the way, in 2001 the decoding of the first genome cost 3 billion dollars.
- How can a passport help a doctor?
- On the card with your genome, the doctor can see the weak points. And for diagnostics, you no longer have to run around a hundred rooms. You will purposefully monitor those diseases to which you are prone. And take only those drugs that will be absorbed by your body.
- Are there drugs that not all genes "digest"?
- It turned out that there is. Not so long ago, it turned out that one drug for cardiovascular diseases worked well for Africans, but did not affect whites at all. The reason was hidden in one component of the drug, acting on a protein, which was different in blacks and whites.
- But then it will be possible to make a remedy that will not heal, but destroy one or another nation? And thus create a genetic weapon?
- It is quite possible.
- Knowing the entire human genome, will discrimination be possible, for example, when applying for a job?
- Until 2013, there is a worldwide moratorium on the use of genetic data when applying for a job or issuing insurance for your life. After all, if the insurance company knows about the predisposition to a fatal disease, then it will not be profitable for it to insure you for a small amount so as not to be in flight itself.
But 2013 is just around the corner. What will happen next?
- Unknown. This is more of a humanitarian issue than a scientific one.
- But discrimination is inevitable? And after it - and the stratification of society?
- Of course, everything goes to this. To do this, we must be fully armed so as not to be on the sidelines of history. Therefore, an appropriate center and our laboratory have been created at the Kurchatov Institute, which, at the right time, will be able to respond to the new challenge of the time. As once, in the 1940s - 1950s, our institute responded to the challenge associated with the creation of a nuclear bomb, the first Russian reactor. When the very fact of the existence of Russia as an independent state was connected with the history of the creation of the Kurchatov Institute. http://www.kp.ru/daily/24429.5/598146/
Haplogroups of Russians
By nature, the genetic code of all people is arranged in such a way that each has 23 pairs of chromosomes, which store all the hereditary information inherited from both parents. The formation of chromosomes occurs at the time of meiosis, when, in the process of crossing over, each randomly takes about half from the maternal chromosome and half from the paternal, which specific genes will be inherited from the mother and which from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance. Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery, it is completely transmitted from father to son like a baton. I will clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.
In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain regions of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations by male gender. It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genus. There are only about 400 loci on the Y chromosome, but only about a hundred are used for comparative haplotype analysis and genera reconstruction.
In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR-markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, the overall pattern of which is unique for each person. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus it will be seen on the common tree that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for the haplotype group.
The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of bygone days, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.
What haplogroups are most common among Russians?
| peoples | qty, Man | R1a1, | R1b1, | I1, | I2, | N1c1, | E1b1b1, | J2, | G2a, |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs. | |||||||||
| Russians(north) | 395 | 34 | 6 | 10 | 8 | 35 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Russians(center) | 388 | 52 | 8 | 5 | 10 | 16 | 4 | 1 | 1 |
| Russians(south) | 424 | 50 | 4 | 4 | 16 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 3 |
| Russians (Everybody Great Russians) | 1207 | 47 | 7 | 5 | 12 | 20 | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| Belarusians | 574 | 52 | 10 | 3 | 16 | 10 | 3 | 2 | 2 |
