Has it ever seemed strange to you that you live for more than a dozen years, but you know absolutely nothing about your own body? Or that you ended up taking a human anatomy exam, but didn't prepare for it at all. In both cases, you need to catch up on lost knowledge, and get to know the human organs better. Their location is best viewed in pictures - clarity is very important. Therefore, we have collected pictures for you in which the location of human organs is easily traced and signed with inscriptions.

If you like games with human internal organs, be sure to try on our site.

To enlarge any picture, click on it and it will open in full size. This way you can read the fine print. So let's start at the top and work our way down.

Human organs: location in pictures.

Brain

The human brain is the most complex and least understood human organ. He manages all other organs, coordinates their work. In fact, our consciousness is the brain. Despite the little study, we still know the location of its main departments. This picture describes in detail the anatomy of the human brain.

Larynx

The larynx allows us to make sounds, speech, singing. The structure of this cunning organ is shown in the picture.

Major organs, organs of the chest and abdomen

This picture shows the location of 31 organs of the human body from the thyroid cartilage to the rectum. If you urgently need to see the location of any body in order to win an argument with a friend or get an exam, this picture will help.

The picture shows the location of the larynx, thyroid gland, trachea, pulmonary veins and arteries, bronchi, heart and pulmonary lobes. Not much, but very clear.

A schematic arrangement of the internal organs of a person from the trochea to the bladder is shown in this picture. Due to its small size, it loads quickly, saving you time for spying on the exam. But we hope that if you are studying to be a doctor, then you do not need the help of our materials.

A picture with the location of the internal organs of a person, which also shows the system of blood vessels and veins. Beautifully depicted organs artistic point view, some of them are signed. We hope that among the signed there are those that you need.

A picture that details the location of the organs of the human digestive system and the small pelvis. If you have a stomach ache, this picture will help you locate the source while the activated charcoal is working, or while you relieve digestive system in amenities.

Location of the pelvic organs

If you need to know the location of the superior adrenal artery, bladder, psoas major or any other abdominal organ, this picture will help you. It describes in detail the location of all organs of this cavity.

The human genitourinary system: the location of organs in pictures

Everything you wanted to know about the genitourinary system of a man or woman is shown in this picture. Seminal vesicles, egg, labia of all stripes and of course, the urinary system in all its glory. Enjoy!

male reproductive system

Traditionally, on Saturdays, we publish answers to the quiz for you in the Q&A format. Our questions range from simple to complex. The quiz is very interesting and quite popular, but we just help you test your knowledge and make sure that you have chosen the correct answer out of the four proposed. And we have another question in the quiz - What is the name of the model of the human body - visual material for future doctors?

• ghost
• zombie
• phantom

The correct answer is D. PHANTOM

Ghost, spirit, zombies, vampires, mutants - these are all manifestations of fantasy, heroes of mystical thrillers.

Medical students are now studying anatomy in pictures, morgue, in the classroom in physiology, histology, anatomy, and diseases, diagnosis and first aid and other manuals on mannequins, on simulators. Students learn to deliver, provide cardiopulmonary resuscitation, make injections, vascular catheterization, intubation, tracheostomy, puncture of various cavities: pleura, joints, spinal puncture. The same phantoms are available in dentists, traumatologists and other specialties.

Vitruvian Man - that's what it's called graphic image naked man in the famous sketch by Leonardo da Vinci. It has been studied for centuries. However, scientists are sure that not all the secrets of the drawing have been revealed yet.

Leonardo da Vinci: Vitruvian Man (Academic Gallery, Venice, Italy)

Being one of the most mysterious and controversial figures of his era, Leonardo da Vinci left behind many secrets. Their meaning still disturbs the scientific minds of the whole world. One of these mysteries is the Vitruvian Man, a pencil sketch of which has been carefully preserved for centuries. And although a lot is known about him, but experts in the field of art are sure that great discoveries are yet to come.

Vitruvian Man is the official name for Leonardo's sketch. It was made by him in 1492 and was intended to illustrate a handwritten book. The drawing represents a naked man whose body is inscribed in a circle and a square. In addition, the image has a duality - the human body is depicted in two poses superimposed on each other.

As you can see when examining the drawing, the combination of arm and leg positions actually results in two different positions. A pose with arms spread apart and legs brought together turns out to be inscribed in a square. On the other hand, the pose with arms and legs spread out to the sides is inscribed in a circle. On closer examination, it turns out that the center of the circle is the navel of the figure, and the center of the square is the genitals.

Da Vinci's diary, for which the drawing was intended, is called the Canon of Proportions. The fact is that the artist believed in a certain number "phi", calling it divine. He was sure of the presence of this number in everything created in wildlife. However, da Vinci tried to achieve the " divine proportion» in architecture. But this remained one of the unrealized ideas of Leonardo. But the Vitruvian Man is fully depicted in accordance with "phi", that is, in the figure - a model of an ideal creature.

According to Leonardo's accompanying notes, it was created to determine the proportions of the (male) human body, as described in the treatises of the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius; to which Leonardo wrote the following explanations:

• the length from the tip of the longest to the lowest base of the four fingers is equal to the palm
• foot is four palms
• a cubit is six palms
• the height of a person is four cubits from the tips of the fingers (and, accordingly, 24 palms)
• step equals four palms
• the span of human hands is equal to its height
• the distance from the hairline to the chin is 1/10 of its height
• the distance from the crown to the chin is 1/8 of its height
• the distance from the crown to the nipples is 1/4 of its height
• the maximum width of the shoulders is 1/4 of its height
• the distance from the elbow to the tip of the arm is 1/4 of its height
• the distance from the elbow to the armpit is 1/8 of its height
• arm length is 2/5 of its height
• the distance from the chin to the nose is 1/3 of the length of his face
• the distance from the hairline to the eyebrows is 1/3 of the length of his face
• ear length 1/3 face length
• the navel is the center of the circle

The rediscovery of the mathematical proportions of the human body in the 15th century by da Vinci and others was one of the great achievements that preceded the Italian Renaissance.

