There are two levels scientific knowledge- empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level scientific knowledge is aimed at the study of phenomena (in other words, forms and ways of manifestation essence of objects, processes, relationships), it is formed using such methods of cognition as observation, measurement, experiment. The main forms of existence of empirical knowledge are grouping, classification, description, systematization and generalization of the results of observation and experiment.

Empirical knowledge has a rather complex structure, which includes four levels.

Primary level - single empirical statements, the content of which is the fixation of the results of single observations; at the same time, the exact time, place and conditions of observation are recorded.

The second level of empirical knowledge is scientific facts, more precisely, the description of the facts of reality by means of the language of science. With the help of such means, the absence or presence of certain events, properties, relations in the subject area under study, as well as their intensity (quantitative certainty), is affirmed. Their symbolic representations are graphs, diagrams, tables, classifications, mathematical models.

The third level of empirical knowledge is empirical patterns various kinds(functional, causal, structural, dynamic, statistical, etc.).

The fourth level of empirical scientific knowledge is phenomenological theories as a logically interconnected set of relevant empirical laws and facts (phenomenological thermodynamics, celestial mechanics by I. Kepler, the periodic law of chemical elements in the formulation of D. I. Mendeleev, etc.). Empirical theories differ from theories in the true sense of the word in that they do not penetrate into the essence of the objects under study, but represent empirical generalization visually perceptible things and processes.

Theoretical level scientific knowledge is aimed at research entities objects, processes, relationships and is based on the results of empirical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge is the result of the activity of such a constructive part of consciousness as intelligence. The leading logical operation of theoretical thinking is idealization, the purpose and result of which is the construction of a special type of objects - "ideal objects" of scientific theory (material point and "absolutely black body" in physics, " ideal type"in sociology, etc.). An interconnected set of such objects forms its own basis of theoretical scientific knowledge.

This level of scientific knowledge includes the formulation of scientific problems; promotion and substantiation of scientific hypotheses and theories; revealing laws; derivation of logical consequences from laws; comparing various hypotheses and theories with each other, theoretical modeling, as well as procedures for explaining, understanding, predicting, generalizing.

In the structure of the theoretical level, a number of components are distinguished: laws, theories, models, concepts, teachings, principles, a set of methods. Let's briefly dwell on some of them.

AT laws of science objective, regular, repetitive, essential and necessary connections and relationships between phenomena or processes of the real world are displayed. From the point of view of the scope, all laws can be conditionally divided into the following types.

1. Universal and private (existential) laws. Universal laws reflect the universal, necessary, strictly recurring and stable nature of the regular connection between the phenomena and processes of the objective world. An example is the law of thermal expansion of bodies: "All bodies expand when heated."

Private laws are connections, either derived from universal laws, or reflecting the regularity of events that characterize a certain private sphere of being. Thus, the law of thermal expansion of metals is secondary, or derivative, in relation to the universal law of thermal expansion of all physical bodies and characterizes the property of a particular group of chemical elements.

• 2. deterministic and stochastic (statistical) laws. Deterministic laws give predictions that are quite reliable and precise character. In contrast, stochastic laws give only probabilistic predictions, they reflect a certain regularity that occurs as a result of the interaction of random massive or repetitive events.
• 3. empirical and theoretical laws. Empirical laws characterize the regularities found at the level of the phenomenon within the framework of empirical (experimental) knowledge. Theoretical laws reflect the recurring connections that operate at the level of essence. Among these laws, the most common are causal (causal) laws, which characterize the necessary relationship between two directly related phenomena.

At its core scientific theory is a single, integral system of knowledge, the elements of which: concepts, generalizations, axioms and laws - are connected by certain logical and meaningful relationships. Reflecting and expressing the essence of the objects under study, theory acts as the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge.

In the structure of scientific theory, there are: a) initial fundamental principles; b) basic system-forming concepts; c) language thesaurus, i.e. norms for constructing correct language expressions characteristic of a given theory; d) an interpretive base that allows one to move from fundamental statements to a wide field of facts and observations.

