Foreign literature review. Foreign Literature - Full Review

"Alcohols" From history  Do you know that back in the IV century. BC e. did people know how to make drinks containing ethyl alcohol? Wine was obtained by fermentation of fruit and berry juices. However, they learned how to extract the intoxicating component from it much later. In the XI century. alchemists caught vapors of a volatile substance that was released when wine was heated. Definition n General formula of monohydric saturated alcohols СnН2n+1ОН Classification of alcohols According to the number of hydroxyl groups CxHy(OH)n Monohydric alcohols CH3 - CH2 - CH2 OH Dihydric glycols CH3 - CH - CH2 OH OH By the nature of the hydrocarbon hydrocarbon radical of the CxHy(OH)n CxHy(OH)n radical Limiting Limiting CH3 CH3 –– CH CH2 CH2 2 ––CH 2 OH OH CH CH2 OH 2 --OH hydrogen corresponding to alcohol, add the (generic) suffix - OL. The numbers after the suffix indicate the position of the hydroxyl group in the main chain: H | H-C-OH | H methanol H H H |3 |2 |1 H- C – C – C -OH | | | H H H propanol-1 H H H | 1 | 2 |3 H - C - C - C -H | | | H OH H propanol -2 TYPES OF ISOMERIA 1. Isomerism of the position of the functional group (propanol–1 and propanol–2) 2. Isomerism of the carbon skeleton CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH butanol-1 CH3-CH-CH2-OH | CH3 2-methylpropanol-1 3. Interclass isomerism - alcohols are isomeric to ethers: CH3-CH2-OH ethanol CH3-O-CH3 dimethyl ether suffix -ol  For polyhydric alcohols, before the suffix -ol in Greek (-di-, -tri-, ...) the number of hydroxyl groups is indicated  For example: CH3-CH2-OH ethanol Types of isomerism of alcohols Structural 1. Carbon chain 2. Functional group positions PHYSICAL PROPERTIES  Lower alcohols (C1-C11) volatile liquids with a pungent odor  Higher alcohols (C12- and higher) solids with a pleasant odor PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Name Formula Pm. g/cm3 tmeltC tbpC Methyl CH3OH 0.792 -97 64 Ethyl C2H5OH 0.790 -114 78 Propyl CH3CH2CH2OH 0.804 -120 92 Isopropyl CH3-CH(OH)-CH3 0.786 -88 82 Butyl CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 0.8108 - Feature 0.8108 - properties: state of aggregation Methyl alcohol (the first representative of the homologous series of alcohols) is a liquid. Maybe it has a high molecular weight? No. Much less than carbon dioxide. Then what is it? R - O ... H - O ... H - O H R R Why? CH3 - O ... H - O ... N - O H N CH3 And if the radical is large? CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - O ... H - O H H Hydrogen bonds are too weak to hold an alcohol molecule, which has a large insoluble part, between water molecules A feature of physical properties: contraction Why, when solving calculation problems, they never use volume, but only by weight? Mix 500 ml of alcohol and 500 ml of water. We get 930 ml of solution. The hydrogen bonds between the molecules of alcohol and water are so great that the total volume of the solution decreases, its “compression” (from the Latin contraktio - compression). Individual representatives of alcohols Monohydric alcohol - methanol  Colorless liquid with a boiling point of 64C, characteristic odor Lighter than water. Burns with a colorless flame.  It is used as a solvent and fuel in internal combustion engines Methanol is a poison  The toxic effect of methanol is based on damage to the nervous and vascular systems. Ingestion of 5-10 ml of methanol leads to severe poisoning, and 30 ml or more - to death Monohydric alcohol - ethanol Colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and burning taste, boiling point 78C. Lighter than water. Mixes with her in any relationship. Flammable, burns with a faintly luminous bluish flame. Friendship with the traffic police Are spirits friends with the traffic police? But how! Have you ever been stopped by a traffic police inspector? Did you breathe into a tube? If you were unlucky, then the alcohol oxidation reaction took place, in which the color changed, and you had to pay a fine The question is interesting. Alcohol refers to xenobiotics - substances that are not contained in the human body, but affect its vital activity. Everything depends on the dose. 1. Alcohol is a nutrient that provides the body with energy. In the Middle Ages, the body received about 25% of its energy from alcohol consumption; 2. Alcohol is a drug that has a disinfectant and antibacterial effect; 3. Alcohol is a poison that disrupts natural biological processes, destroys internal organs and the psyche, and, if consumed in excess, leads to death Use of ethanol  Ethyl alcohol is used in the preparation of various alcoholic beverages;  In medicine for the preparation of extracts from medicinal plants, as well as for disinfection;  In cosmetics and perfumery, ethanol is a solvent for perfumes and lotions Harmful effects of ethanol  At the beginning of intoxication, the structures of the cerebral cortex suffer; the activity of the brain centers that control behavior is suppressed: reasonable control over actions is lost, and a critical attitude towards oneself decreases. I. P. Pavlov called such a state “violence of the subcortex”  When very great content alcohol in the blood inhibits the activity of the motor centers of the brain, mainly the function of the cerebellum suffers - a person completely loses orientation If a person cannot stop, then organic and, consequently, mental deviations from the norm are on the rise Harmful effects of ethanol  Alcohol has an extremely unfavorable effect on the vessels of the brain. At the beginning of intoxication, they expand, the