| Ukrainians | 93 | 54 | 2 | 5 | 16 | 8 | 8 | 6 | 3 |
| Russians(together with Ukrainians and Belarusians) | 1874 | 48 | 7 | 4 | 13 | 16 | 4 | 3 | 3 |
| Poles | 233 | 56 | 16 | 7 | 10 | 8 | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| Slovaks | 70 | 47 | 17 | 6 | 11 | 3 | 9 | 4 | 1 |
| Czechs | 53 | 38 | 19 | 11 | 12 | 3 | 8 | 6 | 5 |
| Slovenians | 70 | 37 | 21 | 12 | 20 | 0 | 7 | 3 | 2 |
| Croatians | 108 | 24 | 10 | 6 | 39 | 1 | 10 | 6 | 2 |
| Serbs | 113 | 16 | 11 | 6 | 29 | 1 | 20 | 7 | 1 |
| Bulgarians | 89 | 15 | 11 | 5 | 20 | 0 | 21 | 11 | 5 |
| Balts, Finns, Germans, Greeks, etc. | |||||||||
| Lithuanians | 164 | 34 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 44 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Latvians | 113 | 39 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 42 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Finns (east) | 306 | 6 | 3 | 19 | 0 | 71 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Finns (west) | 230 | 9 | 5 | 40 | 0 | 41 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| swedes | 160 | 16 | 24 | 36 | 3 | 11 | 3 | 3 | 1 |
| Germans | 98 | 8 | 48 | 25 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 3 |
| Germans (Bavarians) | 80 | 15 | 48 | 16 | 4 | 0 | 8 | 6 | 5 |
| English | 172 | 5 | 67 | 14 | 6 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 1 |
| Irish | 257 | 1 | 81 | 6 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Italians | 99 | 2 | 44 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 13 | 18 | 8 |
| Romanians | 45 | 20 | 18 | 2 | 18 | 0 | 7 | 13 | 7 |
| Ossetians | 359 | 1 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 16 | 67 | |
| Armenians | 112 | 2 | 26 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 6 | 20 | 10 |
| Greeks | 116 | 4 | 14 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 21 | 23 | 5 |
| Turks | 103 | 7 | 17 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 10 | 24 | 12 |
Particularly noteworthy are the most common haplogroups among Russians: R1a1 47.0%, N1c1 20.0%, I2 10.6%, I1 6.2%
talking in simple words: genetic composition Russians along the straight male lines of the Y-chromosome is as follows:
Eastern Europeans - 47%
Baltics - 20%
And two haplogroups of original Europeans since the Paleolithic
Scandinavians - 6%
Balkans - 11%
The names are conditional and given in accordance with the territorial maximums European subclades for haplogroups R1a1, N1c1, I1 and I2. The fundamental point is that there were no descendants of the Mongols after the two hundred year Tatar-Mongol yoke. Either left, but a very small number of direct genetic heirs from such relationships. With these words, I do not want to question historical sources about the Mongols in Rus', but only to pay attention to the supposed genetic influence from the Mongol-Tatars on the Russians - it is not there, or it is insignificant. By the way, there are also a large number of carriers in the genome of the Bulgar Tatars haprogroups R1a1(about 30%) and N1c1(about 20%), but they are mostly non-European.
One more important point, southern Russians do not differ from Ukrainians within the margin of error, and northern Russians, having one of the predominant haplogroups R1a1, also have a higher percentage of haplogroup N1c1. But the percentage of N1c1 haplotypes is on average 20% in Russians.
Nicholas 2
The first known ancestor of the Grand Ducal House of Oldenburg was Egilmar, Count of Lerigau (d. 1108), mentioned in the annals for 1091.
Nicholas II turned out to be the carrier of the haplogroup R1b1a2- a representative of the Western European line. Perhaps he was a descendant of the Celtic or Germanic families, but this can only be established by additional testing and determination of the terminal snip. In any case, this is not quite typical for Russian people DNA marker.
Rurikovichi
Vladimir Monomakh and his descendants, referred to as "Monomachis" belong to the haplogroup N1c1-L550, which is most common in the South Baltic region (L1025) and less common in Scandinavia (xL1025).
Some of those whom historians call the Olgoviches (named after Oleg Svyatoslavovich - the main rival of Vladimir Monomakh in the feudal struggle - and, as all sources assure, his cousin) are not related to the Rurikovichs from the Monomashich clan (in a direct male line).
