With the beginning of the Middle Ages, Buddhism spread in China. In the VI century. it becomes the state religion. It was the early Middle Ages that became the period of the establishment of Buddhism, which had a huge impact on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature and art. Buddhism absorbed local rituals and the cult of ancestors: local sages and heroes were ranked among the saints.

Buddhism had the most supporters among the nobility, while among the common people it was common Taoism. This doctrine preserved the ideas of equality and condemned wealth. From the 7th century A Taoist church organization began to form. Subsequently, the ruling elite significantly modified Taoism in their favor.

Shijiata Pagoda of Fogongxi Temple in Yingxiang. 1056

Between Taoism and Buddhism, the struggle for influence in Chinese society continued. However, both religions could not compete with Confucianism - the basis of morality, education, political system, legislation. Confucianism taught to worship the emperor, beat fair and honest, love parents, treat people with respect, especially respect the elders and take care of the younger ones. It was in the spirit of Confucianism that a system of compulsory state examinations was developed, which officials passed to obtain a position.

The coexistence of several religions was a characteristic feature of Chinese society in the early Middle Ages. 13 XI-XTI centuries. Confucianism began to introduce elements of Taoism and Buddhism. It was this modified Confucianism that became a powerful new political and cultural force in China. And although new, Confucianism did not supplant either Taoism or Buddhism, at the end of the XIV century. it occupied a dominant position in the country.

Chinese culture of the Middle Ages reached unprecedented heights. Since ancient times, the Chinese have mastered hieroglyphic writing. This brought to life a special kind of art - calligraphy. People endowed with the talent to write beautifully were looked for specially, especially among officials. Educated people devoted a lot of time and effort to the art of calligraphy, because they saw it as a way of spiritual development.

The state promoted the development of education. Thanks to the increase in the number of primary and secondary schools in China, many literate and knowledgeable people. True, during the Song Dynasty, educated people became a rarity. During the period of Mongol domination, no attention was paid to the education of the Chinese proper. Therefore, it is not surprising that the founder of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, was illiterate.

Big changes have taken place in science. In the 8th century The General Academy of Sciences (Chamber of Scientists) was opened in China. Especially developed mathematics, astronomy, natural science. There were also works on various branches of medicine. Chinese medicine was famous for researching the medicinal properties of plants. Engineering and mathematical knowledge was used for the construction of cities, fortress walls, complex irrigation systems. It was the Chinese who invented paper, porcelain, compass and gunpowder. These discoveries were of tremendous importance for all mankind.

In the XV century. Chinese scientists created multi-volume encyclopedias on history, geography, medicine, art, etc. The spread of scientific knowledge accelerated with the invention of printing. It was the Chinese in the 7th century. invented its simplest form woodcut. Hieroglyphs were cut out on wooden boards, paint was applied to them, and then the text was reprinted on paper. China was famous for its large libraries. At the beginning of the 8th century The official government newspaper "Capital Bulletin" began to appear in the country, which existed until the 20th century. During the Song Dynasty, bank notes were first issued.

Chinese poetry has reached a high development. Her " golden age” falls on the VIII-XIII centuries. During this period, such outstanding masters of the poetic word as Li Bo, Du Fu, Yuan Zhen, Su Shi, talented poetess Qingzhao and others. Their works were deeply lyrical, they sang the beauty of nature. The authors were imbued with the fate of their homeland and the suffering of the common people. In the XIV century. a genre was born historical novel("Three reigns", "River backwaters"). As a rule, it was based on the tragic events in the life of the Chinese people. material from the site

Chinese architecture and fine arts developed under the influence of Buddhism. This, in particular, is evidenced by the multi-storey stone structures of the pagoda, sculptural works and paintings of Buddhist cave temples. The pagoda acquires its usual silhouette during the reign of the Tang Dynasty, when the eaves on each floor become exquisitely curved. The Temple of the Cave of a Thousand Buddhas is unique. There were almost 500 caves in it, it was decorated artistic painting almost 25 km long.

In general, Chinese buildings - palaces, temples, dwellings of wealthy citizens or nobility, city gates, towers, bridges - had light, refined forms. They were built both from stone or marble, and from wood or even metal. The roofs of the buildings had corners bent upwards. From above, imperial palaces or houses of the nobility were often covered with special gold sheets. In Beijing in the XIV-XV centuries. a huge complex of imperial palaces was built, surrounded by a moat and walled, the Purple City.