In modern science, types of scientific theories are distinguished, which are classified according to various grounds.

First, according to the adequacy of the display of the studied area of ​​phenomena, there are phenomenological and analytical theories. Theories of the first kind describe reality at the level of phenomena, or phenomena, without revealing their essence. Thus, geometric optics studied the phenomena of propagation, reflection, and refraction of light without revealing the nature of light itself. In turn, analytical theories reveal the essence of the studied phenomena. For example, the theory of the electromagnetic field reveals the essence of optical phenomena.

Secondly, according to the degree of accuracy of predictions, scientific theories, like laws, are divided into deterministic and stochastic. Deterministic theories give accurate and reliable predictions, but due to the complexity of many phenomena and processes, the presence of a significant amount of uncertainty and randomness in the world, such theories are rarely used. Stochastic theories give probabilistic predictions based on the study of the laws of chance. Such theories are used not only in physics or biology, but also in the social sciences and humanities, when predictions or forecasts are made about processes in which uncertainty plays a significant role, a combination of circumstances associated with the manifestation of randomness of mass events.

An important place in scientific knowledge at the theoretical level is occupied by a set of methods, among which are axiomatic, hypothetical-deductive, formalization method, idealization method, systematic approach, etc.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge:

empirical level;

theoretical level.

For the knowledge gained on empirical level , it is characteristic that they are the result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment.

Theoretical level represents, as it were, a section of the object under study from a certain angle of view, given by the worldview of the researcher. It is built with a clear focus on explaining objective reality, and its main task is to describe, systematize and explain the entire set of empirical data.

The empirical and theoretical levels have a certain autonomy, but they cannot be torn off (separated) from one another.

The theoretical level differs from the empirical one in that it provides a scientific explanation of the facts obtained at the empirical level. At this level, specific scientific theories are formed, and it is characterized by the fact that it operates with an intellectually controlled object of knowledge, while at the empirical level - with a real object. Its significance lies in the fact that it can develop, as it were, on its own, without direct contact with reality.

The empirical and theoretical levels are organically linked. The theoretical level does not exist on its own, but is based on data from the empirical level.

Despite the theoretical burden, empirical level is more stable than theory, due to the fact that theories with which the interpretation of empirical data is associated are theories of a different level. Therefore, empiricism (practice) is a criterion for the truth of a theory.

The empirical level of cognition is characterized by the use of the following methods for studying objects.

Surveillance - a system for fixing and registering the properties and relationships of the object under study. The functions of this method are: fixing the registration of information and preliminary classification of factors.

Experiment- this is a system of cognitive operations that is carried out in relation to objects placed in such conditions (specially created) that should contribute to the discovery, comparison, measurement of objective properties, connections, relationships.

Measurement as a method, it is a system for fixing and registering the quantitative characteristics of the measured object. For economic and social systems, measurement procedures are associated with indicators: statistical, reporting, planned;

Essence descriptions, as a specific method of obtaining empirical knowledge, consists in systematizing data obtained as a result of observation, experiment, measurement. Data are expressed in the language of a certain science in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs and other notations. Thanks to the systematization of facts that generalize certain aspects of phenomena, the object under study is reflected as a whole.

The theoretical level is the highest level of scientific knowledge.

scheme theoretical level of knowledge can be represented as follows:

Mental experiment and idealization based on the mechanism of transferring the results of practical actions fixed in the object;

Development of knowledge in logical forms: concepts, judgments, conclusions, laws, scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories;

Logical verification of the validity of theoretical constructions;

Application of theoretical knowledge in practice, in social activities.

It is possible to identify the main characteristics of theoretical knowledge:

The object of knowledge is determined purposefully under the influence of the internal logic of the development of science or the urgent requirements of practice;

The subject of knowledge is idealized on the basis of a thought experiment and design;

Cognition is carried out in logical forms, which is understood as a way of connecting the elements that make up the content of thought about the objective world.