blood flow in them slows down, which leads to congestion in the brain. Then, when, in addition to alcohol, harmful products of its incomplete decay begin to accumulate in the blood, a sharp spasm sets in, vasoconstriction occurs, and such dangerous complications as cerebral strokes develop, leading to severe disability and even death. QUESTIONS FOR CONSOLIDATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. There is water in one unsigned vessel, and alcohol in the other. Is it possible to use an indicator to recognize them? Who has the honor of obtaining pure alcohol? Can alcohol be a solid? The molecular weight of methanol is 32, and carbon dioxide is 44. Make a conclusion about the state of aggregation of alcohol. Mixed a liter of alcohol and a liter of water. Determine the volume of the mixture. How to conduct a traffic police inspector? Can anhydrous absolute alcohol release water? What are xenobiotics and how do they relate to alcohols? ANSWERS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. You can't. Indicators do not affect alcohols and their aqueous solutions. Of course, the alchemists. Maybe if this alcohol contains 12 carbon atoms or more. From these data, no conclusion can be drawn. Hydrogen bonds between alcohol molecules at a low molecular weight of these molecules make the boiling point of alcohol abnormally high. The volume of the mixture will not be two liters, but much less, approximately 1 liter - 860 ml. Don't drink while driving. Maybe if you heat it up and add conc. sulfuric acid. Do not be lazy and remember everything that you have heard about alcohols, decide for yourself once and for all what dose is yours……. and is it needed at all? Polyhydric alcohol ethylene glycol  Ethylene glycol is a representative of limiting dihydric alcohols - glycols;  Glycols got their name due to the sweet taste of many representatives of the series (Greek “glycos” - sweet);  Ethylene glycol is a syrupy liquid of sweet taste, odorless, poisonous. Mixes well with water and alcohol, hygroscopic Use of ethylene glycol  An important property of ethylene glycol is the ability to lower the freezing point of water, from which the substance has found wide application as a component of automotive antifreeze and antifreeze liquids;  It is used to obtain lavsan (a valuable synthetic fiber) Ethylene glycol is a poison  Doses that cause fatal ethylene glycol poisoning vary widely - from 100 to 600 ml. According to some authors, the lethal dose for humans is 50-150 ml. Mortality due to ethylene glycol is very high and accounts for more than 60% of all cases of poisoning;  The mechanism of the toxic action of ethylene glycol has not been sufficiently studied so far. Ethylene glycol is rapidly absorbed (including through the pores of the skin) and circulates in the blood unchanged for several hours, reaching a maximum concentration after 2-5 hours. Then its content in the blood gradually decreases, and it is fixed in the tissues. Colorless, viscous, hygroscopic, sweet-tasting liquid. Miscible with water in all proportions, good solvent. Reacts with nitric acid to form nitroglycerin. Forms fats and oils with carboxylic acids CH2 – CH – CH2 OH OH OH Application of glycerin  Used in     production of nitroglycerine explosives; When processing the skin; As a component of some adhesives; In the production of plastics, glycerin is used as a plasticizer; In the production of confectionery and beverages (as food additive E422) Qualitative reaction to polyhydric alcohols Qualitative reaction to polyhydric alcohols  The reaction to polyhydric alcohols is their interaction with a fresh precipitate of copper (II) hydroxide, which dissolves to form a bright blue-violet solution Tasks Complete work card for the lesson;  Answer the test questions;  Solve the crossword puzzle  Working card of the lesson “Alcohols”  General formula of alcohols  Name the substances:  CH3OH  CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH  CH2(OH)-CH2(OH) the atomicity of the alcohol?  List the uses of ethanol  What alcohols are used in the food industry?  What alcohol causes fatal poisoning when 30 ml is ingested?  What substance is used as antifreeze liquid?  How to distinguish polyhydric alcohol from monohydric alcohol? Production methods Laboratory  Hydrolysis of haloalkanes: R-CL+NaOH R-OH+NaCL  Hydration of alkenes: CH2=CH2+H2O C2H5OH  Hydrogenation of carbonyl compounds Industrial  Synthesis of methanol from synthesis gas CO+2H2 CH3-OH (at elevated pressure, high temperature and zinc oxide catalyst)  Hydration of alkenes  Fermentation of glucose: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH+2CO2 Chemical properties I. Reactions with RO–H bond breaking  Alcohols react with alkali and alkaline earth metals, forming salt-like compounds - alcoholates 2СH CH CH OH + 2Na  2CH CH CH ONa + H  2CH CH OH + Ca  (CH CHO) Ca + H  3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2  Interaction with organic acids (esterification reaction) leads to the formation of esters. CH COOH + HOC H  CHCOOC H (acetic ethyl ether (ethyl acetate)) + HO 3 2 5 3 2 5 2 II. Reactions with R–OH bond cleavage With hydrogen halides: R–OH + HBr  R–Br + H2O III. Oxidation reactions Alcohols burn: 2C3H7OH + 9O2  6CO2 + 8H2O Under the action of oxidizing agents:  primary alcohols are converted into aldehydes, secondary into ketones IV. Dehydration Occurs when heated with water-removing reagents (conc. H2SO4). 1. Intramolecular dehydration leads to the formation of alkenes CH3–CH2–OH  CH2=CH2 + H2O 2. Intermolecular dehydration gives ethers R-OH + H-O–R  R–O–R(ether) + H2O