Subsequently, according to the same methodology, Corbusier compiled his own proportioning scale - Modulor, which influenced the aesthetics of architecture of the 20th century.

The drawing appeared as a result of studying Italian master works of Vitruvius - an outstanding architect ancient rome. In his treatises, the human body was identified with architecture. However, denying this idea, da Vinci developed the idea of ​​the union of three elements in man - art, science and divine principles, that is, a reflection of the Universe.

In addition to a deep philosophical message, the Vitruvian man also has a certain symbolic meaning. The square is interpreted as the material sphere, the circle - the spiritual. The contact of the figures with the body of the depicted person is a kind of intersection in the center of the universe.

At the moment, the sketch is stored in the Venice Museum. There is no free access to the relic - the exhibit is exhibited extremely rarely. Those who wish have the opportunity to look at it once every six months, since moving and staying at direct light disastrous for a manuscript that is nearly 500 years old. Most of the da Vinci structures made according to sketches have survived to this day. Those who wish can see the old projects and their current incarnation in Milan, in the Museum of Science of Leonardo da Vinci, located near the Sant'Ambrogio metro station.

Interesting Facts:

• The drawing itself is often used as an implicit symbol of the internal symmetry of the human body and, further, of the Universe as a whole.
• In 2011, Irish aerial artist John Quigley painted a giant copy of the famous Vitruvian Man painting on the ice of the Arctic Ocean in order to draw the attention of mankind to the problems of ecological balance.
• In 2012, reports were published that the first visual image of the “Vitruvian Man” was drawn not by Leonardo, but by his friend Giacomo Andrea da Ferrara, who studied the works of Vitruvius in detail, although his drawing is disproportionately inferior to Leonardo’s drawing in terms of artistic merit.

The biology classroom, lined with mock-up skeletons, frogs in alcohol and exotic plants, invariably attracts children's interest. Another thing is that interest does not always extend beyond these extraordinary objects and is rarely transferred to the object itself.

But to help teachers and educators, a huge number of games and applications have been created today, with which previously unimaginable experiences become available. Here are the best ones.

This great app partially solves an age-old ethical problem regarding animal testing. Frog Dissection allows you to perform a 3D dissection of a frog that is painfully reminiscent of a real dissection. The program has detailed instructions for conducting an experiment, an anatomical comparison of a frog and a human, and a whole set of necessary tools that are displayed at the top of the screen: a scalpel, tweezers, a pin… In addition, the application allows you to study each dissected organ in detail. So with Frog Dissection, first-year students who are part-time members of animal welfare organizations can safely dissect virtual frogs and receive their cherished credits. No animal will be harmed during this experience. Frog Dissection can be downloaded from iTunes for $3.99.

Despite the fact that today there are a huge number of anatomical atlases and encyclopedias created for both schoolchildren and medical students, the 3D Human Anatomy application, created by the Japanese company teamLabBody, is one of the best interactive anatomy to date, which allows you to study three-dimensional model of the human body.

Leafsnap is a kind of digital tree recognizer that will certainly appeal to all botanists (in the truest sense of the word) and nature lovers. The principle of the application is quite simple: to understand which plant is in front of you, just take a picture of its leaf. After that, the application launches a special algorithm for comparing the shape of the leaf with those stored in its memory (something like a mechanism for recognizing people's faces). Together with the conclusion about the alleged "carrier" of the leaf, the application will give out a bunch of information about this plant - the place of growth, flowering characteristics, etc. If the quality of the image makes it difficult for the program to come to a final conclusion, it will offer you options with detailed description. Further already - it's up to you. In general, a very informative application that helps you learn a little more about the world around you without any extra effort. By the way, each photo received in the application falls into a specially designed flora database of a particular area and helps scientists in researching new plant species and replenishing information about already known ones. The application can be downloaded for free on the App Store.

A fun app for kids that makes it easy to take exciting journeys through the human body. And not just travel, but rocket travel through 3D models of various organs and systems of our body: you can “ride” through the vessels, see how the brain receives and sends signals and where the food we eat goes. The child has the opportunity to stop anywhere and look around. The application allows you to enlarge images of the skeleton, muscles, internal organs, nerves and blood vessels and study their location and how they work. Do you want to know how the bones of the skull are attached to each other, which muscles work the most in the body, or where the name of the iris comes from? My Incredible Body answers these questions and more. The program has short videos that capture the process of breathing, the joint work of muscles, the functioning of a hearing aid, etc. In general, this is a great option for getting to know the body, especially since the App Store price is $2.69.

It's not even an app, it's a pocket hint that provides short articles on the main topics: Cell, Root, Algae, Insect class, Fish subclass, Mammal class, Animal evolution , "Overview of the human body, etc. Nothing new and surprising, but to repeat some basic things lost in memory, it will do just fine. Strictly, concisely and free of charge.

Another application for the first acquaintance with the human body. Human Body is a cross between a game and an encyclopedia. Each process of the human body is presented interactively and described in detail: the heart is beating here, the intestines are gurgling, the lungs are breathing, the eyes are looking, etc. The app ranked #1 on the App Store Education Charts in 146 countries and was named one of the App Store's Best Apps in 2013. Here is a quote from the product description on iTunes:

Human Body is designed for children to help them learn what we are made of and how we work.

In the application, you can choose one of four avatars, on the example of which the work of our body will be demonstrated. There are no special rules and levels here - the basis of everything is the curiosity of the child, who can ask the application any questions about our body. How do we breathe? How do we see? Etc. The application has animation and interactive representation of six systems of our body: skeletal, muscular, nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive. Included with the application you download a free PDF book on human anatomy with detailed articles and questions for discussion. The app is available on iTunes for $2.99.

