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Chapter Six WORLD AS HARMONY. PYTHAGORUS Southern Italy, 540-500 The Universe gradually emerges more like a great Thought than like a big machine. D. Jeans The name of Pythagoras is most often associated with the idea of ​​a mathematician and astronomer. When Copernicus rejected

Southern branch of the followers of St. Sergius. Monasteries near Moscow In addition to the contemplative traditions of the "Northern Thebaid" in Russia at that time, there was another direction of monastic deed. It was concentrated south of the monastery of St. Sergius, near Moscow, in

The population of South America is very diverse and colorful. It consists of representatives of the most diverse races, who in different periods of history mastered this continent. A characteristic feature is racial mixing, which is going on at a very rapid pace in all South American countries.

Population of mainland South America

The racial composition of the inhabitants of South America is very complex, and this is due to the peculiarities of the history of the development of the continent. More than 250 different peoples and nationalities live here, which have been in close interaction with each other for many years.

Representatives of three major races live in South America:

• equatorial (indigenous population - Indians);
• European (descendants of immigrants from European countries);
• Negroid (descendants of black slaves brought from Africa).

In addition to pure races, several mixed groups also live on the mainland:

• mestizos - mixture of Europeans with Indians;
• mulattoes - mixture of Europeans with Africans;
• sambo - a mixture of Indians with blacks.

It is noteworthy that during the colonial system, a special social hierarchy reigned in the local society, dominated by Creoles - the descendants of European conquerors, born already in America. The lower classes included all mixed groups.

History of development

A distinctive feature of the formation of the population of South America is its relative immaturity - only a few centuries. Before the conquest of the continent by the Spanish and Portuguese invaders at the end of the 15th century, Indian peoples and tribes lived here, speaking Quechua, Chibcha, Tupigua-Rani and others. However, after the capture of the mainland by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, the main population began to mix rapidly.

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Rice. 1. Indians of South America

The ethnic structure of South America began to change seriously after the importation of a large number of black slaves from the African continent. They made a great contribution to the original culture of the peoples inhabiting the mainland.

Rice. 2. Black South Americans

Another leap in the development of the ethnic structure occurred after the recognition of the independence of the countries of South America. During this period, the continent became a refuge for numerous refugees from the countries of Eastern and Western Europe, India, and China.

Despite the great mixture of nationalities within the continent, in some South American countries, the original Indian peoples still survived: Quechua, Aymara, Araucans. They managed to preserve not only racial purity, but also numbers. Their main occupation is agriculture.

Rice. 3. Quechua - the indigenous people of South America

Population distribution of South America

The average population density ranges from 10-25 people per 1 sq. km. km. This data differs only for French Guiana, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname - these regions are least populated.

Features of nature and climate are such that the population of the mainland is uneven and unequal. Most people live in large cities. So, for example, in Argentina for 1 sq. km there are more than 100 people, and in Patagonia this figure is 100 times less - only 1 person per 1 sq. km. km.

The least inhabited on the mainland are its interior regions - the vast forests of the Amazon, as well as some areas of the Andes. Some of these spaces are generally deserted. This indicates the poor development of a large part of the territory of South America.

It is impossible to describe the population of South America using only criteria ethnic background. It would be too simplistic to describe Guyanese society as a society of various racial groups. Terms such as Indo-Guyanese and Afro-Guyanese refer to an ethnic identity. But significant physical and cultural differences exist between ethnic communities. Such a division may lead to the misconception that there are two Guyanas with different origins, behavior and political and economic interests in the same country.

All groups of immigrants adapted to the dominant British culture in the colony. In many ways, the descendants of various immigrant groups resemble each other more than they resemble their distant ancestors. In addition, the descendants of immigrants have gone beyond their former social niches. Indo-Guyanese can be found not only on sugarcane and rice plantations, but also in cities, where some of them have become entrepreneurs, specialists or just workers. Afro-Guyanese can also be found at all levels of Guyanese society.

All immigrants in Guyana have a common experience. They all worked on the plantations. With the abolition of slavery, the nature of labor power changed, but not labor itself. The Indians did the same work as the African slaves before them, lived in the same housing as the former slaves. All immigrants were dominated by the British value system and had nowhere to store their values.

Africans consider themselves to belong to different cultural groups, Indian society has also been differentiated by religion and castes. For the English, however, race was the only indication, and all Indians were classified into one group, and all Africans into another.

The greatest influence on assimilation was the use of language. English has become the main language of all Guyanese, with the exception of some old people and some American Indians. The universal use of the English language has proven to be a powerful unifying cultural force.

The descendants of immigrant groups became increasingly anglicised. Cultural differences were weakening. And even physical differences were blurred through intermarriage. Cultural differences retain their symbolic meaning. Many of these cultural differences were not inherited, but arose locally. For example, Guyanese Hinduism is closer to Islam and Christianity than in the very homeland of Hinduism. Humanity tends to think in stereotypes. So the population of South America is divided into stereotyped groups by the population of South America itself.

A racial stereotype developed in Guyana early in the founding of the colony. British planters characterized Africans as physically strong but lazy and irresponsible. Indians were characterized as industrious, but clannish and greedy. To some extent, these stereotypes were recognized by the immigrants themselves, with positive stereotypes readily attributed to themselves and negative stereotypes to others.

In the process of the development of the country, stereotypes explained the behavior of representatives of various nationalities. Africans were described as shortsighted when they refused to work for low wages on plantations or enter into long-term contracts with planters. The Indians were called selfish when all efforts were directed towards the maximum acquisition of capital.

In modern Guyana, ethnic characteristics are less subject to stereotypes. Other differences now matter more. There is a gradation into "capital" manners and "coolie" manners. However, what is considered metropolitan manners in the provinces may at the same time be recognized as coolie manners in the capital itself.

Along with these stereotypes, the colonial attitude towards European countries also persisted, when all British customs, mores and behavior were idealized. The British education system contributed to the preservation of Eurocentrism. The notion of the superiority of British culture was recognized and accepted among the slaves. In particular, former slaves still believe that adherence to Christianity is a sign of a civilized person.

The middle class, which has been formed since the end of the nineteenth century from the Afro-Guyanese and Indo-Guyanese environment, was also based mainly on British values, the idea of ​​which was the most progressive and civilized.

Most scientists are inclined to think that the first person who appeared on the American mainland was approximately 26-29 thousand years ago.

As everyone knows, Americans have always been different from Russians and Ukrainians, they have always been more purposeful, more militant, energetic, hardy, lived richer than we do. The researchers highlight this with their long-standing analyzes. Speaking about the fact that those who were settled on the American mainland people were like that. That is how it has been to this day. America has always come first.

Rituals are assigned to the customs of the people of South America.

For example: A wedding must necessarily be not only like: an exchange of rings, a painting and a seal in a passport, but it must also be consecrated in a church. They also invite a sorcerer to the wedding, who supposedly should save the young from the evil eye.

I believe that it is not right when people get married immediately should get married. Because everything can happen in our life and I would not recommend taking such a step. What if the couple gets married, and in a month they will begin to disagree, or they will stop loving each other, or she or he will fall in love with another or another. Who knows, anything is possible. This is too serious and it is a great responsibility before God.

You need to think about it. I have a real life example. My childhood friend suddenly met her love (as she thought) and after talking for a week, they decided not only to get married, but also to get married. As we just did not stop, but still they did it. Literally five months later, the couple began to have serious disagreements without any truce. That is why I think that if you already decide to take such a step, then only in old age, when you have lived all your life together. Then it will be right and appropriate. There are of course exceptions, but still very rare in my opinion. But everyone has their own. Each country has its own rules.

I liked the fact that Brazilians love carnivals more. This is commendable, because people feel and splash out all their positive emotions. Almost all residents of South America participate in carnivals.

I liked that the Brazilian people are respected and developed creative activity, especially musical. They have a large number of circles that teach them and tell them all about musical creativity. This is great! After all, creativity is like a cure for a bad mood or depression. The best remedy for getting rid of negative emotions is creativity, especially music.