There are the following types of forms of scientific knowledge:

General logical: concepts, judgments, conclusions;

Local-logical: scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories, laws.

concept- this is a thought that reflects the property and necessary features of an object or phenomenon. Concepts are: general, singular, concrete, abstract, relative, absolute, etc. others General concepts associated with some set of objects or phenomena, single ones refer only to one, specific - to specific subjects or phenomena, abstract to their individual attributes, relative concepts are always presented in pairs, and absolute ones do not contain paired relations.

Judgment- this is a thought that contains the affirmation or denial of something through the connection of concepts. Judgments are affirmative and negative, general and particular, conditional and disjunctive, etc.

inference is a process of thinking that connects a sequence of two or more propositions, resulting in a new proposition. In essence, a conclusion is a conclusion that makes it possible to move from thinking to practical actions. Inferences are of two types: direct; indirect.

In direct inferences, one proceeds from one judgment to another, while in indirect inferences, the transition from one judgment to another is carried out by means of a third one.

The process of cognition goes from a scientific idea to a hypothesis, subsequently turning into a law or theory.

Consider the main elements of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Idea- an intuitive explanation of the phenomenon without intermediate argumentation and awareness of the totality of connections. The idea reveals previously unnoticed regularities of the phenomenon, based on the knowledge already available about it.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the cause that causes this effect. A hypothesis is always based on an assumption, the reliability of which at a certain level of science and technology cannot be confirmed.

If the hypothesis is consistent with the observed facts, then it is called a law or theory.

Law- necessary, stable, recurring relationships between phenomena in nature and society. Laws are specific, general and universal.

The law reflects the general connections and relations inherent in all phenomena of a given kind, class.

Theory- a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of reality. It arises from the generalization cognitive activity and practice and is a mental reflection and reproduction of reality. The theory has a number of structural elements:

Data- knowledge about an object or phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven.

Axioms- Propositions accepted without logical proof.

Postulates- statements accepted within the framework of any scientific theory as true, playing the role of an axiom.

Principles- the main starting points of any theory, doctrine, science or worldview.

Concepts- thoughts in which objects of a certain class are generalized and distinguished according to certain general (specific) features.

Regulations- formulated thoughts expressed in the form of a scientific statement.

Judgments- thoughts expressed as a declarative sentence, which can be true or false.

Empirical knowledge is the primary scientific knowledge that is obtained by contact with the object under study. Empiricism (lat.) - experience.

On the negative experience(mistakes) learn.

Empirical knowledge is descriptive.

Science, 3 functions: description, explanation and prediction.

Empirical level: no explanation, but predictable (if we see that copper expands when heated, then we can predict that other metals too).

Methods of obtaining knowledge: empirical research is carried out with the help of observation, experiment and measurement.

Observation - is present not only during real contact with the object, but also in our imagination (sign observation - reading, mathematics).

In the beginning, observation precedes cognition, we formulate the problem. We can hypothesize. The observation at the end of the study is a test of our theory.

The structure of observation includes: an object, an observer, observation conditions, devices (tools), basic knowledge.

Scientific observation requires the recording of all phenomena (so that the scientist can be checked).

Observations: direct (the object is available) and indirect (the object is not available, only its traces, etc., which it left), are available.

Approbation (lat.) - approval (it is not from the word "test").

Measurement: direct (measurement of length), indirect (time, temperature; temperature is the energy of the movement of molecules).

Measurement in science is carried out repeatedly. Since all the quantities will be different in the measurement. Each specific result is an average value (the error is also considered).

An experiment is an active influence on an object. Task: search (we don’t know what will happen) or we check an already existing hypothesis.

Empirical knowledge has the logical form of a concept. When we connect two empirical concepts or phenomena, we get a law (the greater the volume, the less pressure, etc.).

Empirical knowledge is the first and last scientific knowledge (Comte, Mach, this is the opinion of the positivists). Theoretical knowledge does not contain new knowledge, in their opinion.