This is another application from the Brooklyn-based educational app developer Tinybop, but for the study of botany. Would you like to know the secrets of the green kingdom? Plants will help both children and those who just want to learn more about the ecosystems of our planet. The application is an interactive diorama in which the player is a king and a god, able to control the weather, start forest fires and observe animals in their natural environment. In the process of such creativity, the user is given the opportunity to get acquainted with various plants and animals in a virtual sandbox that replicates their natural habitat. The application has ecosystems of forest and desert regions, tundra and grasslands. Soon the developers promise to present the ecosystems of the taiga, tropical savannah and mangrove forests. However, it's not about quantity. To get acquainted with the life cycle of at least one biome is already an achievement, but such an experience will help to understand much better how our planet lives and how interconnected everything is in nature. The application is in the App Store, its price is $2.99.

Why Know Human Anatomy

Once the great Leonardo da Vinci said great words: the highest failure is when theory is ahead of execution. While this chapter is meant to serve as a practical guide, it still makes sense to discuss the human anatomy in a more analytical way. Although we do not expect this material to be a complete study on the topic. Entire volumes have been written on this subject. Let them serve as guides for serious art students who want to study anatomy in depth. And we'll get started!

Students of the humanities department need to understand that in order to draw, sculpt and engage in three-dimensional modeling of the human figure, they also need to acquire a certain knowledge of human anatomy. With a lack of necessary knowledge in this area, it is easy to allow an ambiguous and incorrect image of forms. Surely you have seen this phenomenon repeatedly in the images of a person by novice artists. In their drawings, the arms and legs look more like sausages, the proportions of the body are broken. The model looks rather assembled from some separate fragments that have nothing to do with each other.

Someone wonders why artists so often paint the naked human body. And everything is very simple. After all, the shape of the figure is hidden by clothes. And you need to start with a clear understanding of the basics of the human structure, without wasting time and nerves on the folds and details of the attire. The same situation is with animation. It is much more useful for students to see how the body moves, and not to obscure the action of muscles and bones with draping. Clothing animation, by the way, has new problems. But we will turn to them later.

PROPORTIONS

Masters of the brush throughout history have tried to depict the human body in ideal proportions. As a rule, the average height of a man or woman can be measured by taking seven head heights. As you can see on a two-dimensional surface, a figure with such a height is falsely satisfied with the concept of an ideal. And if we compare the same model shown in Figures 3-1 and 3-2, we will see that the woman in Figure 3-2, having a height of 8 heads, looks more elegant and slimmer.

If you're into creating and animating perfect male and female figures, try modeling them with this height of 8 heads. Provided that you are using 2D or 3D templates, you should first stretch their proportions and then use them as a guide. And if you are going to make a caricature, you need to try to make the heads larger, and the body - only 5 heads high. As you remember, superheroes are often portrayed as super tall and with very small heads.

Rice. 3-1 The figure is generally measured can be as 7 head heights

Artists often deliberately create a model according to the manner in which it will be considered. A good example of this is David Makelangelo. Since the statue was modeled very large, and it was also assumed that they would look at it from below, the maestro made a large head, because he knew that it should look normal in perspective.

Look at Figure 3-3 for an illustration of the average shoulder width and height of a female torso. Modelseems to have a shoulder width of 2 and 2/3 of the head. A man has a shoulder width of 3 heads (Fig. 3-4). The distance, measured from the top of the head to the very crotch, for both men and women, is approximately 4 times the height of the head.

Rice. 3-2 A figure 8 heads tall has a more majestic appearance

True, uh thenfirst it may help to have an idea of ​​the general proportions. It is still advisable to rely on your own opinion and your judgment as to what will look better. Everyone, gradually gaining experience, learns to measure proportions according to his own common sense, and not to spend time to measure the proportions of the body according to the rules.

Rice. 3-3 This -torso height andwomen shoulder width

For beginners it will be useful scientific knowledge the proportions of the human body and anatomy, although this can become an obstacle when it is adhered to without looking back.

Rice. 3-4 This -torso heightand the width of a man's shoulders.

Try to create convincing models, mastering their structure well, and then, in the end, develop your own own style. It has long been known that the work of artists who set aside the standard ways of representing the human body often became more individual and interesting.

SKELETON

The skeleton plays the role of a kind of frame, on which muscles with tendons, fat and skin are put on. The human body takes its shape from the skeleton. It is he who gives our bodies proportion . Incidentally, the skeleton is comparable to the same frame of the house. This is what protects and supports everything inside (we are talking about vital organs), while serving as a support for external parts, namely muscles, skin and fat.

The external contours of the human figure are also affected by the mainskeletal structure. This circumstance needs additional attention to be considered, since in some areas the bones are sometimes not so obvious. Look at pictures 3-5 and 3-6 for some parts of the body wheremore visible bones.

It will be difficult to create a model with convincing forms without studying the skeleton. At the figurewithoutwould be an unusual shape. Michelangelo shows us an example of this with his painting The Last Judgment. On it, he depicted his skin, which St. Bartholomew (Fig. 3-7). We see a fine example of a figure devoid of a skeleton.

Rice. 3-5 Some of the parts of the skeleton.

1. Scapula - Shoulder

2. Spine - Spine

It should be noted that artistic studies of the human skeleton are an order of magnitude simpler than medical studies. As a rule, students who do not pay attention or ignore the skeleton are enoughare limited in describing ordinary bumps or troughs when modeling human proportions. On thebeginner 3D modeler, nnot being familiar with the basic structure, purpose, proportions and meaning human skeleton, will be considered only asan additional burdensome factor that changes, it turns out, the contours of the body.

Rice. 3-6 This is part of the areas on the front and side of the figure where skeletal details are visible.