Russians, Slavs, Indo-Europeans and haplogroups R1a, R1b, N1c, I1 and I2
In ancient times, about 8-9 millennia ago, there was a linguistic group that laid the foundation for the Indo-European family of languages (at the initial stage, these are most likely the haplogroups R1a and R1b). The Indo-European family includes such linguistic groups as Indo-Iranians (South Asia), Slavs and Balts (Eastern Europe), Celts (Western Europe), Germans (Central, Northern Europe). Perhaps they also had common genetic ancestors, who about 7 thousand years ago, as a result of migrations, ended up in different parts of Eurasia, some went south and east (R1a-Z93), laying the foundation for the Indo-Iranian peoples and languages (largely taking part in the ethnogenesis of the Turkic peoples), and part remained on the territory of Europe and laid the foundation for the formation of many European peoples (R1b-L51), including the Slavs and Russians in particular (R1a-Z283, R1b-L51). At different stages of formation, already in antiquity there were intersections of migration flows, which caused the presence of a large number of haplogroups in all European ethnic groups.The Slavic languages emerged from the once unified group of Balto-Slavic languages (presumably the archaeological culture of the late Corded Ware). According to the calculations of the linguist Starostin, this happened about 3.3 millennia ago. Period from the 5th century BC to the 4th-5th century AD can be considered conditionally Proto-Slavic, tk. The Balts and Slavs had already split up, but there were no Slavs themselves yet, they will appear a little later, in the 4th-6th centuries AD. At the initial stage of the formation of the Slavs, probably about 80% were haplogroups R1a-Z280 and I2a-M423. At the initial stage of the formation of the Balts, probably about 80% were haplogroups N1c-L1025 and R1a-Z280. The influence and intersection of the migrations of the Balts and Slavs was from the very beginning, because in many respects this division is arbitrary, and in general reflects only the main trend, without details.
The Iranian languages are Indo-European, and their dating is as follows - the most ancient, from the 2nd millennium BC. to the 4th century BC, the middle one - from the 4th century BC. to the 9th century AD, and a new one - from the 9th century AD. Until now. That is, the most ancient Iranian languages appear after the departure of part of the tribes who spoke Indo-European languages from Central Asia to India and Iran. Their main haplogroups were probably R1a-Z93, J2a, G2a3. The Western Iranian group of languages appeared later, around the 5th century BC.
Thus, the Indo-Aryans, Celts, Germans and Slavs in academic science became Indo-Europeans, this term is the most adequate for such a vast and diverse group. This is absolutely correct. In the genetic aspect, the heterogeneity of the Indo-Europeans is striking both in Y-haplogroups and in autosomes. The Indo-Iranians are characterized to a greater extent by the Western Asian genetic influence of BMAC.
According to the Indian Vedas, it was the Indo-Aryans who came to India (South Asia) from the north (from Central Asia), and it was their hymns and legends that formed the basis of the Indian Vedas. And, continuing further, let's touch on linguistics, because this Russian language (and its related Baltic languages, for example, Lithuanian as part of the once existing Balto-Slavic linguistic community) is relatively close to Sanskrit along with Celtic, Germanic and other languages of the large Indo-European family . But in the genetic plan, the Indo-Aryans were already to a greater extent Western Asians, as they approached India, the Vedoid influence also intensified.
So it became clear that haplogroup R1a in DNA genealogy, this is a common haplogroup for part of the Slavs, part of the Turks and part of the Indo-Aryans (because naturally there were representatives of other haplogroups in their environment), part haplogroup R1a1 during migrations along the Russian Plain, they became part of the Finno-Ugric peoples, for example, the Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha). Part of the tribes (for haplogroup R1a1 this is a subclade of Z93) during migrations they brought this Indo-European language to India and Iran about 3500 years ago, that is, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In India, by the labors of the great Panini, it was converted into Sanskrit in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, and in Persia-Iran, the Aryan languages became the basis of a group of Iranian languages, the oldest of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. These data are confirmed: DNA genealogy and linguistics are correlated here.
Large part haplogroups R1a1-Z93 even in ancient times, they joined the Turkic ethnic groups and today mark the migration of the Turks in many ways, which is not surprising in view of antiquity haplogroup R1a1 while the representatives haplogroups R1a1-Z280 were part of the Finno-Ugric tribes, but during the settlement of the Slavic colonists, many of them were assimilated by the Slavs, but even now among many peoples, for example, the Erzya is still the dominant haplogroup R1a1-Z280.