But a scientist cannot be an empiricist because he uses language (and language is abstract, he uses concepts that cannot be touched).

A fact is almost the same as a theory (both are the same knowledge). The fact needs interpretation. The interpretation of a fact gives meaning to it. A fact always has many interpretations.

Fact structure: what we experience (psychological component); what we said (linguistic component); the event itself.

Facts, role in science: source and verification. Facts must support knowledge. Post positivism (Poper): A fact cannot confirm, but it can disprove a theory.

Locator: any scientific knowledge is an assumption (it cannot be refuted and confirmed). The goal is to replace old assumptions (guesses) with new ones. And we “guess” that the new ones are better than the old ones.

Scientific knowledge is a complex evolving system in which, as it evolves, new levels of organization emerge. They have a reverse effect on previously established levels of knowledge and transform them. In this process, new techniques and methods of theoretical research are constantly emerging, the strategy of scientific research is changing.

There are two types of knowledge organization: empirical and theoretical. Accordingly, two types of cognitive procedures that generate this knowledge can be distinguished.

Turning to the philosophical aspect of this issue, it is necessary to note such philosophers of the New Age as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that we draw all our knowledge from experience and sensations.

The difference between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge concerns the means of research, the specifics of the methods and the nature of the subject of research.

Consider the means of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study. It involves the implementation of observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations, and other means of real observation and experiment.

In a theoretical study, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, the object can be studied only indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one.

In addition to the means that are associated with the organization of experiments and observations, conceptual means are also used in empirical research. They function as a special language, often referred to as the empirical language of science. It has a complex organization in which actual empirical terms and terms of theoretical language interact.

The meaning of empirical terms are special abstractions that could be called empirical objects. They must be distinguished from objects of reality. Empirical objects are abstractions that actually highlight a certain set of properties and relations of things. Real objects are presented in empirical knowledge in the form of ideal objects that have a rigidly fixed and limited set of features. A real object has an infinite number of features.

As for theoretical knowledge, other research means are used in it. There are no means of material, practical interaction with the object under study. But the language of theoretical research also differs from the language of empirical descriptions. It is based on theoretical terms, the meaning of which is theoretical ideal objects.

Features of the means and methods of the two levels of scientific knowledge are associated with the specifics of the subject of empirical and theoretical research. At each of these levels, a researcher can deal with the same objective reality, but he studies it in different subject sections, in different aspects, and therefore its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given in different ways. Empirical research is basically focused on the study of phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet distinguished in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appear through their concrete shell.

At the level of theoretical knowledge, essential connections are singled out in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws that this object obeys. The task of the theory is precisely to divide this complex network of laws into components, then recreate their interaction step by step and thus reveal the essence of the object.

Empirical and theoretical levels differ in research methods. With the help of empirical research methods, the accumulation, fixation, generalization and systematization of experimental data, their statistical and inductive processing is carried out, while with the help of theoretical methods, the laws of sciences and theories are formed.

Empirical research methods include observation, comparison, measurement, and experiment; theoretical methods include analogy, idealization, formalization, etc.

Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, delivering primary material for scientific research. Purposefulness is the most important characteristic of observation. Concentrating attention on the object, the observer relies on some knowledge he has about it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of observation. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of an object repeatedly and under different conditions, regularity, excluding gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

Requirements for scientific observations:

A clear statement of the purpose of observation;
- choice of methodology and development of a plan;
- consistency;
- control over the reliability and correctness of the results of observation;
- processing, comprehension and interpretation of the received data array;
- As a method of scientific knowledge, observation provides initial information about the object necessary for its further research.

Comparison and measurement play an important role in cognition. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. If objects are compared with an object that acts as a reference, then such a comparison is called a measurement.

The most difficult and effective method empirical knowledge is an experiment based on other empirical methods. Experiment - a method of studying an object, in which the researcher (experimenter) actively influences the object, creates artificial conditions necessary to identify certain of its properties. The experiment involves the use certain funds: devices, instruments, experimental setups, characterized by an active impact on the object, can be repeated as many times as required to obtain reliable results.