1. Medial Malleolus of Tibia - middle malleolus of the tibia

2. Pubic Crest - pubic crest

3. Thoracic Arch - chest arch

4. Sternum - sternum

5. Clavicle - collarbone

6. Head of Ulna - head of the ulna

7. Superciliary Crest

8. Zygomatic Bone - zygomatic bone

9. Radius and Ulna - radius and ulna

10. Iliac Crest - iliac crest

11. Lateral Malleolus of Fibula

12. Patella - patella

An experienced 3D modeler recognizes the importance of depicting internal structure. Each figure component can be identified by identifying large skeletal details. It will become clear to an experienced animator that all movements give rise to a skeleton that supports and moves muscles. On fig. 3-8 are shown different types skeletons. Its main parts are the skull and spine, as well as the chest, pelvis, shoulders, arms and legs.

Rice. 3-7. The Last Judgment, fragment of a painting, St. Bartholomew skinned Michelangelo

SCULL

The human skull consists of 22 bones. On fig. 3-9, illustrating the views of the skull, the most prominent bones are visible. You should be aware that the standard method for relative measurement of the human body is the height of the skull.

Jaw (lower) is ethe only movable bone of the skull. As for the rest of the cranial bones, they are rigidly fastened together by fixed joints. The skull can be divided into 2 sections - the skull enclosing the brain, and the bones of the face.

The frontal bone, located at the front of the skull, forms the eyebrows with a protective curve above the eyes.

Among other relief bones, we will name the superciliary bone, or - the ridge of the eyebrow;zygomatic bone, or - cheekbone;zygomatic bone, concavity below the orbit; lower crest of the nasal bone; lower jaw, or jawbone.

It is useful for students of 3D modeling to study the skull. As layers of fat and muscle are stretchedrelatively thin layeron the skull, its bone structure is more visible here than on other parts of the body (Fig. 3-10).

Rice. 3-8 Skeleton types

Rice. 3-9 Skull types

1. Frontal Bone - frontal bone

2. Superciliary Bone

3. Orbit - eye socket

4. Nasal Bone - nasal bone

5. Zygomatic Bone - zygomatic bone

6. Canine Fossa - hollow below the eye sockets

7. Maxilla - upper jaw

8. Mandibula - lower jaw

9. Zygomatic Arch - zygomatic arch

Rice. 3-10 The skull greatly influences the shape of the head.

SKELETON TORSO

The upper and lower parts of the human torso can be divided into 4 sections. We are talking about the spine, chest, shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle (Fig. 3-11). All of them are grouped around the spinal column. The spine consists of 33 vertebrae. Nine of them, the lowest, are connected together to form the sacrum and coccyx. And the other 24 vertebrae are quite flexible (Figures 3-12 and 3-13). Separating these vertebrae is a fibrous pad of elastic cartilage that serves to cushion and allow movement between the vertebrae. This should be taken into account by animators fitting or setting up the skeleton, it will help them to create several connected bones with properties that are similar to a real spine.

It is advisable to reflect on what makes the spinal column bend. The coccyx with the arch of the sacrum in the back leaves room for the internal organs within the pelvic girdle. If you take it higher, then the spine bends below the ribs, which it, in fact, is designed to support.To maintain the chestthe vertebral column behind the ribs is bent towards the back. The cervical vertebrae curve forward under the skull, supporting it almost at its very center of gravity, so little effort is needed to hold the head. I must say that the shape of the spinal column regulates the main directions of the human body.

Let's look at the barrel-shaped chest, it decreases towards the top. Thanks to 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum, the lungs and heart, closed by them, are protected. Animators should keep in mind that the chest is flexible enough that it can expand and contract as you breathe. Fashion designers should remember that the cartilage, which is in front, at the junction of the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth ribs,can often be seen on the bodyin the form of an arcunder the muscles of the chest (Fig. 3-14). By the way, this V-shape was called the chest arch. As you can see, the sternum consists of threebones,firmly attached. It can also be seen on the surface of the body as a furrow separating the muscles of the chest (Fig. 3-14).With expansion and contraction of the breastit usually rises and falls.

Rice. 3-11 Skeleton of the upper body

1. Cranium - skull

2. Zygomatic Arch - zygomatic arch

3. Mandibula - lower jaw

4. Scapula - shoulder blade

5. Clavicle - collarbone

6. Sternum - sternum

7. Thorax - thorax (chest)

8. Iliac Crest - iliac crest

9. Pelvis - pelvis

10. Sacrum - sacrum (cross bone)

11. Coccyx - coccyx

12. Spine of the Scapula - collarbone

13. Thoracic Vertebrae - thoracic vertebrae

Rice. 3-12 Movable vertebrae of the spinal column allow a significant level of rotation and bending

The shoulder girdle has a collarbone and shoulder blades. Looking from above, we can see that it has a slightly curved shape. And the clavicle from the outside will appear to have the form of an S-curve (Fig. 3-15). The clavicle, thanks to the ability to move, adds mobility to the arms.

Each shoulder blade has a triangular cup shape (Figure 3-15). and they are only indirectly attached to the body, adjacent to the collarbone. I must say that the shape of the scapula should correspond to the shape of the chest, along which it freely slides. She, in addition to this sliding in any direction, can, being raised above the chest, protrude quite noticeably under the skin. We clearly see this when the hand is above the shoulder. In this case, the scapula is moved away from the chest.

Rice. 3-13 With the help of a group of powerful muscles located around the spine, a person can bend, twist and turn.

Pelvic girdle, feeling a lack of mobility of the shoulder girdle, has strength and hardness. Therefore, its design is intended to transfer the weight of the body to the legs, which carry the load.

The pelvis is the part of the body where the most important actions are born. From this area, a huge amount of energy is transferred to the upper parts of the body. This is important to consider when animating the human body. Actions will have a more convincing appearance if movements are shown that come from the activity of the hips. When setting up the skeleton for animation, the parent bone must start at the pelvis.