In our activities it is very important to involve children in creativity, because it helps such children, although not for a long time, to leave their world and enjoy their own emotions, giving them to the people around them. For example, children with autism syndrome suffer from frequent aggression, restlessness, stereotypes, etc. ... and in order to somehow socialize them, a good way out of the situation can be creativity, for example, modeling lessons, they can form perseverance and attention, lessons , drawing lessons, will help in the development of imagination, as well as in the development of thinking. Also in other patients with other syndromes, such as mental retardation, D.C.P. you can form all the same qualities.

Rumor has it that the Argentines have a bright, Latin temperament, as they say, it is inherent in both men and women. But with all this, their attitude towards the people around them is sincerely polite and kind. For them, politeness is like a custom. And at what it is absolutely not feigned delicacy, but completely sincere. They are so accustomed to this is their upbringing. If suddenly they see acquaintances on the street, then insanely large amounts of compliments and smiles pour from their lips. If we compare with our Ukrainian people, then we can understand that our people are very different from them.

Unfortunately, we can rarely find polite saleswomen or polite cashiers, for example, most people are overwhelmed with aggression, unfortunately, who knows, maybe this is not always the case, I would like to think so. For Argentines, the opinion of others is very important, and when they meet, by the way, they kiss each other on the cheek, but little acquaintances shake hands with each other. For them, the opinion of others is insanely important, and I do not agree with this.

Because if you worry too much about what others think of you, you can miss important events In my life. Do not go through your life freely trying to achieve your single goal. Of course, you certainly need to listen to the opinions of others, but you need to go through life with your own goal, because you don’t live for those people who say something about you and criticize, but you live on, not them. Almost everyone around you does not care what happens in your life, they are busy with their more important. Only your parents care, and this is not the case for everyone (except for orphans).

Their favorite topics of conversation, which impressed them a lot, are talking about politics and football, just like us.

I was also impressed that in Venusuela the main traditions are various festivals with holidays and dances, which fill the entire calendar. It's great when people know how and love to have fun at a high and cultural level, I think that they have something to be proud of.

The culture of South America is an example of a unique manifestation of the creative genius of mankind. On its example, one can trace the dynamics of the early stages of the development of the world cultural process: from the primitive stage to its class stage, which demonstrated the peaks reached by ancient civilizations.

According to some scientists, people came to South America as early as the 11th-10th millennium BC. e. through the Isthmus of Panama. Following the course of the Colombian rivers Cauca, Magdalena, along the coast of Ecuador, they entered the region of the Central Andes, and then settled throughout the mainland, reaching by the 8th millennium BC. e. Strait of Magellan. This is evidenced by the finds of stone tools and sites of hunters for long-extinct animals. Perhaps in the VIII-VII millennium BC. e. in South America they began to tame animals, and in the 7th-6th millennium BC. e., just as in the Old World, in the river oases of the coastal deserts, agriculture is already emerging and the first sanctuaries appear. By the end of the IV millennium BC. e. there they could sculpt and fire clay, and in the III-II millennium BC. e. the first civilizations arise.

In 1531, Spanish soldiers led by a conquistador Francisco Pizarro(1475-1541), landed on the mainland, which was inhabited by peoples who were at various stages of the formation of human society.

Numerous groups of tribes isolated from each other, which were at the primitive stage of development, lived in the forest-steppe zones of tropical forests, on the plains of South America and in the region of Tierra del Fuego. Separated by high mountains, fast and mighty rivers, boundless plains, they have not been able to get out of the state of primitiveness over the past centuries and continue to stay in it until today.

Tierra del Fuego and forest-steppe zones

The tribes that lived in the region of Tierra del Fuego, the forests and steppes of eastern Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, were at the primitive stage of development of society and culture. Their way of life was extremely mobile. Places of settlement changed after the depletion of resources. The main occupations were sea fishing (hunting seals, dolphins, mollusks, fishing), ground hunting (monkeys, turtles, jaguars) and gathering (nuts, tubers, pods, insect larvae, young growth of plants). They lived in communities. Each family had either its own shed or a light oval-shaped hut. Food was prepared without special utensils: shellfish were baked in shells, meat was fried on stones and coals, and fish, poultry and eggs were baked.

Clothing was minimal. The inhabitants of the steppe and forest zones went naked. Only men "covered" their thighs with laces. But everyone wore jewelry: wooden plugs were inserted into the lower lips and earlobes.

The clothes of the Firelands were something resembling a cloak made of the skin of an otter and a seal, and fur aprons were the privilege of women. The "wardrobe" was complemented by shell necklaces and leather bracelets.

Inhabitants of the plains and tropical forests

The life of the inhabitants of the plains of eastern Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina and Uruguay was similar, but they had no dwellings and special throwing stones were used in hunting.

The inhabitants of the tropical forests of South America, located mainly in the Orinoco and Amazon river basins, have gone a little further in their development. In the 16th century n. e. numerous peoples lived here: Tupi-Guarani, part of the Arawaks, Caribs and many others, whose ethnicity is not defined even today. These were cultures of hunters and gatherers who already knew how to grow plants, and first of all cassava. Cassava tubers contain substances that turn into a strong poison (hydrocyanic acid) when they are separated from the stem. But the tubers were washed for a long time in running water, peeled, ground on graters, the mass was squeezed out and baked in the form of round cakes in hot clay pans (these tribes knew ceramic production). The cultivation of turtles in special pens served as a great support for the economy of the forest tropics.

One of the most famous inhabitants of the area was the same tribe. It became famous for its lower lip, which was severely deformed by wooden disks, stretched to the size of a saucer.

The worldview of these tribes and peoples was quite typical of primitive man: the world and way of life were sanctified by myths, and nature was inhabited by spirits and supernatural powers.

A completely different stage in the evolution of mankind was represented by the cultures of the peoples who lived in the region of the Central Andes and in the so-called Intermediate (Circum-Caribbean) zone. It is here that the unique civilizations of Chavin, San Agustin, Paracas, Nazca, Mochica, Tihuaunaco, Tayrone, Chimu, Chibcha and the Incas flourish.

Chavin culture (1000 BC - 300 BC)

The first civilization to shine as a bright star in the Central Andes was Chavin ("Sons of the Jaguar with Spears"). Its center - the city of Chavin - arose in a place surrounded by snowy peaks and non-melting glaciers. A road, located at an altitude of 4100 m, led to it, the entrance to the city went through a tunnel dug in the mountain.

Chavin was a cult center, so only the highest clergy lived there. The main subject of their worship - animals from the cat family (cougar or jaguar). Their formidable stylized faces adorn almost all the buildings of the city.

The most remarkable thing about Chavin is architecture and sculpture. The famous Chavin ensemble consisted of terraces, ritual sites and stone buildings. Its crown is a splendid four-storied temple in the form of a stepped pyramid (its base area is 72 x 72 m and its height is 13 m). Inside it is a series of chapels and underground corridors that stretch deep underground beyond the buildings, going under the bottom of the river. One of the main objects of the temple - "Big square", which has a quadrangular shape and is surrounded on all sides by special platforms. At its center was one of the most wonderful works Art Chavin - obelisk "Deity on the tip of a spear", which was an almost five-meter column in the form of a dagger, on top of which a sculpture of an intimidating creature with human body, the face of a jaguar, with snake hair on his head.

About 90 roughly hewn stones discovered in the Kasma Valley (Cerro Sechin) depicting male warriors with a jaguar grin, in high helmets, richly decorated with wide belts and wands in their hands, belong to typical Chavin plastic art. At the head of the army is a commander in a magnificent robe, on a special belt of which the severed heads of enemies hang. It is possible that once these figures framed the facade of the pyramid.

The main occupation of the population was agriculture. Powerful irrigation systems helped to obtain high yields. One of them, occupying two and a half hectares, was found near modern city Cajamarca. Its main part is an aqueduct carved into the rock. The water coming from it went through several tunnels, the walls of which were decorated with peculiar petroglyphs.