In the X century. The Academy of Arts was founded, where artists studied and exhibited their paintings. Chinese artists painted with ink on silk fabric or thin paper. Favorite theme is the landscape, which was called "mountains and waters." The paintings have been preserved for centuries due to the fact that they were not hung on the walls. The canvas was rolled up, neatly wrapped in silk and put into special boxes. The paintings were taken out and unfolded only so that guests could appreciate their beauty, or when the owners themselves wanted to admire them.

Consequently, Chinese inventions, rich and unique culture became the property of world civilization.

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On this page, material on the topics:

• medieval chinese religion
• religious life in China at the end of the 18th century

China or the Middle Kingdom, as the Chinese have called it since time immemorial, is a country spread over the vast expanses of East and Central Asia. Here, about 6 thousand years ago, one of the oldest civilizations was born, which influenced the development of all the peoples that inhabited the countries of the Far East. Chinese writing has become the basis of the writing of Koreans, Vietnamese and Japanese. Many inventions of the Chinese, such as silk, gunpowder, a compass, a seismograph, a water-lifting pump, mechanical engines that use the power of falling water, are the property of all mankind. It was in China that porcelain first appeared, the secret of making which until the 18th century would be sought by all European alchemists, as well as paper, brushes, ink, typography, and the art of calligraphy. Chinese mathematicians knew decimal fractions and for the first time in history introduced the concept of negative numbers; astronomers were able to calculate lunar eclipses and predict solar eclipses; on the basis of centuries of observations, the lunisolar calendar was improved and the existence of sunspots was noted as early as 28 BC. (scientist Zhang Heng built a celestial globe, described 2500 stars, combining them into 320 constellations). The culture of China was distinguished not only by its diversity, but also by its great vitality. Internecine wars, peasant uprisings and destructive raids by conquerors did not prevent China from passing through a number of important stages in its historical evolution, common with the development of other countries. From the 5th millennium BC Until the 19th century, China survived the primitive communal, slave-owning and feudal epochs, preserving the continuity of traditions and transforming external cultural influences.

Art historians distinguish the following periods in the Ancient and medieval history China:

• Ancient period (Yangshao, Neolithic) V - III millennium;
• the Shang-Yin period (XVI - XI centuries BC);
• the Zhou period (XI - V centuries BC) and Zhangguo (V - III centuries BC);
• the Qin and Han periods (from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD);
• Northern Wei (4th–6th centuries);
• Tang and Song (7th-10th centuries, 10th-13th centuries);
• Yuan (XIII - XIV centuries);
• Ming and Qing (XIV - XIX centuries).

The extremely long Ancient period left an important mark on the spiritual life of the country. It was during this period that the foundation of all its further culture was laid.

We turn to a more detailed consideration of the periods of Ancient and Medieval China.

The most ancient tribes that settled in the valleys of the large rivers of China in the 5th - 3rd millennium BC created settlements from small adobe huts sunk into the ground. They cultivated the fields, raised domestic animals, and knew many crafts. Ceramics of that time discovered in China - vessels made of pale yellow and reddish-brown fired clay, were named Yangshao at the place of the first excavations, hence the name of the first period. Wine and oil were stored in these vessels, food was cooked, and large vessels served as burial urns. Modeled first by hand, and later with the help of a potter's wheel, clay products - vases, bowls, bowls, dishes were distinguished by unusual regularity of forms. They were fired at a temperature of about 1500 ° C, and then polished with a boar's tooth, due to which they became smooth and shiny. The upper part of the vessels was covered with complex geometric patterns - spirals, as well as images of animals. (reproduction "Vessels of Yangshao").

The next period in the history of ancient China was called Shang-Yin (XVI - XI centuries BC) named after the tribe that settled in the Yellow River valley in the 2nd millennium BC. It was then that the first Chinese state was formed, headed by the ruler - Wang, who was also the high priest. At this time, the idea of ​​the ancient Chinese about the Universe is being formed. In all natural phenomena, the ancient Chinese saw the will of spirits and gods. They deified clouds and rain, wind and thunder, which they imagined in the form of dragons, birds and animals. However, a person needed reliable defenders, so another belief arose - the cult of ancestors. It was believed that the spirits of the ancestors take care of the descendants. In turn, the souls of the dead were also served - they looked after the grave, made sacrifices. So that the soul of the ancestor did not need anything, various handicrafts were placed in the grave - weapons, bronze vessels, carved stones, jewelry.