Rice. 3-14 The thoracic arch of the chest becomes most often part of the figure

Rice. 3-15 The forearm includes the clavicle (front) and scapula (rear)

The sacrum is surrounded by 2 symmetrical pelvic bones. Often, an unevenly curved edge called the iliac crest is clearly visible above the surface of the skin (Figs. 3-11 and 3-16). The pelvic bones are seen as wing-like structures, especially in thin figures.

As for the size of the male and female pelvis, they differ. The female is wider and shorter, while the male is more massive, tall and angular (Fig. 3-17). Looking from the side, we see that the female pelvis is tilted forward more.

Rice. 3-16 The iliac crest of the pelvis is designed to form prominently protruding bones

Rice. 3-17 The male pelvis is thicker and more angular than the female

HAND BONES

It is in the hand that the most mobile bones of the body are located. The range of gestures increases the mobile maneuverability of the forearm and the dexterity of the fingers. Since their bones do not have to support the torso, as those in the legs do, their forms are more delicate.

In Figure 3-18 we see the bones of the arms. The upper arm bone, and it is called the humerus, has a spherical shape at the top, which is built into the cavity of the shoulder blade. Since the depth of the glenoid fossa is low, and the connecting ligaments are rather free, the hand has the greatest mobility in comparison with the rest of the limbs.

Rice. 3-18 hand bones

1. Clavicle - collarbone

2. Scapula - shoulder blade

3. Humerus - humerus

4. Medial Epicondyle - middle epicondyle

5. Lateral Epicondyle - lateral epicondyle

6. Capitulum - head (bones)

7. Radius - radius

8. Ulna - ulna

9. Carpals (8 bones) - wrist (eight bones)

10. Metacarpals (5 bones) - metacarpus (five bones)

11. Phalanges (14 knuckle bones) - phalanges (fourteen bones)

You see below 2 bones of the hand - the radius and the ulna. With the help of the hinge joint, the ulna is connected to the humerus. The radius should rotate around the ulna (Figure 3-19). And this is achieved by bendinglower arm musclesand their expansion. The action of these two bones is clearly seen during the rotation of the palm from the “up” position to the “down” palm position. The position when the bones of the radius and ulna are parallel is called supination. Pronation occurs as the radius crosses the ulna (Figure 3-20).

If we talk about the surface characteristics of the bones of the hands, they can be seen in the shoulders, where the head of the humerus creates an internal bulge in the deltoid muscle. TOwhen the hand is bent3 bulges can be seen in the elbow area.

Rice. 3-19 With the palm turned up, the radius and ulna will become parallel. With the palm turned down, the radius crosses the ulna

1. Radius - radius

2. Ulna - ulna

Radius crosses Ulna - the radius crosses the ulna

The location of this weighty group of bones is at the end of the humerus and the beginning of the ulna. The rounded head of the ulna may be visible on the wrist.

The bones of the hand are usually divided into 3 groups: the wrist, metacarpus and phalanges. Hand the wrist in two rowsthere are 8 bones of the hand. And their location makes it easier to bend the palms up and down. More limited is movement from side to side.

Attached to the 5 bones of the metacarpus are the 4 lower carpal bones. I. I must say that the 4 bones of the metacarpus, which lead to the fingers, are very hard. BUT thumb in the metacarpus, on the contrary, it has a joint that allows a large range of movement. This agility, when animating the palms, could be used to your advantage to move in almost any direction.thumb. By the way, the heads of the metacarpal bones are quite visible if the palm is clenched into a fist. They disappear when the fingers of the palm are straightened.

Rice. 3-20 Surface properties of the lower part of the arm during pronation (we are talking about the rotation of the radius)

The phalanges are the 14 bones of the fingers. Gradually, they become smaller and flatter in shape at the point of attachment of the nails.

When modeling a hand, one should have an idea about the structure of its bones, because it is impossible to create an accurate model of the hands with such knowledge bases. We note a common mistake in modeling - this is too small hand sizes. As a rule, an open palm is able to cover 4/5 of the face. And it’s easy to talk about an amateur representation of the human body, just look at the ways in which the hands are depicted.

FOOT BONES

Incidentally, the leg bones are a bit similar to those in the arm. The leg has one upper bone - the femur, and 2 bones of the lower leg - we are talking about the tibia and fibula (Fig. 3-21). As there are joints in the shoulder and elbows, so there are joints in the hip and knee. The articulation at the ankle (we are talking about the ankle joint) should correspond to that at the wrist.

But the bones of the leg are heavier and stronger, and have less freedom of movement than those of the arm. And all for the reason that the bones of the legs are intended to carry weight.

Rice. 3-21 leg skeleton

1. Pelvis - pelvis

2. Great Trochanter - large swivel

3. Femur - femur

4. Patella - patella

5. Tibia - tibia

6. Fibula - fibula

The femur helps connect to the pelvic joint, allowing limited movement in each direction. The visible bulge from the femurs (Figure 3-21) marks the widest area of ​​the male thigh. In women, due to fat deposits, the widest part is lower.

The articulation at the knees is similar to the elbow, and only assists in reverse movement, while the elbow joints of the arms only allow forward movement. The knee, viewed from the front and from the side, is placed in line with the femoral joint. And its shape is somewhat triangular, its lower edge is the level of the knee joint.

Figure 3-22 shows the leg bones, how they are positioned, and alignment. Bones have the greatest width at the joint, and this is where they become visible on the surface.

The tibia in the lower leg cannot be called a massive bone that supports the weight of the femur. I must say that its wide head is easy to see on the surface, its axis is formed by the crest of the tibia. As for the lower leg, this is one of the few places on the body where the bones are hidden directly under the skin. And the fibula is thin, because it does not carry weight, but its purpose is to attach muscles.

Rice. 3-22 The shape of the legs is influenced by bothbend, and the location of the femur, as well as two more bones - the tibia and fibula

We will see the head of the fibula on the outer surface below the knee. Its end is immediately noticeable, protruding outward and forming an external ankle (we are talking about the ankle joint). The inner ankle is placed above the outer ankle (Figure 3-23).