The Chavinians tamed the dog and the llama. Lamas carried loads, gave meat, wool, and their droppings were good fuel. Tools were made from stone and bone. Of the metals, only gold was known. It was used to make a variety of jewelry - earrings, crowns, beads, etc. Ancient masters perfectly processed semi-precious stones, shells and wood.

The appearance of the Chavin culture happened rapidly and in an orderly manner. This allows us to think that even before the penetration into this area, it was already fully formed. Its main feature was the cult of the jaguar. However, this animal never lived in the Andes. Worship of the spotted predator and a number of other peculiar features (deformation of the skulls, the use of corn, the proximity of artistic motifs) allowed some researchers to look for a connection with the famous Olmec culture of Mesoamerica.

The area of ​​Chavin culture was much wider than the city itself. Its traces are found throughout Peru. They can be easily recognized by their characteristic artistic style, specific ornaments (decorating ceramics, colorful fabrics, stone products, bones), the prevailing magic number 7 everywhere and, of course, jaguar elements. The Chavin culture disappears around 300 BC. e. just as suddenly as it appeared.

San Agustin (1000 BC - 0 AD)

In parallel with the Chavin civilization, the amazing culture of the Intermediate Region grew and strengthened. It is characterized by high burial mounds, graves, underground tombs covered with stone slabs with geometric ornaments, and water pipes carved into the cliffs. But most of all, their steles and large unusual two-headed statues. The heads are located side by side or one above the other, with the second being always the animal's head. Most likely this is an image of a nagual - another "I" of a person. In the hands of stone idols there is a club and some spherical object (ball or stone). There are many figures with children in their arms. However, rather large images of frogs, salamanders, and tadpoles placed near sources of drinking water were more typical of the San Agustin culture. The combination of complex stone patterns and reflections of water creates a harmonious image of a single whole and testifies to the high artistic taste of the Indians. The level of processing of basalt slabs suggests a significant antiquity of this culture.

Paracas culture (700-200 BC)

The traditions of the majestic Chavin complemented the younger cultures of the predominantly coastal Andean region. The exact time of their appearance is unknown. Nevertheless, it is believed that the first culture that arose on the southern coast of Peru after the disappearance of Chavin. It received the name Paracas, since its main finds were made on the Paracas Peninsula (“Sandy Rain”).

It was the Indian city of the dead. In the system of underground cells of the coastal strip or in underground burial structures resembling the remains of a residential complex (necropolis), mummies of the ancient inhabitants of Peru were found, wrapped in well-preserved cloth, which, even a millennium later, did not lose its colors and elasticity.

Each Paracas mummy is wrapped in one or more magnificent cloaks. The more cloaks, the more noble the person. Cloaks were woven from cotton or wool, skillfully decorated from top to bottom with delicate embroidered patterns of a wide variety of colors (up to 190 shades). The colors were of natural origin. The favorite subjects of embroidery are condors, hummingbirds, fish, geometric ornaments resembling animal body parts, deities in the form of sphinxes, birds and animals with human faces. Some researchers believe that these figures are signs of ancient Peruvian writing. It is generally accepted that paracas raincoats- the best textile products of the ancient cultures of the world.

The smartly dressed dead are usually in a sitting position with their knees tucked to their chin and arms crossed on their chests. Their skulls are deformed, many have traces of intravital trepanation (surgical intervention). Scientists are inclined to see in this signs of a special magical cult. Perhaps such operations were one of the types of sacrifice. The skulls testify to the high level of development of Paracas medicine. Doctors (or priests) were able to extract bone fragments from a broken skull, pressing on the brain and causing paralysis. The holes in the cranial bone of the Indians, as a rule, were covered with gold plates. During the operation, surgical instruments made of stone and bone (tweezers, obsidian knives, needles, scalpels, tourniquets for clamping blood vessels, etc.) of such high perfection were used that modern doctors attempted to use them in their work. The experiment led to positive results.

Traces of the Paracas culture are lost around 200 BC. e.

Nazca culture (100-500 AD)

Another important center of the southern part of the Peruvian coast is Nazca. Its main centers were the valleys of the rivers Ica, Nazca, Pisco. Representatives of this culture did not leave behind palaces, temples and pyramids, but were known as good farmers. 2000 years ago, the area of ​​dry land here was much larger than in the 20th century, and the Naskans were often forced to look for water underground. They built large reservoirs of water, broke through huge aqueducts, brought water pipes directly to the fields, which even now serve their distant descendants. Underground water tunnels have a large cross section (human height) and considerable length.

However, the Nazca became famous not only for their magnificent hydraulic structures, but also for their excellent ceramic products. They were created without a potter's wheel, covered with glaze and had a multicolored color. To paint the vessels, the artists used about 11 colors (several red and yellow shades, brown, gray, pink, purple, as well as ocher and bone color), but did not know blue and green paint. A variety of color combinations complemented each other and delighted the eye with a colorful inflorescence. Nazca pottery often took the form of a goblet or vessel with two necks connected by a bridge handle in the form of a human or bird head.

Nazca pottery is the most colorful in America and is distinguished by the subtlety of polychrome painting. The Nasca ornament is original: anthropomorphic images of some fantastic man-jaguar-bird figures, plants, animals, fish, birds (hummingbirds and swallows) and an abundance of cut-off enemy heads, which were perhaps the most favorite subject of the Nascans. This motif is associated with the widespread custom to constantly wear the severed head of an enemy, hanging it from the belt or attaching it to the arm, thigh, which testified to the valor of the warrior and the large amount of magical energy that such a trophy gave him. This bloody custom was nowhere more widespread on such a scale as in Naeka.

Nazca fabrics were famous no less than ceramics. They were woven from cotton, wool and human hair. In the production of canvases, a range of more than 200 colors and shades was used. Drawings of fabrics often repeated the motifs found on the vessels. Ancient craftsmen knew embroidery, the production of brocade, carpets and other types of weaving techniques.

The carriers of the Nascan culture did not earn the reputation of good urban planners, despite the fact that they had fortresses (Chovacento, Amato, Huarato), temples (Cahuachi), administrative, residential buildings made of mud brick dried in the sun. The buildings of Nazca are not distinguished by their beauty, grandeur, or originality. The most beautiful city of Nazca is considered the capital of civilization - Cahuachi (in the valley of the Nazca River). The city is still poorly understood, but it is known that it was inhabited by several thousand inhabitants. Cahuachi's most famous monument is the Escaqueria Sanctuary, made up of hundreds of mesquite trunks (algarroba). The center of the monument is a quadrangle formed by twelve rows of trunks with 12 pillars each. Its true purpose has not been definitively established: most scientists assume its connection with the calendar.

World-wide fame for Nazca culture was brought by Pampa de Nasca. The valley, which is 70 km long and 2 km wide, is all dotted with many shallow lines and rows of stones. Lines and stones run parallel to each other, intersect, forming closed spaces, triangles, squares, trapezoids and other shapes. From the surface of the earth, they are mostly indistinguishable, so they were first noticed from an airplane in the early 30s. 20th century Among the intricacies of lines, drawings of animals are visible: 120-200-meter birds, lizards, monkeys, iguanas, spiders, killer whales (one of the deities of Nazca), snakes and dogs .

An inventory of the figures and lines of this unique gigantic picture gallery was first made by the German mathematician, Professor Maria Reiche, as a result of almost 30 years of research in the Nascan desert. The images exactly correspond to the drawings on the ceramics. In order to apply them to the surface of the earth, it was first necessary to draw everything on a small scale on a plan with exceptional accuracy, since even 1 mm of deviation when transferred to the ground would give distortions of several tens of meters. To do this, there had to be special tools and units of measurement. M. Reiche proved that the main measure of the Naskans was 1 m 10 cm. It was skillfully divided into tenths (that is, they used the decimal system), but the most common unit was 33 m 66 cm. The age of the “gallery” is about 14 centuries.