Lecture 4. Aggregate states of matter

1. Solid state of matter.

2. Liquid state of matter.

3. Gaseous state of matter.

Substances can be in three states of aggregation: solid, liquid and gaseous. At very high temperatures, a kind of gaseous state arises - plasma (plasma state).

1. The solid state of matter is characterized by the fact that the energy of interaction between particles is higher than the kinetic energy of their motion. Most substances in the solid state have a crystalline structure. Each substance forms crystals of a certain shape. For example, sodium chloride has crystals in the form of cubes, alum in the form of octahedrons, sodium nitrate in the form of prisms.

The crystalline form of a substance is the most stable. The arrangement of particles in a solid body is depicted as a lattice, in the nodes of which certain particles are connected by imaginary lines. There are four main types of crystal lattices: atomic, molecular, ionic and metallic.

Atomic crystal lattice formed by neutral atoms that are linked by covalent bonds (diamond, graphite, silicon). Molecular crystal lattice have naphthalene, sucrose, glucose. The structural elements of this lattice are polar and non-polar molecules. Ionic crystal lattice It is formed by positively and negatively charged ions (sodium chloride, potassium chloride) regularly alternating in space. All metals have a metallic crystal lattice. At its nodes are positively charged ions, between which there are electrons in a free state.

Crystalline substances have a number of features. One of them is anisotropy - ϶ᴛᴏ dissimilarity of the physical properties of a crystal in different directions inside the crystal.

2. In the liquid state of matter, the energy of intermolecular interaction of particles is commensurate with the kinetic energy of their motion. This state is intermediate between gaseous and crystalline. Unlike gases, large forces of mutual attraction act between liquid molecules, which determines the nature of molecular motion. The thermal motion of a liquid molecule includes vibrational and translational. Each molecule oscillates around a certain equilibrium point for some time, and then moves and again occupies an equilibrium position. This determines its fluidity. The forces of intermolecular attraction do not allow molecules to move far from each other during their movement.