When the state was formed, there was also an idea of ​​the sky as a powerful supreme deity of the Universe. According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, the earth is square, their own homeland is in its center, and the sky above it has the shape of a circle. Therefore, they called their country Zhongguo (Middle Kingdom) or Tianxia (Celestial). At different times of the year, abundant sacrifices were brought to heaven and earth. For this, special altars were erected outside the city: round for the sky, square for the earth. Various vessels were widely used in everyday life. What they served for, we will find out by listening to the message.

MAGICAL VESSELS.

Heavy monolithic bronze vessels, created during the Shan-Yin period, served for sacrifices to the spirits of nature and the spirits - the patrons of the tribe. In them, as it were, all the ideas about the world that had developed by that time were combined. Vessels, cast with great skill from an alloy of copper and tin, were covered with relief. The main place in it was given to the images of birds and dragons, which embodied the elements and water, cicadas, foreshadowing a good harvest, bulls and rams, promising people satiety and prosperity. sometimes portrayed collective image beast - the guardian of man, who combined the features of a tiger, dragon and ram. The vessels were varied in shape. In rectangular huge vats on four legs with two handles “fan-din” they prepared sacrificial meat. Tall, slender, expanding at the bottom and at the top, the “gu” goblet was intended for sacrificial wine. Usually, a thin spiral-shaped linear “thunder pattern” (“eli-wen”) was applied to the surface of these vessels, against which the main images were executed in relief technique. Volumetric animal muzzles seemed to grow out of bronze. These vessels were supposed to protect people and protect crops from evil forces, so they themselves often had the shape of animals and birds, and their surface was completely filled with protrusions and engravings. The whimsical and fantastic shape of the ancient Chinese bronze vessels with dragons was ordered by four vertical convex ribs located on the sides. These ribs oriented the vessels to the cardinal points, emphasizing their ritual character.

In the XI century. BC. The state of Shang-Yin was conquered by the Zhou tribe. The conquerors who founded the Zhou Dynasty quickly adopted many of the technical and cultural skills of the vanquished. During the Zhou period, the creation of ritual vessels in the form of animals or birds was widespread - the so-called amulets, guardians of the countries of the world: the tiger - the West, the phoenix - the South, the dragon - the East, the turtle - the North. These images were identified not only with the cardinal points, but also with the five elements that make up the basis of the world - fire, metal, wood, water and earth. Their symbolism was intertwined with the cult of the fertility of heavenly bodies, as if connecting human destinies with the universe ( "Winged Dragon"). The state of Zhou existed for many centuries, however, its prosperity was short-lived. Many new states appeared on the political arena, and China already by the 8th century. BC. entered into internecine wars. Period from the 5th to the 3rd centuries. BC. in Chinese history, it was called Zhangguo (“Fighting Kingdoms”). This period is interesting because it is this time that is rich in philosophical studies concerning the relationship between the life of nature and human society. Among the philosophical teachings that influenced the formation of all areas of Chinese culture, Confucianism and Taoism became the most important, each of which covered its own sphere of problems.

Confucianism and Taoism

Confucianism, seeking to maintain order and balance in the state, turned to the traditions of the past. The founder of the doctrine, Confucius (circa 551 - 479 BC), considered the eternal order of relations established by Heaven in the family and society, between the sovereign and subjects, between father and son. Considering himself the keeper and interpreter of the wisdom of the ancients, who served as a role model, he developed a whole system of rules and norms of human behavior - the Ritual. According to the Ritual, one must honor the ancestors, respect the elders, strive for internal perfection. He also created rules for all spiritual manifestations of life, approved strict laws in music, literature, and painting.
Unlike Confucianism, Taoism focused on the fundamental laws of the universe. The main place in this teaching was occupied by the theory of Tao - the Way of the Universe, or the eternal variability of the world, subject to the natural necessity of nature itself, the balance of which is possible due to the interaction of male and female principles - yang and yin. The founder of the teachings of Laozi believed that human behavior should be guided by the natural laws of the universe, which must not be violated, otherwise the harmony in the world would be disturbed. The poetic approach to the world, laid down in the teachings of Laozi, manifested itself in all areas of the artistic life of ancient China.