It is not clear how many people took part in the implementation of such a grandiose event and what purposes this unique monument served (a cosmodrome, an airfield, a kind of calendar, a cult object, a message to the gods, or a system of lines blocking the territories of individual clans and connecting sanctuaries). One thing is clear, the images are really tied to the winter and summer solstices, had a certain relation to the moon, and some lines determined the position or movement of the stars and constellations.

The last traces left by the mysterious Nascan culture are lost in the 5th century. AD, leaving many mysteries to posterity.

Moche culture (400-800 AD)

A contemporary of the Nazca and one of the most significant civilizations of Peru before the advent of the Incas was the culture of Mochica, which received its name from the valley, which was considered its main center. However, one should not think that Mochica is a local culture. The area of ​​its influence is 24 oases located in the valleys of the coastal rivers Chikama, Viru, Santa and others, separated from each other by desert zones. There was a good seaside climate and fertile soil. Like the Egyptian Nile Valley, Moiccan land was regularly flooded by the waters of the river and provided high yields twice a year. Naturally, in such conditions, the main occupation of the inhabitants was agriculture.

We are surprised by the agronomic and engineering knowledge mochika. They used irrigation systems up to 150 km long, fertilizers, improved the quality of crops such as maize, potatoes, pumpkins, tomatoes, worked the land with wooden sticks and copper tools. Mochica bred llamas and guinea pigs, whose meat was valued. The sea provided many products (fish, crabs, mollusks, etc.), because the Mochica were skilled fishermen: going far into the sea on rafts and canoes, they fished with fishing rods and nets. Hunting was of secondary importance and was most likely the privilege of the nobility. With the help of dogs, pens, nets, spears and throwing pipes, they hunted deer, cougars and birds. Mochik's menu was complemented by beer (chicha) made from fermented maize.

Crafts played an important role in the economy: weaving, making clothes and products from feathers (headdresses and jewelry), and jewelry. Mochica are recognized as the best metallurgists of pre-Inca Peru. They worked with gold, silver and copper, mastered chasing, forging, soldering, inlaying with semi-precious stones and mother-of-pearl. With the help of these techniques, the Mochica achieved significant success in the art of all types of small plastics made of gold, wood, shells and bone. Notorious are those found in the 19th century. Colonel La Rosa, graceful butterflies that could float in the air if you blow on them. Each of the butterflies, and there were about five thousand of them, weighed less than a gram and was not like the other. Unfortunately, this entire unique collection was melted down into gold bars.

Pottery remains the main achievement of the Moche culture.
. The most significant feature is the absence of genre scenes, its plots are connected with myths and beliefs. The purpose of most of the Mochik ceramics was not domestic, but religious, aesthetic and socio-political. Highly qualified craftsmen who specialized in this field worked on the order of the state, creating works of art with complex pictograms that had a deep meaning. The craftsmanship of the Mochika craftsmen was so perfect that the ceramic drawings seem to come to life, become dynamic and make it possible to observe, for example, the transformation of an ordinary sea snail into a demon growing before our eyes, rushing about in its shell. Even emotional states (pain, joy, sadness, etc.) were reproduced with talent.

Plots of pottery allow you to get acquainted with the social structure of Mochika. At the top of the social pyramid stood the chief ruler, who relied on two to four accomplices (according to the number of "quarters" of the state), who divided the spheres of influence (the state, the army, priests, and the judiciary) among themselves.

Mochica laws were cruel. For the slightest offense, they cut off any part of the body (arm, leg, nose or lips). The ultimate punishment is stoning. All these procedures took place in public.

The basis of society was the largest part of the population - free community members - farmers and artisans. Below were the servants, free but landless people, and at the very bottom of the social pyramid were the slaves.

It was possible to determine the social affiliation of various segments of the population by clothing: the nobility had rich clothes with many decorations, ordinary people had simple clothes, slaves went naked.

The Mochica, like all Indians, were very religious. They still revered the divine jaguar, but the cult of this animal is already overshadowed by the worship of the mysterious night star, commanding the ebb and flow of rivers and seas, influencing crops and human emotions - the Moon (Xi). However, the god-man was considered the most important deity of Mochika - Ai Apeka ("He who creates"). He created the Universe and maintains its viability, fights Darkness and Chaos, helps people. The falcon, the sea eagle and the dog were considered faithful guides of the Creator. Like the Mesoamericans, the Mochica people “nourished the gods with human blood”, which was “transferred” to the sacred forces through messengers - sea hawks. Therefore, the drawings so often depict these birds drinking from a ritual bowl. This is the most common motif in Mochik culture.

Running sports were a special ritual, and reading prayers and drinking coca leaves, which have a narcotic effect, were considered everyday rituals.

One of the most grandiose Peruvian buildings is dedicated to the deity Ai Apeku - "Pyramid of the Sun". This stepped monumental structure, erected in the cult metropolis in the valley of the Mocha River (Pampa de los Mochica), had a base area of ​​​​342x159 m and a height of 48 m, it was supplemented by the "Pyramid of the Moon" (base 80x60 m, height 21 m), internal the walls of which were covered with numerous paintings. One of them, for example, depicted the rebellion of things and their war with people. There are also "portraits" of prisoners destined for sacrifice to the gods. The remains of unique ritual buildings have also been preserved in the valleys of the rivers Nepenya (a six-step twenty-meter pyramid), Heketepeki (the religious center of Pakatnam - 57 pyramids) in other areas. They were connected by wide roads (9.8 m), although the Indians of ancient Peru did not know the wheel.

It is impossible to say unequivocally whether there was a written language in the Mochican culture. According to some scientists, the drawings on the ceramic vessels replaced the Mochica script. However, the Peruvian researcher Rafael Larco Oile believes that the original writing system is beans
, covered with various dashes, circles, crosses and dots, which are often found on dishes and fabrics. From this he concludes that the messengers depicted in the drawings pass on to each other not just leather bags, but written messages.

The Mochica culture, having reached a high level of development and independence, disappears from the historical arena at the beginning of the 9th century. n. e.

Tiahuanaco culture (AD 500-1100)

The Tiwanakan culture is recognized as one of the most significant in the South American region. The area of ​​​​its distribution was the Central and Southern Andes, and the center from where its influence came from, the city of Tiahuanaco, located on the Bolivian plateau (Upper Peru) at an altitude of 4 thousand meters above sea level. Tiwanaku is often referred to as "American Tibet". The cold highland plain, surrounded by snowy Cordillera, is located south of the world's highest navigable lake Titicaco. It is believed that during the heyday of culture, it reached the city itself.

Tiwanaku occupied a space of 450 thousand square meters. m. Its magnificent buildings had masonry. Cubes weighing 60 tons are placed on 100-ton sandstone blocks. Smooth surfaces it is not clear how they are held with copper staples. All stone processing is extremely clean. The most impressive construction of the settlement is Akapana - a pyramid 15 m high and 250 m long at the base, on top of which there is an artificial lake, clearly oriented to the east.

The most mysterious structure of Tiahuanaco is considered "Semi-Submerged Temple", its base is lowered almost to a depth of two meters. No less famous is another outstanding monument of the city - kalasasaya palace. This largest Tiwanakan structure (128 x 118 m) has a rectangular base and is surrounded by stone pillars with masonry in between. The courtyard of Kalasasaya is below ground level. The ancient inhabitants of the city entered the palace through a large stone gate along a monumental staircase with six steps. The complex was decorated with gold. Even the nails that held the gold foil that covered the building were gold.

deserves attention and monumental sculpture Tiwanaku. In size, it surpasses even the Olmec. Basically, these are giant colossi from 3 to 7 m: either statues or steles. The most famous of them is the so-called "The Bennett Monolith". The head of the pink stone statue is adorned with a turban, the arms are folded on the chest, the stomach is tied with a wide belt, and the eyes look straight ahead, the illusion is created that tears are flowing from them. Perhaps this monolith was once painted.