The properties of liquids also depend on the volume of molecules and the shape of their surface. If the liquid molecules are polar, then they combine (associate) into a complex complex. Such liquids are called associated (water, acetone, alcohol). Οʜᴎ have higher t kip, have lower volatility, higher dielectric constant.

As you know, liquids have surface tension. Surface tension- ϶ᴛᴏ surface energy per unit surface: ϭ = Е/S, where ϭ is surface tension; E is the surface energy; S is the surface area. The stronger the intermolecular bonds in a liquid, the greater its surface tension. Substances that reduce surface tension are called surfactants.

Another property of liquids is viscosity. Viscosity - ϶ᴛᴏ the resistance that occurs when some layers of a liquid move relative to others when it moves. Some liquids have a high viscosity (honey, small), while others are low (water, ethyl alcohol).

3. In the gaseous state of matter, the energy of intermolecular interaction of particles is less than their kinetic energy. For this reason, gas molecules are not held together, but move freely in the volume. Gases are characterized by the following properties: 1) uniform distribution over the entire volume of the vessel in which they are located; 2) low density compared to liquids and solids; 3) easy compressibility.

In a gas, the molecules are at a very large distance from each other, the forces of attraction between them are small. At large distances between molecules, these forces are practically absent. A gas in this state is called ideal. Real gases at high pressures and low temperatures do not obey the equation of state of an ideal gas (the Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation), since under these conditions the forces of interaction between molecules begin to manifest themselves.

AT foreign 19th century literature There are two main currents: romanticism and realism. Since these currents developed almost simultaneously, they left a noticeable imprint on each other. This applies especially to literature 1st half 19th century: the work of many romantic writers (, Hugo, George Sand) has a number of realistic features, while the work of realist writers (Stendhal, Balzac, Mérimée) is often colored with romanticism. It is not always easy to determine where the work of a particular writer should be attributed - to romanticism or realism. Only in the second half of the 19th century did romanticism finally give way to realism.

Romanticism is associated with the French bourgeois revolution of 1789, with the ideas of this revolution. At first, the romantics accepted the revolution enthusiastically and placed very high hopes on the new bourgeois society. Hence the dreaminess and enthusiasm characteristic of the works of romantics. However, it soon became obvious that the revolution did not justify the hopes placed on it. People have not received either freedom or equality. Money began to play a huge role in the fate of people, which, in essence, enslaved them. For the one who was rich, all the ways were opened, the lot of the poor still remained sad. A terrible struggle for money, a thirst for profit began. All this caused severe disappointment among the romantics. They began to look for new ideals - some of them turned to the past, began to idealize it, others, the most progressive, rushed into the future, which they often pictured vaguely and indefinitely. Dissatisfaction with the present, expectation of something new, desire to show the ideal relationship between people, strong characters- this is typical for romantic writers. Not knowing the ways in which humanity can build a better society, the romantics often turned to fairy tales (Anderson), were keenly interested in folk art and often imitated him (Longfellow, Mitskevich). The best representatives of romanticism, such as Byron, for example, called for the continuation of the struggle, and a new revolution.

Realism, in contrast to romanticism, was primarily interested in the present day. In an effort to reflect reality as fully as possible in their works, realist writers created large works (their favorite genre was the novel) with many events and heroes. They sought to reflect in their works the events characteristic of the era. If the romantics depicted heroes endowed with some sharply individual traits, heroes who were sharply different from the people around them, then the realists, on the contrary, sought to endow their heroes with features typical of many people belonging to one class or another, to one social group or another. . " Realism suggests- wrote F. Engels, - in addition to the truthfulness of details, the fidelity of the transfer of typical characters in typical circumstances«

The realists did not call for the destruction of bourgeois society, but they depicted it with merciless truthfulness, sharply criticizing its vices, which is why the realism of the 19th century is usually called critical realism.

This is a short overview foreign literature of the 19th century

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Foreign literature

Was the legendary blind singer from Asia Minor the author of these epic tales, or just a celebrated performer? There are different points of view on this matter. Probably, the poems were composed by many folk singers over several generations. Homer, perhaps, combined disparate songs into a single cycle, doing the work of an editor. It is possible that individual fragments are the fruit of his individual creativity. The "Homeric question" has been debated for more than two hundred years, but none of the scholars denies that Homer has an exceptional merit in the dissemination of the ancient epic.