Quite right, because the Laozi said: “Man follows the laws of the earth. The earth follows the laws of heaven. Heaven follows the laws of the Tao, and the Tao follows itself. Whoever breaks the laws of the Tao will die before his time.” In the III century. BC. after long wars and civil strife, small kingdoms united into a single, powerful empire, headed by the Qin dynasty, and then the Han dynasty. The ruler and absolute ruler of the Qin Empire, Qi Shi Huang, was the Chinese emperor for a short time, however, he managed to strengthen the centralized power. He destroyed the borders of independent kingdoms, and divided the country into 36 provinces, each of which appointed a capital official. A single script was created, which allowed people different areas communicate with each other, despite the difference in dialects.

The great Wall of China".

By order of the emperor, in the north of the country, the most powerful fortification of the time, the Great Wall of China, was created from the remains of the defensive structures of individual kingdoms. It stretched for 750 km and protected China from nomads. For several centuries of construction, the length of this only fence in the world around the whole country has reached almost 3000 km with a height of 10 m and a width of 8 m. Chinese culture from northern "barbarians".

Of great importance for the development of China are two events that historians attribute to the Han period. These are: the invention of paper in the 1st century AD. and the establishment of caravan trade links between China and Central Asia. Along the Great Silk Road, which runs through mountains and deserts, the Chinese brought silk and the finest hand-made embroideries to the west, which were famous throughout the world. Written sources contain information about the lively trade of the Han Empire with India and even distant Rome, in which China was called the Country of Silk.

So, the ancient period, which ended with the fall of the Han Empire in the 3rd century, swept away by the uprising of slaves, served as the basis for the flourishing of art in the Middle Ages. It was in the ancient period that the traditions of Chinese art were born, which largely determined its future paths. The Middle Ages in China lasted much longer than in European countries. It covered the period from the end of the III century. until the middle of the 19th century. The Middle Ages is the time of China's spiritual upsurge, the time of the construction of large cities, magnificent garden and park ensembles. The Middle Ages became famous in China for a number of discoveries: porcelain was invented, printing was invented, landscape painting appeared, as well as calligraphy - the art of artistic writing. After the collapse of the Han Empire, the country was again fragmented into small kingdoms. The foundation of the new association was laid by the creation of the state of Northern Wei in Northern China. The emperors of the Wei kingdom, coming from the nomadic environment, were under the powerful influence of Chinese culture, sought to learn Chinese writing, and adhered to Chinese customs. They forbade tribal rites, clothing, language. During this period, a new religion spread in China - Buddhism (penetrated into the country from India through Central Asia). In cultural and political life In China, Buddhist monasteries began to play an important role. Throughout the country, they began to build grandiose monastic complexes, cut down in the thickness of the rocks like Indian ones, as well as ancient Buddhist temples and high multi-tiered towers-pagodas, in which Buddhist relics were kept. The most ancient rock monastery is the Temple of Cloudy Heights - Yungang (“ Yungang").

Yungang has over 20 caves from 2 to 20 m high, carved into sandy rocks. They are filled with many sculptural images of Buddhist saints and reliefs on the themes of Buddhist legends. 15 meter Buddha sculpture - bright pattern local art: the angularity of the generalized forms of the body and face with a pointed nose and a small mouth half open in a smile, strict parallel folds of clothing covering a flat body, etc. However, the sublime state of peace, self-absorption and physical beauty, which is obligatory for the image of the Buddha, is transmitted with “32 signs of perfection”, the main of which is elongated earlobes (a sign of noble birth), ushnisha - a protrusion on the crown of the head (a symbol of divine wisdom), almond-shaped eyes, etc. d.

The features of the medieval art of China manifested themselves most fully and most vividly during the existence of two powerful states, the Tang (7th-9th centuries) and the Song (10th-13th centuries). art for educated people At that time, it seemed as natural an application of strength and knowledge as social activity. For example, officials who lived during the Tang and Sung dynasties were both poets, artists, art theorists and excellent calligraphers. Many of them were members of the Imperial Academy of Painting, which opened in the 10th century.