There are two types of experimental problems:

Research experiment, which is associated with the search for unknown dependencies between several object parameters;
- a verification experiment, which is used in the case when it is required to confirm or refute certain consequences of the theory.

In the experiment, as a rule, devices are used - artificial or natural material systems, the principles of which are well known to us. Those. within the framework of our experiment, our knowledge, some theoretical ideas, already appear in material form. Without them, the experiment is impossible, at least within the framework of science. Any attempt to separate the experiment from the theory of knowledge makes it impossible to understand its nature, the cognition of the essence.

Experiments and observational data.

The difference between observational data and empirical facts as special types of empirical knowledge was already fixed in the positivist philosophy of science in the 1930s. At this time, there was a rather tense discussion about what could serve as the empirical basis of science. Initially, it was assumed that they were the direct results of the experiment - observational data. In the language of science, they are expressed in the form of special statements - records in observation protocols, the so-called protocol sentences.

The observation protocol indicates who observed, the time of observation, and describes the instruments, if they were used in the observation.

An analysis of the meaning of protocol sentences showed that they contain not only information about the phenomena being studied, but also, as a rule, include observer errors, layers of external disturbing influences, systematic and random instrument errors, etc. But then it became obvious that these observations, due to the fact that they are burdened with subjective layers, cannot serve as a basis for theoretical constructions.

During the discussions, it was found that such knowledge is empirical facts. They form the empirical basis on which scientific theories are based.

The very nature of fact-fixing statements emphasizes their special objective status, in comparison with protocol sentences. But then a new problem arises: how is the transition from observational data to empirical facts carried out, and what guarantees the objective status of a scientific fact?

The empirical level of knowledge in science to a certain extent corresponds to the sensory level of research, while the theoretical level corresponds to the rational or logical one. Of course, there is no absolute correspondence between them. It has been established that the empirical level of cognition includes not only sensory, but also logical research. At the same time, the information received by the sensory method is subjected here to primary processing by conceptual (rational) means.

empirical knowledge, thus, are not only a reflection of reality, formed empirically. They represent a specific unity of the mental and sensual expression of reality. At the same time, sensory reflection is in the first place, and thinking plays an auxiliary role subordinate to observation.

Empirical data supply facts to science. Their establishment is an integral part of any research. Thus, the empirical level of knowledge contributes to the establishment and accumulation

A fact is a reliably established event, a non-fictional incident. These fixed empirical knowledge are synonymous with such concepts as "results", "events".

It should be noted that the facts act not only as an information source and "sensual" reasoning. They are also the criterion of truth and reliability.

The empirical level of knowledge makes it possible to establish facts by various methods. These methods, in particular, include observation, experiment, comparison, measurement.

Observation is the purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena and objects. The purpose of this perception is to determine the relationships and properties of the studied phenomena or objects. Observation can be carried out both directly and indirectly (using tools - a microscope, a camera, and others). It should be noted that for modern science, such a study becomes more complicated over time and becomes more indirect.

Comparison is a cognitive procedure. It is the basis in accordance with which the difference or similarity of objects is carried out. Comparison allows you to identify the quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of objects.

It should be said that the method of comparison is expedient in determining the signs of homogeneous phenomena or objects that form classes. Just like observation, this can be carried out indirectly or directly. In the first case, the comparison is made by comparing two objects with the third, which is the standard.

Measurement is the establishment of a numerical indicator of a certain value using a specific unit (watts, centimeters, kilograms, etc.). This method has been used since the emergence of the new European science. Due to its wide application, measurement has become an organic element

All of the above methods can be used both independently and in combination. In the complex, observation, measurement and comparison are part of a more complex empirical method of cognition - experiment.

This method of research involves placing the subject under clearly defined conditions or artificially reproducing it in order to identify certain characteristics. An experiment is a way of carrying out an active activity. In this case, it implies the ability of the subject to intervene during the process or phenomenon being studied.