Rice. 3-23 Inner ankle higher than outer

The shape of a person's legs almost entirely determines its skeleton (Fig. 3-24). And the muscles with ligaments that cover the legs do not significantly affect its shape. The inside of the legs has a rounding, while the outside, on the contrary, is flatter. The weight of the body is supported by the main longitudinal arch from the heel to the toe, as well as the secondary transverse arch, through the instep (fig. 3-25).

Rice. 3-24 Foot bones

1. Phalanges (14 bones) - phalanges (fourteen bones)

2. Metacarpals (5 bones) - metacarpus (five bones)

3. Tarsals (7 bones) - tarsus (seven bones)

Rice. 3-25 Foot bends

1. Transverse Arch

2. Longitudinal Arch

The foot is divided into 3 groups of bones (Figure 3-24). Take the tarsus, which is a group of 7 bones that form the heel and part of the instep. The rise is made up of 5 metatarsal bones. And the toes make up 14 segmented phalanges.

The heel of the tarsus is the largest bone in the foot and receives the force from the weight of the torso on the back side of the longitudinal arch of the feet. The remaining 5 small bones of the tarsus are collected at once at the top of the arch. There is room for movement between the tarsus and metatarsus, and this creates an elastic structure rather than a rigid one. As a result, the shocks from walking, or jumping and running are distributed throughout the structure of the feet.

The pasterns of the hands correspond to 5 pasterns of each foot, whose undersides are curved, ending at their ends with a longitudinal arc. Metatarsus and strong ligaments hold together (Fig. 3-26).

14 phalanges, 2 for the big toes and 3 each for the other toes. They are shorter than the phalanges of the fingers. Thinner and smaller toes. At the ends of the toes, in the mass where the nails grow, a flattened shape.

Rice. 3-26 Ligaments of the legs

MUSCLES

Surface forms of the body are formed mainly different groups muscles. with human activity, the surface contours will change as the muscles contract (thicken), expand and twist.

Muscles are made up of parallel short fibers attached to bones or other tissues by tendons. We are talking about rigid inelastic fibers placedalong the edges of the widemuscles and at the ends of the long ones.

Muscles in contraction pull bones and fixed from movement skeleton . And here's a fact that's very interesting to animators - none of the individual muscles will act alone. When a muscle contracts (squeezing), others become active in order to regulate the action of the contracting muscle. Antagonistic muscles make it possible to perform complex actions, allowing different parts of the body to return to their previous state.

Women have the same muscles as men. What makes them different is that in women, muscles are smaller and, as a rule, not so developed. But women's muscles are also covered by a thicker fat layer, which tends to hide their contours. It is worth recalling that the study of muscles is a much more complex process than the recognition of the skeleton.

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD

The muscles of the head, unlike other parts of the body, are relatively thin. This is a Thai skull whose bones greatly influence the shape of the head.

Those who are interested in facial animation will have to spend a lot of time learning these muscles and the methods by which they change facial expressions. Chapter 9, which deals with facial animation, identifies the most important muscles that are responsible for speech and other expressions. And by the way, their study is more important, rather, for animators than for fashion designers. During the modeling process, great value has a study of the structure of the skull.

In Figure 3-27 we see the most distinctive muscles of the head. Temporal and masseter muscles, nthe largest of this muscle group,act on the lower jaw. With the help of the muscles of the neck, the lower jaw is lowered.

A number of facial muscles are endowed with differences, having no connections with bones. They are attached to ligaments or skin, or they are connected to other muscles. A number of other muscles originate from the bone, but end in the skin, or fascia (we are talking about connective tissue), cartilage or fibers of other muscles.

Rice. 3-27 Muscles of the head

1. Apicranial Aponeurosis - tendon helmet

2. Frontalis - frontal

3. Temporalis - temporal

4. Orbicularis Oculi - circular muscle of the eye

5. Corrugator - the muscle that causes the skin to wrinkle

6. Procerus - alar part of the nasal muscle

7. Nasalis - lifter upper lip nasal muscle

8. Quadratus Labii Superioris

9. Zygomaticus Major - large zygomatic

10. Canine

11. Orbicularis Oris - circular muscle of the mouth

12. Buccinator - buccal

13. Depressor Labii Interioris

14. Triangularis - triangular muscle, triceps

15. Occipitalis - occipital

16. Masseter - chewing muscle

17. Mentalis - chin muscle

MUSCLES OF THE NECK

The neck can be subdivided into 2 separate sets of muscles. One of them is designed to regulate the movement of the lower jaw, while the rest - to influence the skull.

The muscles of the neck that influence the base of the tongue and the process of lowering the jaw are called the digastric, scapular-hyoid, and sternohyoid muscles (Fig. 3-28).

The effect on the skull and vertebrae of the neck is exerted by pflexors of the neck, muscles that raise the scapula, and scalene, trapezius, and sternomastoideus muscles (Figure 3-28). The main task of the extensor of the neck is to tilt the head back and to the side.Helps to tilt the skull to the sideThe muscles that raise the shoulder blade. The main one, which is responsible for tilting the head to the side, is the staircase. Accessionto the first ribthis deeply located muscle makes it possible to apply serious force to the skull.

Rice. 3-28 Neck muscles

1. Trapezius - trapezius muscles

2. Splenius - extensors of the neck

3. Sternomastoid - sternomastoideus muscle

4. Levator Scapulae - muscles that raise the scapula

5. Thyroid Cartilage (Adam's Apple)

6. Scalenus - scalene muscle

7. Omohyoid - scapular-hyoid muscle

8. Sternohyoid - sternohyoid muscle

9. Clavicular Head of Sternomastoid

10. Digastricus - digastric muscle

Often visible on the surface of the necktrapezius and sternomastoideus muscles, not an exampleextensor neck muscle, levator scapula and scalene muscle, which, as a rule, are not shown on the surface, except for cases when the head tilts a considerable distance to the side (Fig. 3-29).Trapezius muscles, viewed from behind and in front, are represented as inclined planes. The sternomastoideus muscle will be clearly visible if the head is turned to the side. The purpose of the trapezius and sternomastoideus muscles is to tilt the skull back and rotate the head. Alone, they help tilt the skull to the side. The 2 sternomastoids are attached by ligaments to the dimple in the neck, creating a V shape that is almost always visible.