Glorified Tiahuanaco "Gate of the Sun" (Inti-Lunka)
, carved from a single block of andesite 3 m high and 4 m wide. Their weight exceeds 10 tons. The upper part of the gate is decorated with a rich relief, in the center of which is the figure of the main deity. The sun's rays radiate from his head, his hands clench wands, tears flow from his eyes. Running creatures with wings behind their backs and crowns on their heads rushed towards the god. Some of them are anthropomorphic. Some scientists are inclined to see in the "Gate of the Sun" an ancient solar (lunar) calendar or an "atlas" of the sacred forces of the world.

The divine world, according to the myths of this people, led Kon-Tiki Viracocha- Creator of the world. Being in the inaccessible depths of the universe, he created light, and then the earth. In order for it not to be empty, God created people who built the city of Tiahuanaco. But since people did not want to follow the orders of Viracocha, the angry god turned them into stones and sent a flood to the earth that lasted sixty days. After the waters receded and the earth dried up, the Creator continued to create - he created the "heavenly disks":

Sun, Moon, Venus and other planets, stars and constellations and again people - men and women. He sent them in pairs around the world. Then God created the animals. Time will pass and Viracocha, in the form of an enlightener, will appear on Earth in order to divide people into tribes and peoples, give them laws, religion, rituals, and teach them useful activities.

At the end of the 1st millennium AD. e. in Tiahuanaco, a powerful and educated ruling elite was formed, which was fed by the surplus labor of farmers (the main product is potatoes and Peruvian rice). At the service of the nobility were artisans, peasants and merchants, who were called people without a title. It can be assumed that the city was a state with a high degree of centralization of government, since the construction of the Tiwanakan structures and the delivery of heavy building material required the organized labor of thousands of workers. In Tiahuanaco, copper, bronze, tin, gold and silver were processed, and the elegance of the pottery was not inferior to the Nazca ceramics. Tiwanakan craftsmen create perfect porcelain products of various shapes: goblets and bowls with smoothly divergent walls (kero), zoomorphic vessels in the shape of jaguar, llama, condor heads. The painting of ceramics was polychrome, naturalistic and stylized (decorated with ornaments in Greek style and step motifs). It was clearly outlined in black and light brown colors. Men's and women's clothing was made in the same style. The most common type of it was ponchos. Some ponchos had rows of dark stripes. It is believed that such ponchos were the form of civil servants.

However, all the splendor and fundamental culture of Tiahuanaco is gradually declining. At the beginning of the XII century. The Tiwanakan state ceased to exist. Another unique civilization is leaving the forefront of South American culture.

Tyrone (600-1100 AD)

In the region of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, there lived tribes that would later be called Tayrona (“goldsmiths”). They were engaged in terraced agriculture (maize, yucca), gardening, fishing and beekeeping. The Tyrons were excellent builders. Their cities are quite large - several square kilometers. At the center of each of them stood a temple. Tayrone architecture is characterized by high stone platforms under the houses and long stairways with tiled steps leading to dwellings located high in the mountains, as well as triangular enclosures, aqueducts, canals, bridges and stone-paved roads.

Tyrone artisans made a variety of ceramics (figurines and whistles, amphorae and zoomorphic incense burners, funerary urns and anthropomorphic vases), cotton clothing and feather headdresses. But most of all they became famous for their catchy jewelry: nose pendants, bracelets, large amulets, rings worn on arms and legs, beads and necklaces.

Chimu culture (1200-1476 AD)

The Chimu culture is considered to be the successor of Mochica and a contemporary of Tiahuanaco. At the first stage of development, it covered the territory of its great predecessor. Subsequently, the influence of Chimu spread to the entire coastal strip of Peru.

According to legend, the Chimu people sailed across the sea on balsa rafts from somewhere in the north. It was led by a man named Takainamo. In the Moche valley, he went ashore and erected a sanctuary, where he performed thanksgiving rites to the gods protecting him. The local population recognized him as a new ruler. The Chimu's dominions stretched for thousands of kilometers. It was the most powerful state of all previously known in South America. In the conquered areas, the rulers of Chimu left their governors, who controlled the administration of local princes. Representatives of these strata of society were called "noble men". They were opposed to "servants".

There were many cities in the state of Chimu, whose dead ruins have survived to our days. These are Apurlek, Fado, Chakma and others, but the magnificent white-green city of Chan Chan was considered the capital of the state. In translation, this meant "House of snakes" - after all, snakes were revered there as sacred creatures. During its heyday, the city was inhabited by more than a hundred thousand people.

Chan Chan is located near the famous iconic metropolis of the Sun and Moon (Pampa de los Mochica). It occupied an area of ​​20 sq. km and was built up very thoughtfully, according to a pre-planned plan. The city was divided into ten quarters, surrounded by 20-meter walls, additionally reinforced with hardwood tree trunks. Each quarter had its own sanctuaries and parks, squares and well-planned streets, public buildings and gardens, reservoirs. The buildings were decorated with intricate stamped clay ornaments. Relief decorations depicted stylized animals, birds and consisted of lattices and stripes, crosses and a stepped meander. As a rule, they were painted with white paint. Irrigated fields were located between the quarters within the city. To increase security, Chan Chan was surrounded by two powerful defensive walls.

Defensive structures are a characteristic example of the Chimu culture, and the fortress of Paramonga is recognized as their standard. She defended the southern borders of the state and rose on a hill of the westernmost spur of the Cordillera, between two rivers with a very fast current. It was impossible to take the fortress by attack, it was surrounded on all sides by mighty walls. The fortress had a stepped pyramidal structure. On the defensive shaft there were gates that could be quickly barricaded. From them, a well-fortified road led to the next fortress step. The center of the structure was located on the third step, also surrounded by a wall, but even here the penetration of the enemy made many dead ends and corridors difficult. Moreover, the Chimu managed to put even a water pipe into this "eagle's nest".

But truly the most amazing and grandiose building of Peruvian architecture in general and Chimuk in particular was the so-called Great Peruvian Wall. It extends from the seashore to the highlands of Suchimancillo and is 5 m thick, 3 m high and about 100 km long. The wall was built of stone, held together with crumbs, and fortified with fourteen small fortresses. This many-kilometer shaft is very reminiscent of the famous Great Wall of China, which protected the Qin Empire from invasions. Most likely, he served these purposes in Peru.

In addition to architecture, the Chimu also excelled in metallurgy. They fused various metals and were the first to discover bronze in South America. Their knives, hoes and spears were highly prized, as were gold and silver jewelry. Preference was given to silver - it was considered the metal of the moon, which the chimu worshiped as the supreme deity.

On the other hand, Chimuk ceramics did not bring fame to Chim. It was practical, but not particularly beautiful and little ornamental. However, its production, organized by the state, had an almost industrial character.

special kind artistic activity Chimu craftsmen were making clothes for aristocrats from yellow, green and blue bird feathers. Raincoats and linens on a cotton base, decorated with original appliqués, were most valued. Such products not only looked beautiful, but were also practical - they did not get wet.

The whole life of the state of Chimu passed under the sign "Si". So they called the night luminary. The sun in the desert was an enemy, and the Moon, ruling the rivers and seas, was a friend. Since she could cover the Sun with herself, she was therefore a more powerful deity. Therefore, solar eclipses were a holiday in Chimu. But when the shadow of the Earth fell on the Moon, mourning was declared in the state. To help their main deity live and defeat enemies, five-year-old children were sacrificed on small colored blankets. In addition to the Moon, the constellation Pleiades (Fur) was surrounded by special honor - the new year began with its appearance in the sky. Venus (Ni) was considered another significant planet.

However, the stars and planets worshiped by the Chimu did not save them from the onslaught of their enemies. In 1476, the last supreme ruler of Chimo Capac was defeated by the Inca army, and the state itself was annexed to the territories of the winner.