1. The empirical level of scientific knowledge.

Sensual and rational are the main level components of any knowledge, not only scientific. However, during historical development levels of cognition are singled out and formed, essentially different from the simple difference between the sensible and the rational, although they have the rational and the sensible as their basis. Such levels of cognition and knowledge, especially in relation to developed science, are the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical level of knowledge, science is the level that is associated with the acquisition of knowledge through special procedures of observation and experiment, which is then subjected to a certain rational processing and fixed with the help of a certain, often artificial, language. The data of observation and experiment as the main scientific forms of direct investigation of the phenomena of reality then act as the empirical basis from which theoretical research proceeds. Observations and experiments are currently taking place in all sciences, including the sciences of society and man.

The basic form of knowledge at the empirical level is the fact scientific fact, actual knowledge, which is the result of primary processing and systematization of observational and experimental data. The basis of modern empirical knowledge is the facts of everyday consciousness and the facts of science. In this case, facts must be understood not as statements about something, not as certain units of “expression” of knowledge, but precisely as special elements of knowledge itself.

2. Theoretical level of research. The nature of scientific concepts.

The theoretical level of knowledge, science is connected with the fact that the object is represented on it from the side of its connections and patterns, obtained not only and not so much in experience, in the course of observations and experiments, but already in the course of an autonomous thought process, through the application and construction of special abstractions , as well as arbitrary constructions of reason and reason as hypothetical elements, with the help of which the space of comprehension of the essence of the phenomena of reality is filled.

In the field of theoretical knowledge, constructions (idealizations) appear, in which knowledge can go far beyond the limits of sensory experience, observational and experimental data, and even come into sharp conflict with direct sensory data.

The contradictions between the theoretical and empirical levels of cognition are of an objective dialectical nature; in themselves they do not refute either empirical or theoretical positions. The decision in favor of one or the other depends only on the course of further research and verification of their results in practice, in particular, by means of the very same observations and experiments, applied on the basis of new theoretical concepts. Wherein essential role performs such a form of knowledge and cognition as a hypothesis.

3. The formation of scientific theory and the growth of theoretical knowledge.

The following scientific historical types knowledge.

1. Early scientific type of knowledge.

This type of knowledge opens the era of the systematic development of scientific knowledge. In it, on the one hand, traces of the previous natural-philosophical and scholastic types of cognition are still clearly visible, and on the other, the emergence of fundamentally new elements that sharply contrast scientific types of cognition with pre-scientific ones. Most often, such a boundary of this type of knowledge, separating it from the previous ones, is drawn at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries.

The early scientific type of cognition is connected, first of all, with a new quality of knowledge. The main type of knowledge is experimental knowledge, actual knowledge. This created normal conditions for the development of theoretical knowledge - scientific theoretical knowledge.

2. The classical stage of knowledge.

It took place from the end of the XVII - early XVIII before mid-nineteenth century. From this stage, science develops as a continuous disciplinary and at the same time professional tradition, critically regulating all its internal processes. Here appears a theory in the full sense of the word - the theory of mechanics by I. Newton, which for almost two centuries remained the only scientific theory, with which all the theoretical elements of natural science, and social cognition as well, were correlated.

The most significant changes, compared with early science, have occurred in the field of knowledge. Knowledge becomes theoretical already in the modern sense of the word, or almost modern, which was a huge step in overcoming the traditional gap between theoretical problems and the empirical approach.

3. Modern scientific type of knowledge.

This type of science continues to dominate at the present time, at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. In modern science, the quality of objects of knowledge has changed radically. The integrity of the object, the subjects of individual sciences and the very subject of scientific knowledge was finally revealed. Fundamental changes are taking place in the means of modern science. Its empirical level takes on a completely different form, observation and experiment almost completely began to be controlled by theoretical (advanced) knowledge, on the other hand, by knowledge of the observed.

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