Rice. 3-29 The two most visible neck muscles

TORSO MUSCLES

The result of the vertical position of the torso is itsstructural feature. The human shoulders, unlike other mammals, do not need to support either the head or the chest, so they are separated by a certain distance in order to make the functionality of the arms better. The chest cavity is distinguished not by its depth, but by its width.

The upper and lower parts of the body are affected byall muscle groups. The upper one acts on the upper arms and shoulders, while the lower group of muscles, located from the chest to the pelvis, controls the movements in the waist. Figure 3-30 illustrates the superficial muscles of the body.

The trapezius muscle is diamond-shaped, extending from the base of the skull to the middle of the back. The very same upper lobe of the trapezius muscle is located vertically in relation to the base on the back of the neck. The middle part is a thick and distorted thickening located on the upper part of the shoulders. As for the lower segment, while remaining more or less thick, it corresponds to the shape of the human chest and the edge of the shoulder blades.Trapezius muscles, withturning towards the middle, takesin the tendonflat arrow shape. By the way, vertebrae will be visible in this area on the surface of the body (Fig. 3-31). Thanks to the trapezius muscle, the head can be bent back, lift and hold the shoulders, rotate the shoulder blades.

Rice. 3-30 Torso muscles

Sternomastoid - sternomastoideus muscle

Trapezius - trapezius muscles

Spine of Scapula

deltoid - deltoid muscle

Infraspinatus - infraspinatus muscle

Teres Minor - small round muscle

Teres Major - large round muscle

Pestoralis Major - large pectoral

Serratus - serratus muscle

External Oblique - external oblique muscle of the abdomen

Flank Pad of the External Oblique

Rectus abdominus - rectus abdominis

Gluteus maximus - sciatica

Sartorius - sartorius muscle

Tensor Fasciae Latae - hip abductors

Latissimus Dorsi - latissimus dorsi

Anterior Superior Iliac Spine

Gluteus medius - middle ischial muscles

Great Trochanter - large swivel

Rice. 3-31 The protrusions of the vertebrae become visible in the middle of the trapezius muscle

Majoritymuscle,visible in the form of stripes, these are dentate muscles. This is a long and deeply located muscle that pulls the scapula forward and raises its lower angle. This feature helps in various hand movements. Each of the 4 carnal points on both sides of the body is more noticeable if the arm is raised.

The pectoralis major muscles are formed by a triangular muscle on the chest attached to the sternum and collarbone. Thick fibers, converging below the armpit, join the upper bones of the arm. The main task is to bring forward the hand. More often, the contours of the muscle are visible in men, but as for women, they are completely covered by the chest in the latter (Fig. 3-32).

Rice. 3-32 The breasts are directed somewhat in different sides nipples coming from the center

The second triangular-shaped muscle that appears on the back and passes to the side is the latissimus dorsi. Fibers like the pectoral muscles are twisted before moving to the outside of the arm bones. The latissimus dorsi muscles are able to pull the arm back. As for the pectoral muscles and the large round muscle, they pull the arm together down and towards the body.

In the shoulder girdle, they begin and connect with the humerus 4muscle groups, we are talking about the deltoid, infraspinatus, large round and small round muscles (Fig. 3-33). They contribute to each other in stretching the arms.

Fig. 3-33 A number of muscles closer to the surface are visible on the back in the upper and lower parts of the torso

1. Spine of Scapula

3. Infraspinatus - infraspinatus muscle

4. Teres Major - a large round muscle

5. Latissimus Dorsi - latissimus dorsi

6. Trapezius - trapezius muscles

7. Gluteus Maximus - sciatica

The group of the lower set of muscles includes the external oblique muscle and the rectus abdominis muscles. The first of them - the external oblique - becomes most noticeable at the base of the thighs. This was called the flank pad (Figure 3-34). This is one of the most displayed muscles in Roman and Greek sculptures.

Rice. 3-34 Visible muscles of the lower anterior part of the human torso

1. Rectus Abdominus - rectus abdominis

2. Flank Pad of the External Oblique - Flank Pad of the External Oblique

I must say that the rectus abdominis is covered with a thin layer of veins. The rectus muscle is the thickest around the navel. It is characterized in well developed bodies by two rows of 4 fleshy pads, each row being separated by horizontal tendons. And the vertical grooves of the tendons are laid between each of the four groups of borders. If we talk about the rectus abdominis muscle, then it goes around the body in the waist areafront. Between blarge ischial andthe femoral cavity was located by the middle sciatic muscle (Fig. 3-35). We will learn more about these muscles by looking at them later, along with the muscles of the legs.

Rice. 3-35 Between the gluteal muscles is a noticeable dimple of the thigh.

1. Gluteus Medius - middle sciatic muscles

2. Dimple of the thigh - thigh dimple

3. Gluteus Maximus - sciatica

MUSCLES OF THE ARM

The muscles of the hand are divided into 2 sets. The upper group governs the elbow joint, while the lower group governs the carpal joint. If you imagine an arm hanging from the side of the torso, then the set of muscles of the upper arm will be located on the outside of the arms. These muscles act as flexors and extensors, that is, to be able to raise the lower part of the arms. Sets of muscles in the lower arms are placed near the goal of controlling the carpal joint, supportingat right angles to the elbowwrist. Figure 3-36 illustrates some of the familiar sets of arm muscles.