Chibcha culture (1200-1500 AD)

The glory of the famous cultures of the Intermediate Region - the San Agustins and the Tayrons, was overshadowed by the achievements of the tribes of the Chibcha language group, who lived in the valley of the Bogotá and Sogamoso rivers and called themselves the Muisca. The basis of the Chibcha economy is agriculture. They grew corn and potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes and tomatoes, pineapples and avocados, as well as ritual tobacco and coca. The only source of meat food was hunting. Of the Chibcha animals, only the dog was tamed. Exchange played an important role in the economy. His main subjects were salt, linen, coca, gold and emeralds. These precious green stones were mined in the mines of Chivore and Sumundoki. And the Chibcha (Muisca) did not have gold, it was brought from afar. Nevertheless, in the processing of this particular metal, they achieved amazing results. The Chibcha were the only ones in pre-Columbian America who made small discs (tehuelos) of gold that served as coins. However, they cannot be called money in the full sense of the word. Most likely they were decorations, and not a form of universal equivalent.

Every four days, large auctions were held in large settlements of the Muisca. Foreign trade also flourished. To improve it, a road was built, which was called the Road of Salt. Salt was the main export item.

By the time the Europeans arrived, the Chibcha had nine nascent state associations - tribal unions. They consisted of the population of one valley, which included from 80 to 120 villages. At the head of each village was a local leader who led all the affairs of the community and was subordinate to the supreme ruler of the valley.

The main part of the population and the main producers were free chibcha - peasants, artisans and miners. They were called "paying tribute". They cultivated the fields, made ceramics, wove cotton fabrics and painted them using the heeled method. Slaves existed in society, but they did not play a significant role in production. Ordinary Chibcha lived in patriarchal families in which polygamy was common. A group of families constituted a community.

Leaders and priests were the elite of society. They could be recognized not only by their well-equipped life, but also by their clothes - magnificent painted robes with gold plates. Tiaras and necklaces belonged only to the supreme ruler. His palace was faced with gold, decorated with carvings and wall paintings. No one dared to look the ruler, who was considered the earthly incarnation of the moon god, in the eyes. He had many wives, who were given to him as tribute (in addition to food and handicrafts) by ordinary Muisca. When he died, the throne was usually taken by the son of his older sister, who had been preparing to take up the “position” for six years: he lived in the temple, from which he could only leave at night, did not eat meat, did not salt or pepper food, did not know women .

When there was no legitimate heir, the ruler himself chose his successor. Candidates for the throne were subjected to a preliminary test and the rite of coronation.

The coronation of the ruler of Chibcha was associated with religious ideas. It is known that the Colombian Indians worshiped the Sun and the Moon, who lived in the depths of the sky long before people were created. The latter, according to legend, were created from dust: a man from clay, and a woman from grass. But there were also those who had a divine origin. One day the goddess Bachue emerged from the waters of the sacred lake with a little boy in her arms. Upon reaching adulthood, he became her husband. From this marriage, children were born who gave rise to the dynasties of leaders. Having grown old, the divine parents returned to the waters of the lake from which they came out and turned into snakes.

Later, when people settled on the earth, the god of warriors and rulers appeared from the east - Bochika. He had white skin, blond hair, a mustache and a beard, and a long cloak adorned with small wooden crosses fell from his shoulders. Bochica taught the Indians goodness and love. He showed how to spin cotton, dress fabrics, sew clothes and draw the sign of the cross on them. But the Muisca religion was dualistic, and Bochik had an opponent Chibcha-Chum - the god of those who were associated with gold: miners, jewelers, merchants. The struggle of the two deities is reflected in the myth of the Tekendama waterfall. In order to punish the inhabitants of the Bogota Plateau, Chibcha-Chum flooded it. People turned to Bochik for help. With a golden rod, he punched a cleft in the mountain, and the water began to leave. But there were so many of her that since then she has been falling and falling off the rocks.

The religious ceremonies of the Muisca were led by priests (sheke). They coaxed the gods and spirits of their ancestors with generous sacrifices - baskets of gold and emeralds. Human sacrifices were made only in honor of the sun, but were extremely numerous. The victims (prisoners of war and 15-16-year-old youths (mojas) from the Marbarache tribe) were considered intermediaries between people and God. The ritual took place high in the mountains at the hour of sunrise. The blood was supposed to help the birth of the luminary. It was poured on stones, the sacred power of hearts went to heaven, and lifeless bodies remained lying on the rocks so that the Sun could take all their strength and energy to the drop.

When the rise of the Inca culture (1200-1572) began, all the previous outstanding civilizations of South America left the arena of history or were rapidly approaching sunset. The Inca country was located in the southwestern part of the mainland, stretching from north to south for many thousands of kilometers. During its heyday, 15-16 million people lived on its territory.

The myth of the origin of the Incas

Legends tell about the origin of this people. The sun god Inti sadly observed the life of people on earth: after all, they lived worse than wild animals, in poverty and ignorance. Once taking pity on them, Inti sent his children to the people: son Manco Capac and daughter Mama Oklio. Having given them a staff of pure gold, the divine father ordered them to settle down where the staff would easily enter the ground. It happened in the Cusco Valley (Navel). In fulfillment of the divine will of the Sun, his children stayed and founded the city, which was also named Cusco. They gave religion and laws to the people who lived there, men were taught to cultivate the land, mine rare metals and process them, and women were taught to weave and run a household. Having created the state, Manco Capac became its first Inca - the ruler, and Mama Oklo - his wife.

Harsh natural conditions (oxygen deficiency, low atmospheric pressure, low land fertility) and rapid population growth necessitated the struggle for survival and expansion of the occupied territory. At the same time, the Incas resettled the indigenous inhabitants of the conquered territories in the internal regions of the state, and their lands were settled by people from the central regions of the empire; Quechua was introduced as the state language.

Territorial organization

The Incas called their state Tahuantinsuyu - "Land of Four Parts". Indeed, the empire was divided into four parts - provinces.

In turn, the provinces were subdivided into districts, which were controlled by an official appointed by the Inca. The district included several villages. Each of them belonged to one or even several genera. The clan owned a strictly defined area of ​​land. From the communal land, each man received an allotment (tutu), and a woman - only half of it.

All land in the empire was divided into three parts: the fields of the community, the "land of the Sun" (income from it went to the maintenance of priests and sacrifices), as well as the fields of the state and the Inca (intended to supply the state apparatus, warriors, builders, the Inca himself and his retinue , in case of natural disasters, as well as to the fund for widows, orphans and the elderly). The lands of the priestly fund and the state were cultivated by free residents in their free time, after the allotments of families were cultivated. This additional labor was called the minka. It was perceived as a necessary, feasible and sacred contribution of everyone to the common cause.

Fundamentals of the economy

The standard of living of ordinary community members and their families was almost the same (the amount of food, clothing, quality of houses and utensils). There were no starving poor. Those who could not work were provided by the state with the necessary minimum.

The basis of the Inca economy is agriculture and animal husbandry. They cultivated the same plants and the same animals as everywhere in Peru. Natural conditions forced the creation of irrigation facilities: dams, canals, etc. The fields were arranged in terraces. The land was cultivated by hand, with special sticks the size of a man.

Handicraft production was well organized. The bulk of goods were produced in the community, and the most skilled potters, gunsmiths, jewelers and weavers were resettled in Cusco. They lived on the maintenance of the Inca and were considered public servants. The best of their works were used for cult needs and gifts, tools and weapons were stored in state warehouses. The Incas achieved great success in metallurgy. Copper and silver deposits were developed. Weaving has received special development. The Incas knew three types of looms, on which they could even make carpets.

There were no sales relations, they were replaced by a developed regulated state exchange, the functions of which were to meet the needs of residents of various climatic zones. The form of exchange was fairs - urban and rural, arranged every ten days.