All this new data was able to provide us DNA genealogy, in particular, the approximate dates of the migrations of haplogroup carriers in the territory of the modern Russian Plain and Central Asia in prehistoric times.
So scientists to all Slavs, Celts, Germans, etc. gave the name of the Indo-Europeans, which is true from the point of view of linguistics.
Where did these Indo-Europeans come from? In fact, there were Indo-European languages long before the migrations to India and Iran, all over the Russian Plain and as far as the Balkans in the south, and as far as the Pyrenees in the west. Later, the language was spread to South Asia - both to Iran and India. But in genetic terms, the correlations are much smaller.
“The only justified and accepted at the present time in science is the use of the term “Aryans” only in relation to the tribes and peoples who spoke the Indo-Iranian languages.”
So in which direction did the Indo-European flow go - to the west, to Europe, or vice versa, to the east? According to some estimates, the Indo-European language family is about 8500 years old. The ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans has not yet been determined, but according to one of the versions it could be the Black Sea region - southern or northern. In India, as we already know, the Indo-Aryan language was introduced about 3500 years ago, presumably from the territory of Central Asia, and the Aryans themselves were a group with different genetic Y-lines, like R1a1-L657, G2a, J2a, J2b.
Haplogroup R1a1 in Western and Southern Europe
Analysis of 67 marker haplotypes haplogroup R1a1 from all European countries made it possible to determine the approximate path of migration of R1a1 ancestors in the direction of Western Europe. And calculations showed that almost throughout Europe, from Iceland in the north to Greece in the south, the common ancestor of the R1a1 haplogroup was one approximately 7500 years ago! In other words, the descendants, like a relay race, passed on their haplotypes to their own descendants from generation to generation, dispersing in the process of migration from the same historical place - which turned out to be presumably the Balkans or the Black Sea Lowland. And not just the Balkans, but Serbia, Bosnia, Macedonia, as well as Belarus, Ukraine, Russia. This is the area of the most ancient haplotypes of the haplogroup R1a1. And the lifetime of the first ancestor, which is indicated by the most ancient, most mutated haplotypes, is 7.5 thousand years ago. In those days there were no Slavs, no Germans, no Celts.The disadvantage of the method
If you did the test, and it pleased you greatly, then I hasten to bring in my ladle of tar. Yes, the Y chromosome is transmitted from father to son practically unchanged, but actually genetically useful information not in it, in other pairs of chromosomes there are much more genes.
And these other 22 are shuffled in a very random way, with no trace of such mixing left on Y.
Imagine. Anglo-Saxon sailors captured the Negro state. Women are not taken on such trips, and you have to establish contact with the local population. What are the options?
1) The Anglo-Saxons have children from black women, but the nationality is transferred only to boys. In this case, the Y chromosome will be transferred to the European one, but the proportion of actually significant European genes will decrease. The first generation will be half blacks and the former "aristocracy" in such a case will quickly dissolve, although Y will be from this ethnic group. It just won't make much sense. Perhaps something similar happened to the Finns and Indians. The Yakuts and Finns have the highest percentage of the N1c1 haplogroup characteristic of them, but genetically these are completely different peoples with different subclades of the N1c1 haplogroup with their own unique history, separated more than 6 millennia ago. And vice versa, Indians - having a high percentage haplogroup R1a1 genetically they have very little in common with the European representatives of this haplogroup, tk. also various subclades with their own history, separated more than 6 millennia ago.
2) Indo-Aryans are satisfied caste system. The first generation will also be semi-Negro, but then, if the aristocracy interbreeds only among themselves, then the percentage of original genetics will float around 50%. But in practice, marriages will be mainly with local women, and even more so it will be impossible to get the original gene pool of the conquerors. And this happened in the history of the Earth. The upper castes of Hindus from 20% to 72% have haplogroup R1a1(an average of 43%), but genetically they have very little in common with the European or Turkic representatives of the same haplogroup R1a1, and again the reason is the various subclades with their own special history.