Majestic brick Buddhist pagodas were erected in cities and beyond. Tang pagodas had necessarily an odd (lucky) number of floors - 3, 5, 7 or more, and were also distinguished by strictness and amazing harmony of proportions. The most famous of them is a 60-meter 7-storey pagoda dayanta(Big Pagoda wild geese), built in 652 in Changyang. The noble simplicity of its forms testifies to the majestic spirit of the architecture of that time. It is no coincidence that the Tang poets Tseng Shen and Gao Shi, fascinated by the pagoda's soaring skyline, composed poems in her honor:

Like a mighty spring rushing up from under the soil,
The tower stands alone, rising to the mountain halls.
If you climb the tower, you will renounce forever ... In the 7th - 8th centuries. The main place among other types of art was occupied by painting. A subtle understanding of nature helped artists develop painting techniques that generalize its laws. In the process of other searches, the artists determined a peculiar form of scroll paintings, helping to show the world in all its diversity. The scrolls were not a permanent decoration of the room. They were kept in precious caskets and were taken out only on solemn occasions. Horizontal scrolls had to be unwound in the hands like a ribbon in order to delve into their content. Such scrolls-tales were sometimes interspersed with beautiful calligraphic text inserts, revealing and complementing the meaning of painting. Vertical scrolls were hung for viewing on the wall, allowing the eye to cover them. Already in the 8th century, Chinese painters, along with transparent mineral paints, began to use black ink rich in shades. At the same time, different manners of painting also developed: a thorough “gun-bi” (“diligent brush”), fixing all the details and showing the viewer the smallest details of the picture; the other is a free and, as it were, unfinished “sho-i” (“painting of an idea”), which allows the viewer, at the behest of his imagination, to think out what the artist has hidden from him. Painting genres were first created in China:

1. “Painting of figures”, “zhenu” – people;
2. “Flowers and birds”, “hua-niao”;
3. “Mountains and waters”, “shan shui”.

The genre “people” or “living figures” included everything related to the image of a person: a portrait, historical and mythical subjects, scenes of courtyard life. Famous painters of this genre in the Tang period were Yan Liben and Zhou Fang. Of the numerous works of Yan Liben, only one scroll with the image of 30 emperors has been preserved. He reproduced a string of images of rulers who lived long before his time. With all the conventions of types, poses and faces, it is striking with what freedom the artist has a flexible line outlining the folds of clothing, the contours of faces, hairstyles.

It is difficult to name such a field of science, literature or art, in which the medieval China would not make a significant contribution. His wonderful inventions and achievements have enriched all mankind.

It was the Chinese who first invented printing. True, the abundance of hieroglyphs - in Chinese there are tens of thousands of them - limited its possibilities. Outside of China, printing remained unknown and was reinvented by Gutenberg. The Chinese invented gunpowder and firearms, paper money and compass. Chinese astronomers compiled a surprisingly accurate calendar (with an error of only 27 seconds per year), knew the causes of solar and lunar eclipses and were able to predict them.

The Chinese had deep knowledge of medicine, history, and geography. AT 15th century their fleet made a grand voyage to the east coast of Africa.

reached its peak in China fiction. The Golden Age of Chinese poetry is called the Tang era, when such wonderful masters as Li Bo and Li Fu. The genre of the novel also developed.

Pagoda of Six Harmonies. X-XII centuries

Buddha. 5th century (above), and the 7th c. (bottom)

bird on a branch

Chinese art developed in close interaction with the art of neighboring countries. Together with Buddhism, traditions of temple architecture, sculpture and painting, previously unknown in China, came from India. The construction of cave monasteries with gigantic (up to 15-17 m) Buddha statues began.

Among them are the "Caves of a Thousand Buddhas" near the city of Dunhuang, located on the Great Silk Road. From the 4th to the 14th century new caves were cut down, painted and decorated with Buddha statues. Now there are about 480 caves here, and they provide the rarest opportunity to trace the development of art in one place for more than a millennium.