Political and administrative structure

The lord of the empire and the coordinator of its life was the autocratic Intip Kori - the Son of the Sun (another name is Sapa Inca - the Only Inca). It was believed that he descended to earth in order to fulfill the will of the luminary - the Sun. The subjects of the Great Inca also called themselves "Incas" - the sons of the Sun, God's chosen people.

Only a husband of royal blood could be on the throne in Cuzco. The future Inca prepared for a difficult role for a long time: he comprehended the secrets of life, studied religion, various sciences and quipu - knot letter. He was also taught good manners and martial arts.

The Inca was the unlimited, absolute ruler of the empire. Political, economic, legislative and military power was concentrated in his hands. For a long time, moreover, he was the high priest. His rich clothes, gold and silver utensils with which he ate, were not used twice.

The Inca sat on a low carved mahogany throne. Visitors could not see his face - he was separated from them by a curtain. Inca had hundreds of concubines at her service, up to eight thousand servants from among representatives of noble families served him. Fifty of them had access to the ruler and were replaced every seven to ten days.

During his travels, he was guarded by a guard dressed in brilliant uniforms adorned with gold and silver jewels. The Inca was carried in a stretcher made of gold (only the frame was wooden). After death, the Inca's body was embalmed. The mummy was seated on a golden throne, and a golden statue of the emperor was placed next to it.

All the blood relatives of the Incas belonged to the ruling elite. They occupied the highest government posts (high priest, governors of provinces, etc.). The lowest category of nobility included the leaders of the conquered peoples and members of their families, as well as people who were able to break into high society thanks to their abilities (outstanding military leaders, engineers, artists, etc.).

The primary and basic unit of Inca society was the family, headed by the father. On its basis, the social organization of society expanded according to the Pentecostal system: one link - 5 families, the second link - 10, the third - 50, the fourth link - 100 families. At the head of each link was its leader, who was apparently re-elected every year. They regularly held meetings to resolve pressing issues in which women took an equal part.

In the Inca Empire there were four permanent army formations of 40,000 people each, the command of which was subordinate to the ruler of the whole people.

The Inca army was the largest in pre-Columbian America. For men of age categories fit for service, there was universal military service. Each went through rigorous military training from the age of 10 to 18. Warriors had uniforms. The Inca army was distinguished by high discipline: the death penalty threatened even for absenteeism without the knowledge of the commander. In battle, in addition to conventional weapons (slings, axes, clubs), psychological ones were also used - various frightening sounds, a wild cry, the sound of shells, flutes, drums.

In the Inca Empire, ten age categories of citizens were legalized. For men, the first three groups consisted of children up to nine years of age ("playing children"); the fourth group - from 9 to 12 years old (hunting with snares); the fifth - from 12 to 18 years (cattle protection); sixth - from 18 to 25 (military or courier service); the seventh - from 25 to 50 years (purekhs who paid taxes and worked for public needs); the eighth - from 50 to 80 (raising children); the ninth - from 80 onwards ("deaf elders") and the tenth group - the sick and infirm without age restrictions. Women's classification was somewhat different from men's, but its principles were the same.

When moving from one age category to another, the name of the person changed. The first name was given in infancy and, as a rule, reflected the impression of the child (for example, Oklyo - innocent, pure). A person received a second name during puberty. It was final and characterized the inherent qualities of a person.

Much attention in Inca society was paid to the cleanliness and neatness of clothing. Men wore knee-length short trousers (a sign of maturity) and sleeveless shirts, while women wore simple long woolen dresses that were worn over the head and tied at the waist with a wide, elaborately decorated belt. On his feet were sandals made of llama wool. In cold weather, all the Incas wore long and warm cloaks.

Court and legislation

In Tahuantinsuyu, laws were unwritten, but they were clearly divided into civil and criminal. Blasphemy, godlessness, idleness, laziness, lies, theft, adultery and murder were unacceptable. The issue of guilt was decided by judges - community leaders and representatives of the nobility. The laws were based on clear principles: as an accomplice in each case, there were officials responsible for the decimal division; the instigator of the crime was punished, not its perpetrator; an offense committed by an aristocrat was considered a more serious offense than the same offense of a commoner (their cases were considered by the Supreme Inca himself).

Exile, scourging, torture, public censure were used as punishments, but the most common measure was the death penalty (hanging, quartering, stoning, etc.). Persons who threatened the security of the state were placed in cells infested with poisonous snakes or predatory animals. The villages in which they lived were razed to the ground, and the inhabitants were executed. With such harsh laws, crime in the country was extremely low.

Religion and priesthood

The basis of the trustworthiness of citizens in Tahuantinsuyu was not only laws, but also beliefs. In accordance with the worldview of the Incas, the supreme creator of the universe and the creator of all other gods was Kon-Tiki Viracocha. Creating the world, Viracocha used three main elements: water, earth and fire. The space of the Incas consisted of three levels: the upper one is heavenly, the Sun and his wife-sister Luna live there, directly influencing the life of mankind; the middle one, in which people, animals and plants live; the lower one is the dwelling place of the dead and those who are to be born. The last two worlds communicate through caves, mines, springs and craters. Communication with the upper world is carried out through the mediation of the Inca, who carried out the will of the Sun on Earth.

The official state ideology was cult of the Sun (Inti). White llamas were sacrificed to him almost daily, burning them at the stake. In order to avert epidemics and attacks of enemies, to win the war and for the health of the emperor, the Sun was given tall beautiful children without any flaws under the age of 10 years. The second-ranking deity was considered Mama Kilya - the patroness of women, women in childbirth, then god of lightning and thunder(Ilyapa), goddess of the morning star(Venus) and many other divine stars and constellations.

The sacred forces, whose cults were especially widespread among the broad masses of the people, included spirits. They lived in rocks and caves, in trees and springs, in stones and in the mummies of their ancestors. They prayed to the spirits, made sacrifices, dedicated certain days to them.

The entire religious ritual in Inca society was run by priests. The high priest was Inca's brother or uncle. He wore a red sleeveless tunic and wore an image of the Sun on his head. He often adorned his face with colorful parrot feathers. He was forbidden to marry and have illegitimate children, eat meat and drink anything other than water. The dignity of the high priest was for life. His duties included the observance of the exact rules of the solar cult, the coronation of the great Inca and his marriage.

The high priesthood was subordinate to ten chief clergymen. They directed the religious life in separate patriarchies and came from only one particular family. The religious mentors of individual provinces belonged to the higher clergy, and the oracles, who knew how to speak with the dead and predict the future from the entrails of animals and birds, belonged to the lower clergy. Priests confessed, held religious rites, for example, during the four main holidays of the year: the Inca festival, the Water festival, the Moon festival and the Sun festival, celebrated after the harvest. The institution of the brides of the Sun is associated with the festival of the Sun.

Brides of the Sun

Every year, beautiful, intelligent girls of four or five years of age were selected throughout the country and placed in the monasteries of the main cities of the provinces. Here they learned music, singing, as well as the ability to cook, spin and weave. At the age of 10-13, the brides were “certified”: some were elevated to the rank of “mothers - servants of Inti”: they performed religious rites in honor of Iichi and performed some other sacred duties, others became concubines of aristocrats or went home. The maidens of the Sun could be recognized by the white robes of the novices, a special veil on their heads and jewelry made of gold. It is believed that the number of Virgins of the Sun reached up to three thousand.

The capital and symbol of the empire was Cuzco - a fairy tale of stone and gold. Here were the residence of the Inca, the main authorities, the ritual center and city services. It was an important economic and cultural point, where funds were distributed, taxes were paid and the most important educational institutions were located, where they taught everything that the Incas had achieved for four years.

The city is considered one of the largest capitals of the world during the conquest. In the XVI century. about 200 thousand inhabitants lived in it and there were more than 25 thousand houses painted in bright colors, decorated with marble and jasper, gold door and window frames. Cusco even had running water and sewerage. The city was built according to a predetermined plan and was distinguished by thoughtfulness. Such a high location of the capital of the Incas is surprising (more than 3 thousand meters above sea level). The valley in which Cusco is located is surrounded on all sides by mountains and is open to penetration only from the southeast. The outlines of the city resembled the body of a cougar, which is why it was a symbol of the city.