The deltoid muscle is considered the muscle of both the arm and the shoulder. With the help of this heavy triangular muscle, the arm moves backward.

There are 2 on the top of the armwell-known muscle groups, we are talking about the triceps and biceps. The triceps muscle got its name from the long lateral and middle chapters. They are placed at the end of the humerus (upper arm bone), and stretched to its full length - up to the elbow. They appear in a relaxed state on the surface as one muscle, and when tensed, they become more distinct. Speaking of biceps, let's clarify that we are talking about long muscles, tapering at the ends. Their name comes from two heads arising from two separate points on the shoulder blade. The biceps bends the arm at the elbow for efforts such as lifting loads. As for the triceps muscle, we are talking about the extensor muscle, which acts as a counter to the biceps.

Here is another muscle located between the biceps and the triceps muscle, we are talking about the shoulder muscle. She, working with the biceps, acts like a flexor muscle of the forearm. It is rarely seen on the surface.

The lower muscles of the hands are divided into groups, we are talking about the flexor and extensor muscles that control the work of the hands and wrist. These muscles, in addition, rotate the forearm, operate with finger movements. They, like flexor muscles, rally the fingers in order to turn them into a fist. And under the action of the extensor muscles, they, on the contrary, straighten these fingers. And two more muscles, we are talking about the arch support long and round pronator, stretchroundaboutradius along the ulna. Despite the presence of 13 muscles in the forearm, it seems that there are only three - the arch support long and the flexor of the wrist.

Rice. 3-36 arm muscles

1. Supinator Longus - long arch support

2. Deltoid - deltoid muscle

4. Biceps - biceps

5. Pronator Teres - round pronator

6. Flexor Carpi Radialis - radial flexor of the wrist

7. Extensor Capri Radialis - radial extensor of the wrist

8. Fexor Capri Ulnaris - ulnar flexor of the wrist

9. Annualar Ligaments

10 Brachialis - shoulder muscle

11. Supinator Longus - long arch support

MUSCLES OF THE LEGS

The pelvis is the main support for the mass of the upper body. And it is also designed for a fixed base for leg movement. This helps to transfer the inverse kinematics (IK) of the entire structure where the parent (talking about the pelvis) and pelvic (right and left) bones are unaffected by IK, helping to stabilize the forces of the IK controlled legs.

Figure 3-37 shows a number of major leg muscles well. Here are the middle ischial and large ischial muscles, they start the contours of the leg. The sciatica is the largest and strongest muscle in our body. It is designed to act as an extensor muscle, which serves for actions such as, say, running, walking or jumping. In addition, it helps to maintain the vertical position of the body. She has a rectangular shape on the surface of her buttocks. And this happens not at all because of the shape of the muscle, but because of the rather deep lining of fatty tissues.

Leg movements and position are commanded by 3 toa set of muscles on the thigh, or the upper leg. BUTstraightens the leg at the kneeThe group of the anterior side, which includes the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, and sartorius.When the leg is tense, they appear on the surfacethe rectus and lateral broad muscles of the thigh, as well as the wide muscle of the thigh. The lower part of the vastus medialis can often be seen in the form of tears of the muscle above the knee. These three muscles work as an extensor for the lower leg at the knee. As for the rectus femoris, it is the main flexor of the thigh in the hip joint. And speaking of the sartorius muscle, it looks like a thick, long strip that runs diagonally across the front of the leg to end below the knee, where it joins the tibia. This muscle does not particularly affect the superficial forms of the legs. Her task is to bend the leg at the hip and knee.

Rice. 3-37 leg muscles

1 Sartorius - tailor's muscle

2. Rectus Femoris - rectus femoris

3. Vastus medialis - wide medial muscle of the thigh

4. Patella - patella

5. Tibialis Anterior - anterior tibial muscle

6. Peronaeus longus - long peroneal muscle

7. Extensor Digitorum Longus - extensor digitorum longus

8. Medial Malleolus of Tibia

9. Gluteus medius - middle sciatic muscles

10. Gluteus Maximus

11. Great Trochanter

12. Semimembranosus - semimembranous muscle

13. Biceps Femoris - 2-headed thigh muscle

14. Semitendinosus - semitendinosus muscle

15. Gastrocnemius - gastrocnemius muscle

16. Extensor Digitorum Longus - extensor digitorum longus

17. Peronaeus brevis - short leg muscle

18. Achilles' Tendon

19. Vastus Lateralis - lateral wide muscle of the thigh

20. Soleus - soleus muscles

21. Medial Malleolus of Tibia - the inner surface of the tibia

The posterior muscles of the thigh are considered to bethe temporomandibularis, the semimembranosus, and the semitendinosus, sometimes referred to as the hamstrings. They act as flexors to act as a counter to the extensor muscles of the anterior by flexingbackleg at the knee. Both the tendons and the lower fibers of the semitendinosus with the biceps femoris can be clearly seen on the outside of the knee joint. They all appear as one unit above the knee.

upper leg muscle groupsremaining inside, pull the leg inward, to the center of gravity of the body. Such musclesdue to fat depositsrarely visible on the surface in this area separately .

Ankle jointcontrol 2 sets of muscles. With the help of the anterior group, located on both sides of the tibia, the leg is bent and the toes are straightened. With the help of the opposite group, the foot is straightened and the toes are bent. We can clearly see the heavy upper part of the anterior tibial muscle on the surface. The tendons that cross the ankle are also visible.Long finger extensor nand on the outside of the legs, it straightens or compresses the toes, straining the long peroneal muscle higher on the foot. If we are talking about the calf muscles, or calves, then these are the main muscles that make up the shape of the back of the lower leg. More often their 2 heads appear in one mass. And the soleus muscle is another calf muscle that works with the calf muscles to straighten the foot and keep the body upright. Both those and other muscles - gastrocnemius and soleus - are attached to a thick Achilles tendon, which in turn is connected to the heel bone.