In honor of the Buddhist saints, high multi-tiered towers were built - pagodas. A subtle understanding of nature helped the Chinese build buildings in the most picturesque places.

The art of ceramics, woodcarving, stone and ivory has reached the highest level in China. Chinese porcelain, invented in the Tang era, was especially famous.

In China, they said that porcelain should be "thin as paper, ringing like a gong, smooth and shining like a lake on a sunny day." The Chinese jealously guarded the secrets of porcelain production, and in Europe they learned how to make it only in the 18th century.material from the site

Travelers in the mountains. Li Zhaodao. 7th-8th centuries

During the Tang Dynasty, painting became the main form of art in China. Usually painted on long scrolls, most often unfolded horizontally. This form helped to show the world in all its diversity. Often the scrolls also contained poetic texts, representing the unity of painting, poetry and the highest art of calligraphy.

Chinese artists were very fond of landscape- pictures of nature. Each picture included the whole world, beautiful and harmonious. The landscape genre was called in China "mountains and waters”, and not only because they were always present on the scrolls. The mountain personified the bright, active, courageous forces of nature, while the water was associated with a dark, passive, feminine beginning. So in the name of the landscape, the Chinese ideas about the world were embodied.

The culture of medieval China had a huge impact on all the countries neighboring China: Japan, Korea, Mongolia and others.

On this page, material on the topics:

• Culture of Medieval China Report

• Report for the presentation of China of the Middle Ages

• Report on the culture of medieval China

• China, as well as the heyday of Chinese medieval society in general, falls on the period of the reign of the Tang and Song dynasties. It was at this time that the Chinese invented porcelain, gunpowder, compass. Chinese scientists have achieved amazing success in the field of astronomy and medicine, especially in acupuncture, which is actively used in medical practice to this day.

  The Tang Dynasty had a strong cultural impact on Japan, Korea, and Central Asia. The Celestial Empire itself at that time hospitably opened its doors to Nestorian Christians and Buddhists. Unprecedentedly in China, Buddhist art flourishes, especially sculpture, magnificent examples of which adorn the cave temples of Longmen and Dunhuang.

  7th-9th centuries called the "golden age" of Chinese poetry. The natural world central theme creativity of the great Chinese poet Li Bo. The work of another poet of China - Du Fu - is called "ethical history", since a significant place in his poetry is occupied by civil motives.

  The most important form of art in medieval China was painting. Artists painted pictures with paints or ink on long silk or paper scrolls. The most common genres of painting were landscapes, images of animals and birds. The finest shades of ink allowed medieval artists to build a deep perspective and at the same time unite parts of the image with one color tone. Chinese art distinguished by deep philosophy and historicism.

  The history of the existence of China has more than 3600 years, and the birth of the state dates back to the 16th century BC. Over such a significant period of time, China has developed a rich and rich culture and traditions, its own religious system of views and values, which are honored by the Chinese people to this day. Of no less interest achievements of China in science, art, technology, medicine and culture. The pages of Chinese history are full of curious facts about discoveries, and some of them are still considered the greatest achievements that forever turned human representation about the world and opened up new possibilities.

  China's four most significant discoveries are a gift to the world

  In the Middle Ages, hitherto unknown paper, compass and gunpowder appeared in China, and book printing was born. These four achievements became a turning point in the development of the state, and what previously only wealthy residents could afford became within the reach of any person.

  

  The authorship of paper-making technology belongs to Cai Lun, who was a eunuch in the imperial court during the Han Dynasty in 105 AD. Before the advent of paper, it had to be replaced with materials made from bamboo and precious silk, as well as tablets, which were made from wood or clay. By the 3rd century AD paper was widely used and replaced for more expensive predecessors.

  It is curious that, according to the then recipe technology, paper was prepared by boiling a whole list of ingredients: mulberry bark, pieces of cloth and hemp (hemp stalk fibers). The cooked mass was carefully ground, adding water so that it began to resemble pasta. The mixture was scooped up with a wooden sieve to allow excess liquid to escape, and only an even and dense web of fibers remained on its surface. The final step was to transfer the pulp to the boards with smooth surface, which were stacked and placed under a press to dry and harden.

  

  The advent of paper made it possible not only to document in detail its history and cultural traditions for centuries, but also gave birth to a new great invention of the Chinese.