In the center of Cusco was the "Square of Joy", bordered by the largest golden chain in the history of mankind (length - 350 steps). The square and nearby streets are surrounded by a complex of shrines and temples. The main one is considered the Temple of the Sun. Its walls were lined with gold plates. Inside the building there was an altar depicting a huge disk of the sun, from which rays emanated. Mummies of the late rulers of the empire sat on golden thrones covered with carpets along the walls of the temple.

The palace-residence of the high priest and five beautiful buildings, in which his assistants lived, adjoin the great temple. These buildings were covered with straw, which was woven with golden threads.

Nearby was the Temple of the Moon, lined with silver. Its altar in the form of a night deity was guarded by the mummies of the deceased spouses of the Incas.

On the other side of the building complex were the shrines to Thunder, Lightning, and Rainbow. And not far from it was the fantastic golden garden of Cuzco - half natural, half artificial. According to the legends, water came here through golden gutters, and in the center of the garden there was also an octagonal fountain covered with gold. The whole world of the Incas was reproduced here from life-size gold: fields of wheat, shepherds and llamas with cubs, trees and shrubs, flowers and fruits, birds and butterflies. The Inca people gave the unique creations of skilled craftsmen to pay a ransom for the life of the last supreme Inca - Atahualpa (1532-1572).

Machu Picchu

There were many amazing things in Cusco, but nevertheless, the citadel of Machu Picchu (c. 1500) is considered the main wonder of South America. The last Inca fortress of Machu Picchu is located high in the Andes, 120 km east of the capital, on very rugged terrain, but the builders of the fortress were able to turn the disadvantages of the landscape into advantages, achieving unity of architectural structures with environment. The pointed battlements of the main fortress tower seem to be part of the mountain, and the stone terraces are in strict accordance with the curves of the rocks. All buildings in Machu Picchu are located at different heights, so there are more than 100 stairs in the citadel. The center of the city-fortress is considered to be "the place where the Sun is tied" - an observatory carved into the rock. Next to it are the temple of the Sun, the temple of the "Three Windows" (with three of the largest trapezoidal windows in Peru) and the palace of the high priest. This is the first part of the city. Its second part - the Royal Quarter - is made up of a semicircular fortress tower emerging from the rocks. Palace of the Princess - the residence of the wife of the ruler and the Royal Palace of the Incas. The third part of the fortress was a quarter of residential houses of ordinary residents. The whole city was surrounded by powerful ramparts.

All the settlements of Tahuantinsuyu were interconnected by a well-thought-out system of magnificent roads, paved with stone and framed by a barrier. They were meant for walking. The two roads that crossed the Inca empire from end to end were considered the main ones. One of them began at the northern border of the empire, near the equator (modern Ecuador), and ended at the Maule River. The total length of this road is about 5250 km. The second road connected the northern coast (Tumbes) with the south. Both roads crossed mountain peaks, swamps, impenetrable jungle, fast-flowing rivers, over which rope bridges were hung from agave fibers, and were connected by a series of transverse roads. Along each of them, about 25 km apart, there were inns with postal posts. This is another achievement of the Incas - after all, other ancient civilizations did not have mail. Special couriers with a white headband passed messages on the relay, running 2 km of their section. Since the distances were short, a high delivery speed was achieved: 2000 km were covered in three to five days.

Messages transmitted by mail were most often composed in the form of a knot letter - kipu, which is not considered a letter in the full sense of the word. For the most part, it was only a means of recording statistical data: the number of population or troops, the number of weapons or crops. The quipu consisted of several laces. One, thicker, was the basis, a lot of thinner multi-colored cords of various lengths and with a certain number of knots - digital indicators were attached to it. The colors of the laces were symbolic. White meant silver and peace, yellow meant gold, black meant illness or time, red meant the army, etc. The largest kipu that has come down to us is 165 cm long and 6 cm wide.

Writing. Literature. music and dancing

It is believed that the Incas also had another script that the Europeans simply did not recognize. Chroniclers mention special canvases kept in temples, on which “everything you needed to know about the past” was drawn, and about the messages of the lords painted on fabrics. Most likely it was a pictographic letter, available only to the nobility; moreover, some scholars tend to consider images on ceramic vessels - kero as inscriptions.

Despite the fact that there are no ancient written texts of Inca literature, it is still known that it had a fairly high level. There were religious and secular hymns, legends, myths, ballads, prayers, short epics, poems and fables, songs and elegies. Their authors lived at the palaces of the rulers. Among them, poets-philosophers and lyricists are distinguished, but their work remained nameless.

The Inca drama in verse "Apu-Olyantai" is called the pearl of world dramaturgy. She talked about a courageous and noble commander, a native of the provincial aristocracy, who dared to fall in love with the daughter of the Inca himself - the "Laughing Star" - and achieve her reciprocal love. To this day, this drama is still on the stage of the Indian theater of Latin America.

The Incas were good musicians. There were only five sounds in their scale (do, re, fa, salt, la), but this did not prevent them from playing bone and metal flutes, drums, tambourines and water vessels, the neck of which was covered with leather, as well as reed or clay Andean pipes. To the sound of music, the people of Tahuantinsuyu often danced. The dances were mostly magical and ritual in nature, but sometimes they were performed just for fun. There were several types of dance: male military, shepherd, secular, folk, etc.

scientific knowledge

The inhabitants of the great empire of the Sun could not only sing and dance. Among them were good mathematicians, astronomers, engineers and doctors. The basis of Inca science was mathematics. It was based on the decimal system and marked the beginning of the development of statistics.

Mathematics has found wide application in astronomy. Observatories were placed throughout Peru, where the days of the solstice and equinox were determined, they observed the Sun, Moon, Venus, Saturn, Mars, Mercury, the constellations of the Pleiades, the Southern Cross, etc. The Inca solar year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, plus one additional month of five days.

Tahuantinsuyu had its own geographers and cartographers who made excellent relief maps, as well as historians. There was even a post of official historian of the empire, who was elected from the relatives of the great ruler.

But medicine is recognized as the most developed science in the state. Diseases were considered the result of sin, so priests and healers were engaged in medical practice. They treated with magic tricks, fasting, bloodletting, washing the stomach and intestines, as well as herbs. In severe cases, they resorted to operations (trepanation of the skull, amputation of limbs), etc. They used a special way of treating wounds - with the help of ants, as well as painkillers, such as coca, which was highly valued. Evidence of the effectiveness of Inca medicine was the longevity of the inhabitants of the empire - 90-150 years.

However, despite the well-established state system and the high level of achievements of the great power of the Sun, it did not last long and it overtook the fate of all civilizations of pre-Columbian America of the 16th century. When meeting with Europeans, she dies, broken by the onslaught of a world of greed and treachery incomprehensible to the Incas.

On the example of the civilizations of South America, one can trace the evolution of the organization of the human community, which was also characteristic of the Old World. The culture of the peoples of South America in the pre-Columbian period went through three stages: primitive, created Indian tribes that were in the early stages of development human society; a higher level, which is characterized by a combination of early class and primitive elements, and a stage of highly developed class civilizations. A primitive society took place throughout South America, the second type manifested itself in an intermediate region located between Mesoamerica and the Central Andes, and a high level of civilization is characteristic of peoples living in the western part of the mainland (Central Andes zone).

However, despite the general patterns of development inherent in the South American peoples, character traits, ideological basis, value system with a strong emphasis on spirituality was fundamentally different from the philosophy of the Christian world. The great civilizations of South America collapsed under the onslaught of Europeans. And who knows what the world would be like if they survived to this day. It is possible that the invaluable experience of the ancient Indians would have helped to avoid the problems facing humanity today, or at least to solve them in an optimal way. However, history has left us face to face with the question “What should our planet be like in the future?