A similar situation probably occurred in Cameroon, a Central African country where Y is up to 95% common. haplogroup R1b-V88, but at the same time among a typical anthropologically African Negroid population.
It can be concluded that the presence of a marker and a haplogroup is an important condition for determining nationality, but not sufficient. To determine the national-territorial origin of a person, Family Tree DNA has an autosomal test called Family Finder
Alexey Zorrin http://haplogroup.narod.ru/russ.html 
The modern Internet is a great thing. On the one hand, it contains a lot of interesting and useful information. Information found on the Internet that can be used to develop some concepts, but if a) the author has some horizons on the topic b) when comparing it with counterarguments c) when analyzing arguments and counterarguments from the standpoint of logic, context, verifiability, compliance with the general and adjacent arrays of information in terms of consistency.
Unfortunately, such an approach - in fact, source study, requiring, in fact, a serious humanitarian (exactly such) education and at least a flexible mind and refined logic, is far from being found by everyone. Unscrupulous journalists, bloggers and various kinds of network lunatics love to operate with data taken out of context on the Web. Sometimes the information of the latter contains references to "seemingly scientific" arguments and seems to be "evidence-based" to many inexperienced people. Usually their imaginary scientific character is revealed by smart people rather quickly. As a rule, pseudo-science comes out immediately when texts in question about "they hide the truth from us." Any conspiracy theory always deals with delusional, unverifiable and unprovable things and outright fakes - such are the "Dulles Plan" invented by the commies (which never existed), the mythical phrase "Stalin accepted Russia with a plow and left with atomic bomb"(which Churchill never wrote or said), the classic forgery of the source -" Vlesov's Book "(written, of course, by a self-taught white émigré, and not by the ancient Slavs), and Bushkov's numerous exercises about" Russia that was not "based on the delusional works of Fomenko and Nosovsky, - as an example "The Great Wall of China, built by the ancient Rus, because the teeth are not on the same side" or " Great Wall built by Mao Zedong", all kinds of Chudinovism and Levashovism (the diplomas of these "academicians" can be bought by anyone for 300 dollars), etc.
In various kinds of pseudo-historical arguments concerning the historical origin of Russians and Slavs, it is now fashionable to interweave "haplogroups" as well. With light hand a certain "scientist" (not a biologist at all) Klesov, who lives (like the "academician" Levashov) in the USA (hence the ridiculously familiar trick - an appeal to the authority of "Western science" - "American scientists have proved that the Russians are 4500 years old!"), this one is quite the scientific method of determining paternity and dynasticity began to be used for constructions for which it was not at all intended. As a result, many posts contain monstrously distorted results of its use. The purpose of this post was to clarify the obvious points, so that the numerous references, cited by the authors to the place and out of place, to the fact that "haplogroups proved" were not perceived uncritically when reading some texts.
I will allow myself to clarify some common places in the form of popularly given answers to questions.
Question 1 Can a specific haplogroup indicate a certain nationality? In other words, is there a Russian or German (without quotes) haplogroup?
Answer: No. Why? Because any currently existing nation ethnos consists of people with at least two or three Y-chromosomal haplogroups. In other words, you can be Russian with the haplogroup and I1, and R1a1, and R1b, N3, I2, J2 and even E. The same applies to other peoples. for example, among Ashkenazi Jews - about 12% of the carriers of the allegedly "marker" haplogroup R1a1 for Russians - and it is emphasized that not among "half-breeds" and "goyim", but among the most real, typical representatives of their ethnic group. Etc.