« Iliad The poem is named because the second name of Troy was Ilion, located on the coast of Asia Minor. For a long time it was believed that the city was only a poetic fiction. However, the excavations of Heinrich Schliemann showed that the siege of the city of Troy by the Greeks could well be a historical fact. Today, some finds of the German archaeologist can be seen in the exposition of the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A.S. Pushkin. The twenty-four songs of the Iliad tell about the events that took place during the forty-nine days of the last, tenth, year of the war.

In the poem "Iliad" there are two grandiose stages: the besieged Troy and the camp of the besieging Greeks. The epic tale embodies the struggle of equals, while the heroes are arranged symmetrically. The eldest son of the Trojan king Priam, Hector, is not inferior in courage to Achilles, from whom he is destined to die. He is just as skilled in all martial techniques. Note that the battle narrative includes a whole series of fights. In single combat with Achilles' friend Patroclus, Hector dealt him a mortal blow and took away the armor that belonged to Achilles. Achilles must avenge the death of a friend. Hephaestus forges a shield for him, which depicts land and seas, cities and villages, vineyards and pastures, weekdays and festivities. The image on the shield is symbolic, because it includes everything that the valiant Greek knight protects.

Developments " Odyssey”are attributed to the tenth year after the end of the Trojan War. All the victors returned to their cities, others, like Agamemnon, had already died. Only Odysseus cannot return to his island of Ithaca. This is hindered by Poseidon, who is angry with Odysseus for blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus.

Odysseus, by all means, must return to Ithaca, where his parents, wife Penelope and son Telemachus, are waiting for him. The Greeks were patriots, isolation from their homeland for Odysseus is tantamount to death.

On the way to the hero's house, trials await (episodes in the cave of Polyphemus, sailing past the island of the Sirens and the monsters Scylla and Charybdis) and temptations - the love of the nymph Calypso and the princess Nausicaa. Odysseus, thanks to his cunning and courage, is the winner in all dramatic collisions.

The second plot motif of the Odyssey is associated with the image of the faithful Penelope, who has been waiting for her husband for twenty years, by a trick rejecting the harassment of those who are eager to share her bed and the royal throne.

The third storyline is dedicated to their son Telemachus, who goes in search of his father.

At the end of the poem, all the characters are united. Unrecognized Odysseus, together with Telemachus, drives out uninvited guests - the suitors of his wife, who joyfully greets him.

classical period Greek art and literature falls on the 5th century. and coincides with the highest flowering of slave-owning democracy. Having won the Greco-Persian wars (500-449), the city-states, having united in an alliance led by Athens, defended their independence from Persian rule. This contributed to the development of trade and crafts, as well as the rise of morale and patriotism.

The largest theater was located in Megapolis, it accommodated 44 thousand people.

The participation of the choir in the tragedy makes it possible to reveal the genesis of the tragedy. The very word "tragedy" means goat song and also points to the origin of the dramatic genre. The tragedy arose from the choral performance of dithyrambs in honor of the god Dionysus, who was also called Bacchus. In autumn, the Greeks, having harvested grapes, made young wine and tasted it (diluted with water!) arranged games in honor of the patron saint of winemaking. The satyrs and Bacchantes who accompanied Dionysus dressed up in goatskins and smeared their faces with grape pomace. The one who was entrusted with the role of Dionysus was the soloist, entering into a dialogue with the choir. The procession was accompanied by violent dances and songs. Dialogue could obviously take place between individual actors, in any case, a dramatic performance was born from the dialogue - a tragedy.

In tragedy, the hero entered into a duel with suprapersonal forces. He was invariably defeated, but in the duel with fate his dignity and strength of resistance to the will of the gods were revealed.

Aeschylus (525-456) the father of ancient Greek tragedy. An aristocrat and warrior, he took part in the battles with the Persians at Marathon and Salamis. He was the author of about 90 works, of which 7 have come down to us. In the tragedy "Oresteia", which consisted of three parts "Agamemnon", "Choephora", "Eumenides", he spoke about the sinister crimes of the Atrid family, about the murder of the leader of the Achaean army of his wife Clytemnestra, the cruel massacre of children over their mother and the revenge of the gods to Orestes for his atrocity. The main conflict of the tragedy is not family, but historical.