  The most ancient printed book is considered to be the Diamond Sutra, which was created during the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618-907 BC).

  The real development of this business was due to statesman Shen Kuo, when in 1088 he made a detailed written description of the entire printing process using the creation of written symbols from fired clay and typesetting.

  The typing brought about changes in the binding of the sheets, which until then had traditionally been in the form of a scroll, and then turned into a bound stack of printed sheets. During the reign of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), a "butterfly" binding (folding of sheets in the center) was created, and during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), a book spine appeared.

  

  Gunpowder originated in the 10th century for use as a filling for incendiary projectiles. The first weapons made from a bamboo tube and gunpowder for ignition were used in battles in 1132, and a little later a bamboo gun with bullets was developed.

  Gunpowder was not just a military invention, but was often used in the home as a powerful disinfectant and insecticide. The same achievement allowed the Chinese to invent fireworks, which served not so much as an ornament, but as a way to fight evil spirits. Bright lights and rumbles, according to legend, helped scare them away.

  

  The very first version of the compass dates back to the time of the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD), when China learned about the properties of magnetic iron ore. But this compass was by no means used to determine the north, but during fortune-telling. The arrow outwardly resembled a spoon, which pointed south with its narrow end. Documented only in 1044, the compass began to be used in modern meaning. Its design was improved by Shen Ko, who in his writings outlined the structure of a magnetic device with a needle and explained its magnetic deviation from true north.

  Examples of other achievements of China in various spheres of human activity

  China gave the world a great many discoveries and inventions, which gradually successfully migrated to the West and became not only temporarily fashionable, but entrenched there forever. Here are some of those memorable examples.

  Science and culture

  • Astronomy: the development of science was led by the belief that the emperor is the Son of Heaven, and all approval and punishment comes from heaven. It is believed that through the development of astronomy, the Chinese came to the creation of a calendar year in the 3rd century (first of 360 days, and then of 365).
  • Food sticks: sometimes they are called the fifth great achievement of China, and they appeared more than 3 thousand years ago. It is believed that initially it was customary to use chopsticks only to get food out of the vessel. Chopsticks are not inferior in popularity to the fork, because approximately 30% of people around the world use them in everyday life.
  • Feng Shui: the art of achieving harmony (the energy of heaven and earth) has won worldwide location due to its practicality and unusualness of ancient Chinese traditions and beliefs, and Confucius is considered its founder.
  • Brush: There is nothing surprising in the fact that the Chinese created the brush about 3 thousand years ago, because with the help of this tool they were able to achieve the development of the art of calligraphy and painting.
  • Umbrella: Chinese made the first umbrellas from rice paper to hide from the sun's rays. Multi-tiered painted umbrellas were in fashion, which indicated the social status of a person.

  Military and martial art

  • martial art wushu: once a magical culture that combined spiritual practices and legendary military training, wushu refers to ancient heritage China and began to take shape as early as the 11-3 centuries BC. The development of religious forms made it possible to enrich the wushu traditions and led to the emergence of new directions and schools of martial arts.
  • Crossbow: the design of this weapon was developed by the Chinese in the 5th century BC. It was the most used until the Han Dynasty, and the warriors who fired from them were required to undergo training in order to demonstrate in battle the technique of mass shooting from crossbows that was so often used.

  Medicine and health

  • Qigong gymnastics: a health-improving technique that arose more than 7 thousand years ago and is aimed at "turning on" the body's self-healing process through smooth physical exercises and breathing exercises.
  • Acupuncture: a method of treatment that originated in China more than 5 thousand years ago as a philosophical concept of Yin and Yang (energy balance). Acupuncture sessions are aimed at creating balance in the body, which helps prevent the development of diseases and improve health. The effectiveness of this method has been repeatedly proven by WHO.
  • Toothbrush: The appearance of the first bamboo brush with boar bristles in China dates back to 1498, while toothbrushes entered Europe only in the 17th century.
  • Diet and therapeutic fasting: already in the 4th century BC. at the court of the emperor there was a position of a nutritionist. The first health diet was created and written down by Zhang Zhongjing (lived 150-219 AD). Treatment of beriberi with the help of a diet, the Chinese began during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), and their effectiveness was scientifically confirmed in the early 20th century.