Thus, the correlation of a certain haplogroup with modern nationalities and individual representatives of ethnic groups can only be of a statistical, relative nature. "Measuring skulls" according to haplogroups will not work in any way - it is likely that you will write down a Jew as Russian, and a Russian as a Jew. Whether it is possible to define peoples as "Aryans" by only one criterion - by the presence of a statistically marker haplogroup, is indicated by the presence of R1a among the Poles - 56.4%, and ... the Kyrgyz - as much as 63.5%. And the Volga Tatars are no different from the Russians in terms of the set of haplogroups. I hope that the conclusions are made? In other words, no ethnic community uniting people from the conditionally "Aryan" haplogroup R1a1 will come out. At the same time, there is no objective difference between classical Russians living in the same region, but with the conditionally “Finnish” haplogroup N, and the same classical Russians, carriers of the “Aryan” haplogroup R1a, does not exist. The rest of the gene pool (and in many ways more significant than the haplomarker) among the descendants of “ancestral Finn men” and “ancestral Aryan men” has long been mixed up.
Question 2. What do haplogroups actually talk about and what can they not talk about?
Answer: As follows from answer 1 and as the author of another detailed post on haplogroups correctly noted: "Those sections of the Y-chromosome that serve as markers for isolating haplogroups do not encode anything by themselves and have no biological meaning. These are markers in their purest form They can be compared to the orange and green LEDs in the film "Kin-dza-dza", which were used to identify chatlans and patsaks, and there was no other difference, except for the color of the light bulb, between these "races".
By haplogroup one can judge - statistically(!!! this is important - precisely statistically, i.e. with inevitable errors, but still possible) about the difference, dissimilarity in the origin of certain large ethnolinguistic arrays and the degree of closeness of their contacts (sexual and more). For example, all Turkic peoples are carriers of specific haplogroups. Even if some of the Türks do not have or have very few of their "marker" C, O and Q that are absent from the Slavs, then D, R1b1b1 or N1b, which are less common among the Türks, are still statistically absent from Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. It can be concluded, therefore, that contacts with the Turks throughout history among the Eastern Slavs are statistically insignificant, and the statement that "we are Asians" is incorrect. Such conclusions are quite scientific. It can also be argued that typical "Mongoloid" haplogroups C and Q are not found among Russians at all, and if so, the contacts of the population of Rus' with the Mongols during the period of the yoke were minimal. This, however, is clearly evidenced by all historical sources - 20 years after 1240, all the Mongolian military formations were withdrawn from the territory of Rus' and the Russian princes carried the tribute collected in Rus' to the Horde themselves. Thus, most likely the average Russian peasant of the late 13th and 14th-15th centuries has never seen a single living "Mongol" (Horde) in his life. And this is by no means a "discovery" - haplogroups only confirm what we already know (another thing is that in "popular" anti-historical literature, including textbooks, the content of which is now practically not controlled by scientists, about little is written about it).
Further - from answer 1 it is clear that if representatives of some ethnic group belong to several haplogroups, then this DOES NOT MEAN that this ethnic group is a kind of mechanical combination of populations with different gene pools. The rest of the gene pool, except for the Y-chromosomes, they will be mixed with no practical possibility of difference. 16% of haplogroup N among Russians in regions north of Moscow does not mean that 16% of them are supposedly "more Finns than Slavs" - both for the reason indicated above (mixing beyond recognition of everything else, much more important, the gene pool) and for reasons statistical - because among the population of Finland - only 60% of the population have this haplogroup, and among Estonians such in general - 40%.
I will quote again - "The peculiarity of the Y chromosome is that it is transmitted from father to son almost unchanged and does not experience "mixing" and "dilution" by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal descent. If the term "dynasty" has any biological meaning, then this is precisely the inheritance of the Y-chromosome.The Y-chromosomal haplogroup defines the totality of men united by the presence of such a marker, i.e. descended from a common ancestor-patriarch, who had many thousands of years ago there was a specific mutation of the Y chromosome."
Modern science is inclined to believe that these mutations could have occurred between 50 and 10 thousand years ago, and the creationist version, which seems to me more truthful, speaks of the utter uncertainty of the results of using "biological clock" methods (they give completely different values) and says about the probable practical simultaneity of the appearance of these mutations associated with the legend of tower of babel and the scattering of nations. Whether one or the other is right, for us, living today, in principle, is not very important.