In tragedy "Prometheus Chained" Aeschylus for the first time in world culture recreated the image of a tyrant-fighter, bringing the light of truth to people. Everything that human civilization had achieved by that time, Aeschylus interprets as a gift from Prometheus. In the central monologue, the tragic hero speaks about himself and about people:

Sophocles (496-406) wrote 120 works, 7 tragedies have come down to us. The son of a wealthy gunsmith from the suburbs of Athens Colon, He received an excellent education, took an active part in the political life of Athens, was a friend of Pericles. He won 24 victories in playwright competitions. The most famous dramatic works Sophocles are associated with the Theban cycle of myths. In tragedy "Oedipus Rex" the hero, unknowingly, became the murderer of his father and the husband of his mother. The gods send a terrible plague on the city of Thebes, as a regicide lives here. Oedipus, who has become the ruler of Thebes, promises to punish the criminal, but soon becomes convinced of his own guilt. The action of the tragedy develops retrospectively: from the present to the past. People close to Oedipus, when a suspicion of his own guilt crept in, convince him that he could not commit atrocities. But the more evidence they give of the impossibility of committing crimes, the stronger his confidence: he himself is guilty. The tragedy of Oedipus consists of an unconsciously committed crime and a consciously accepted punishment. Oedipus was sighted, but did not know what he was doing. Punishing himself, he gouges out his eyes and leaves Thebes, then settles in Colon. The land that gave shelter to the repentant sinner is under the protection of the gods. This is the main idea of the tragedy "Oedipus at Colon".

In tragedy "Antigone" there is a conflict between the heirs of Oedipus. In a fratricidal war, two sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polynices, perished. The new ruler of Thebes, Creon, forbids, under pain of death, to bury Polyneices, who went to war against his native city. Creon issues this law with the best of intentions, wanting to end chaos and anarchy. The daughter of Oedipus Antigone, risking her life, disobeyed the ruler, betraying her brother's body to the ground. Sophocles in the tragedy "Antigone" not only glorifies the courage and fidelity to the heroine's duty, but also confronts the eternal moral laws that mankind has developed throughout history, and the willfulness of rulers who violate the world order.

The greatness of the heroes of Sophocles lies in the fact that they, broken by omnipotent fate, remain faithful to their human duty.

Euripides (480-406)- the youngest of the tragic poets, the author of 92 works, of which 17 tragedies have come down to us. The best translations are by Jn. Annensky.

Euripides was a follower of the philosophy of the sophists, who argued that objective truth does not exist, since only man is the measure of all things. The playwright demonstrates human rights to actions that horrify others, but they follow from his inner logic. To his contemporaries, his heroes seemed too pampered, and the heroines too cruel. Really , Medea in the tragedy of the same name, he mercilessly takes revenge on the one whom Jason called his bride. Medea kills her own children because she wants her suffering to become the tragedy of her children's father. She defends her dignity, just as in the tragedy of Hippolytus, Phaedra takes revenge on her stepson only because he does not consider love a sacred feeling that unites people. The heroines of Euripides are literally fatal women, fate dominates them and leads them to death. In this sense, he is in solidarity with Sophocles, but compared to the author of Oedipus Rex, Euripides pays much more attention to psychological nuances, masterfully conveying the dialectic of feelings. For example, in the tragedy "Iphigenia in Aulis" the goddess Artemis demands that Agamemnon sacrifice his daughter, otherwise Greek ships, accumulated near the port city of Aulis, will never reach the walls of Troy. Iphigenia, together with her mother Clytemnestra, was summoned to Aulis, allegedly for the marriage with Achilles. She's happy. But having learned that it is not a wedding that awaits her, but a gloomy Hades, she desperately begs her father to have pity on her. Time passes, and Iphigenia differently perceives the lot that has fallen to her.

Rock Iphigenia perceives as a duty, she is ready to die with dignity for the honor of the motherland. However, salvation comes in the finale: Artemis had mercy and replaced the girl's body with a doe. Euripides uses in the denouement a new technique discovered by him: Deus ex machina - God from the machine. When death threatens the heroes, the gods save them at the last moment. There were special theatrical devices that elevated the characters to heaven. Even in the most tragic situations, everything ends happily in a number of works by Euripides.