What matters is that Y - the chromosome does not determine the gene pool. It is not a carrier of some "ethnically defined" information in the genome. From over 20,000 genes human genome, the Y chromosome contains only about 100 pieces. They encode mainly the structure and functioning of the male genital organs. There is no other information there. Facial features, skin color, features of the psyche and thinking are spelled out on other chromosomes which, when inherited, pass through recombination (paternal and maternal parts of the chromosomes are mixed randomly). The carrier of the "Aryan chromosome" after hundreds of generations can be a typical Negro (if, say, a Negro mother flew in the 16th century from the Portuguese). And vice versa.
Thus. people who talk about "Aryan", "Semitic", "Russian", "Finnish", "Celtic" haplogroups not in their conditional marker meaning tied to MODERNITY, but literally understood, and even transfer these definitions to the distant past - are mistaken and confuse others. The phrase "4500 years ago in the Voronezh region they found a skeleton, defined as Russian by haplogroup, Russians began to exist 4500 years ago" - does not make any sense. Russians have several haplogroups, - once. Skeleton is not a statistically significant sample - that's two(maybe this is the same Ashkenazi Jew from 12% of the carriers of the "Aryan" haplogroup R1a1? or Kyrgyz?). Three: why on earth is it concluded that the mutation arose (and continued) exactly 4500 years ago? Were the skeletons of his father and grandfather, as well as the skeletons of offspring, examined? Why didn't it emerge 10,000 years ago? Etc.
Question 3: is R1a1 a Russian haplogroup, an "unconditional enic marker"? Is it true that Russians in terms of their purity (i.e., the frequency of occurrence of this haplogroup) are the most stable and pure among Europeans?
Answer: No. And not true. The stability of Russians as a people, its ethnic uniqueness is not determined by haplogroups, and haplogroup R1a1, too. We look at the data: if we make an average sample from several different studies with a fit to 100%. then (remember that haplogroups are named according to MODERN distribution among peoples):
47% of Russians have an "Aryan" haplogroup R1a1, which they inherited from the Proto-Slavs and other autochthons of Eastern Europe.
16% of Russians- conditionally "Finnish" haplogroup N3.
7% of Russians- conditionally "Celtic" haplogroup R1b, which dominates among many peoples of Western Europe. This is the legacy of the stay of the Proto-Slavs in Central Europe.
5% of Russians- "Northern European" haplogroup I1 (I1a according to the old classification), common in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. Apparently, these are the descendants of the notorious "Varangians".
15% of Russians- "Balkan" haplogroup I2 (formerly - I1b), characteristic of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. This is an indirect consequence of the Slavic expansion in the Balkans in the 6th-9th centuries, when Slavic newcomers actively mixed with the local autochthonous population. Part of the Slavs subsequently left the Balkans to the north and northeast (see The Tale of Bygone Years).
4%- "Eastern Mediterranean" haplogroup J2, typical of the ancient Greeks and even more ancient representatives of the Minoan civilization. For Russians, this is most likely an integral part of the "Balkan heritage", and perhaps even the earlier Hellenic colonization of the Northern Black Sea region.
6% Russians are represented by the "African" haplogroup E, the frequency of which among Jews, Greeks, Balkan Slavs and southern Italians reaches 20% or more. This is again the "Balkan trace". Together, the descendants of the "Byzantine refugees" (migrants from the Balkans and the Black Sea region) make up more than 25% of Russians.
We thus see (as expected from the answer to the second question) that haplogroups DO NOT define "Russianness". The purely statistical "predominance" of R1a1 is 47 percent. 53 percent of Russians DO NOT HAVE this haplogroup and are still Russians. Therefore, if we do not fall into Russophobia and say that 53 percent of modern Russians are "unclean" (which we will not do), we will inevitably be forced to draw the same conclusion that was made above - the haplogroup does not carry any specific ethno-determining features, and ethnos is indefinable through haplogroups.
Question 4: Is the reconstruction of ethnic migrations and processes justified based on the analysis of modern haplogroups?
Answer: No. There are several problems here.
With great skepticism and rather negatively, one can perceive reports about the "correspondence of the distribution of haplogroups to historical migrations", and all "haplogroup" conclusions about the time of the emergence of a particular people are likely to be considered at least unverifiable and strained. Why? Because it is necessary not to uncritically quote the "Klesovs" ("the scientist wrote!"), but to THINK. First of all - with your head, using logic and education.
First of all, the historical migrations of certain peoples in pre-literate times are not an axiom. but the subject of scientific disputes and discussions - both in terms of whether the carriers of a particular archaeological culture were representatives of a certain ethno-linguistic unity (we will never be able to say this with accuracy - pots and axes do not speak), and in terms of accuracy of conformity of archaeological culture to a certain ethnos or ethno-cultural unity. Archaeological cultures are a complex of objects of material culture, things, their remains, or rather. From the point of view of an archaeologist of the 30th century, throughout Russia and Europe. The United States in the 21st century will have a single, with local variations, archaeological culture of "tires, plastic bags, bottles, cans and computers", in which the differences between nations in terms of their material culture will not be visible. Although there is little reason to imply such a globalization in antiquity, it is worth remembering. that the older the archaeological culture, the more blurred its ethnicity. Thus, the thesis "the skeleton is such and such, undoubtedly Indo-European .. has such and such a haplogroup" is immediately called into question. The fact that he is "undoubtedly" Indo-European, and not a foreigner who has crept in here, who has adopted the way of this tribe, still needs to be proven. With a highly unrepresentative sample(You must agree that a dozen or a hundred burials over a vast area is not a sample, or at least a sample that is incomparable in representativeness with a modern sample among living people) this becomes almost equally probable, i.e. uncertain.
Secondly, it is extremely problematic to trace such migrations by haplogroups due to the fact that (in the case of the Indo-Europeans, for example) among many archaeological cultures bronze age- "Kitchens of the ancestral ethnic groups", the funeral rite of cremation in its various variations is widespread, the same in some territories in the Iron Age. The DNA material of the carriers of these cultures is irretrievably lost, and we absolutely cannot say anything about their haplogroups. Thus, the "haplogroup" approach does not work here - vast territories and whole millennia fall out of its sphere completely, depriving us of the opportunity to build any kind of successive chain of material that is so extremely scarce and unrepresentative in essence.
Thirdly, mutations in the Y chromosome occur randomly and can both increase and "decrease" (or return to the original source code). This indicates that you cannot determine the time and place of the origin of a particular "group" due to both constant migrations, which could be by land or sea, and mutations that occur throughout the life of a particular historical human community.
Fourth, theoretically, the very accuracy of the study of the modern distribution of haplogroups can be questioned - i.e. that original, extrapolated to the past, material (difficulty in determining the ethnicity of persons passing the test - who prevents you from calling yourself Russian or Belarusian?). With relatively small samples and controversial questions like "Russian-Ukrainian" (actually a free question of self-name), this is extremely important and can decide everything.
In other words, the transfer of the modern distribution of sets of haplogroups to the past is unjustified, and if so, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the ethnicity of certain human remains, passing them off only on this basis as someone's ancestors. It's tight and superficial.
Summing up everything described.
References to haplogroups as "an absolute indicator of ethnicity" are untenable.
- Haplogroups are research tools, statistically significant markers. Real - objectively observed Y-chromosomes do not carry significant ethnic information in the gene code.
- Russians (like Germans, Finns and Turks, etc.) exist and are unique not due to haplogroups.
- Any nation has not one but two or three or more haplogroups in its set, while there is no reason to make some "less pure" and others "more pure", for the reason described by the thesis above.
- A priori, we cannot reconstruct reliable migrations based on haplogroups. and even more so - the date of origin (emergence_ of one or another modern ethnic group.
Thus, you can safely throw Klesov's writings and fairy tales into the same garbage heap where we have Fomenko, Levashov and Chudinov.