Aristophanes (c. 445- c. 386)- the father of ancient Greek comedy. The origin of comedy is associated with Bacchic songs. The term itself originally meant "the song of the crowd". Dialogue arose out of the jocular squabbles. In comedy essential role played a parody. Aristophanes in the monologues of his characters parodied the speeches of politicians, military leaders and sophists. He was the author of about 40 comedies, of which 11 have come down to us.

The originality of Roman literature during the reign of Octavian Augustus was that brilliant poets deliberately went to the service of the ruler. This is equally true of Virgil (70-19) and Horace (65-8).

About life the greatest poet ancient rome It is known from the biographical notes of Suetonius, the author of the famous books “The Life of the Twelve Caesars” and “On Famous Men”. Although Gaius Suetonius Tranquill was a contemporary of Virgil.

Fame for Virgil was brought by "Bukoliki" - shepherd's idylls, in which the villagers indulge in love lamentations and joys, and also talk in philosophical themes. In one of the poems of this cycle, the following line sounded:

In 30 Virgil turns to the creation of a poem "Aeneid", which immortalized his name. He set out the events first in prose, and then in hexameter, following the traditions of Homer and continuing his plots.

The poem tells about the fate of the Trojan Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Aphrodite. His mother orders him to leave the burning Troy and go to the Italian shores with his closest relatives, for he is destined to become the founder of a new powerful state.

Horace- a poet of the golden mean, writing for a select few. He called for moderation in his poems, taught to be content with little, in satires he denounced the luxury and vices of the noble rich. In odes, he glorified the wisdom of statesmen and their deeds done for the benefit of the people. Horace was the first in world literature to create a monument of poetry, proclaiming the immortality and power of the poetic word. His ode "Monument" served as a model for poets of subsequent generations. Recall that A.S. Pushkin to his poem "I erected a monument to myself not made by hands..." took an epigraph from Horace: Exegi monument.

The merit of Virgil and Horace was that, largely thanks to their poetry, Latin was preserved, since in the Middle Ages their works were read and studied by schoolchildren.

Middle Ages: Roman style and gothic, heroic epic and chivalric romance, Dante and Giotto

The Middle Ages is a long period of world history, stretching from the end of the 5th century. to the 15th century, connecting antiquity with the Renaissance. the beginning medieval history It is conventionally considered to be 476, when the final fall of the Roman Empire took place as a result of numerous uprisings of slaves and performances by the plebs, as well as under the onslaught of barbarian tribes that invaded the Apennine Peninsula from the north. The end of the Middle Ages was the Renaissance ancient culture, which began in Italy from the middle of the XIV century, and in France - from the beginning of the XVI century, in Spain and England - from the end of the same century. The Middle Ages were characterized by the dominance of the Christian religion, asceticism, the destruction of ancient monuments, the oblivion of humanistic ideas in the name of religious dogma. From the end of the 4th century Christianity becomes the state religion first in Rome, and then in the emerging barbarian states, because the leaders of the Germans, Franks, Celts soon realized that the ideas of monotheism contribute to the elevation of their authority among their fellow tribesmen. Having mastered and reworked Latin, they accepted baptism and the dogmas of the church.

Finally, it was in the Middle Ages that the literary genres that exist to this day arose: the novel, the sonnet, the ballad, the madrigal, the canzone, and others.

At the end of the Middle Ages, great geographical discoveries took place and printing was invented, cities were revived and universities were opened.

The Middle Ages in the historical process, until recently, was interpreted as a decline in art and literature - now this view seems outdated. In the Middle Ages, verbal and plastic arts had their own specific feature - anonymity. In most cases, it is impossible to name the author of the works. They were created by the collective folk genius, as a rule, over a long period of time, often over several centuries, by the talent and devotion of many generations. Another characteristic feature of medieval literary monuments there was the presence of the so-called "wandering plots", due to the fact that epic songs were distributed orally, they were recognized by different peoples who inhabited Europe, but each people brought original details into the stories about the exploits of the heroes, interpreted the heroic and moral ideal in their own way.

The leading genre of medieval literature was epic poems that arose at the final stage of the formation of nations and their unification into states under the auspices of the king.

In the epic tales of the Middle Ages, a loyal vassal of his overlord always plays a very important role. Such is the hero of the French "Songs about Roland" who did not spare his life for the sake of serving King Charlemagne. He, at the head of a small detachment of Franks in the Ronceval Gorge, repels the attack of many thousands of Saracen troops. Dying on the battlefield, the hero covers his military armor with his body, lies down facing the enemies, "so that Karl tells his glorious squad that Count Roland died, but won."

The Song of Roland took shape over almost four centuries. The real details were partly forgotten, but its patriotic pathos intensified, the king was idealized as a symbol of the nation and state, the feat in the name of faith and people was glorified.

Just as faithfully serves his king Alfonso VI Ruy Diaz de Bivar, nicknamed Cid, is the hero of the Spanish folk epic "Song of Side" liberated Valencia and other Spanish lands from the Arab tribes that captured them.

The image of Sid captivates with its realistic versatility. He is not only a brave commander, but also a subtle diplomat. When he needed money, he did not disdain deceit, deftly deceived gullible usurers, leaving them chests with sand and stones as a pledge. Sid is going through a forced separation from his wife and daughters, and when the king married them off for noble swindlers, he suffers from the inflicted insult, cries out for justice to the king and the Cortes. Having restored the honor of the family, having won royal favor, Sid is satisfied and marries his daughters a second time, now for worthy suitors.

The epic hero of the Spanish epic is close to reality, this is explained by the fact that the “Song of Side” arose just a hundred years after Rodrigo accomplished his exploits. In the following centuries, the Romancero cycle arose, telling about the youth of the epic hero.

Germanic heroic epic "Nibelungenlied" was recorded around 1200, but its plot dates back to the era of the “great migration of peoples” and reflects a real historical event: the death of the Burgundian kingdom, destroyed by the Huns in 437.

The Nibelungenlied is one of the most tragic creations in world literature. Cunning and intrigues lead the Nibelungs to death. The tragedy of all the Nibelungs begins with the death of the epic hero, which is Siegfried, the ideal hero of the Nibelungenlied. The prince from the Lower Rhine, the son of the Dutch king Sigmund and Queen Sieglinde, the winner of the Nibelungs, who took possession of their treasure - the gold of the Rhine, is endowed with all knightly virtues. He is noble, brave, courteous. Duty and honor are above all for him.

The image of Siegfried combines the archaic features of the hero of myths and fairy tales with the demeanor of a feudal knight, ambitious and cocky. Soon he resigns himself, remembering the purpose of his visit. It is characteristic that the prince unquestioningly serves King Gunther, not ashamed to become his vassal. This reflects not only the desire to get Kriemhild as a wife, but also the pathos of faithful service to the overlord, invariably inherent in the medieval heroic epic.

Siegfried belongs essential role in the courtship of Gunther to Brynhild. He not only helps him defeat the mighty hero in a duel, but also gathers a squad of thousands of Nibelungs who must accompany the bride and groom returning to Worms. The sovereign Burgundian ruler sends Siegfried to capital city with the good news that he had mastered the warrior maiden, so that their relatives would prepare a solemn meeting for them. This evokes the heartfelt joy of Krimhilda, who hopes that the envoy can now count on marrying her. There was a magnificent double wedding.

After ten years of separation, Siegfried and Kriemhild receive an invitation from Gunther and Brynhild to visit Worms. The Nibelungs go to visit, not knowing what trouble awaits them there.

The quarrel between the two queens turned into a disaster for Siegfried. Finding out from Kriemhild that Siegfried, having bathed in the blood of the dragon, became invulnerable to arrows, their faithful vassal Hagen realized that the hero had his own “Achilles heel”: a fallen leaf of linden covered the body between the shoulder blades, this is what poses a danger to the brave knight . The traitor kills Siegfried on the hunt, throwing a spear at the unarmed hero, leaning over the stream, aiming between the shoulder blades. The blow was fatal.

With the death of Siegfried, the attention of the narrators is focused on the fate of his widow, who takes bloody revenge on her relatives for the death of her husband.

Etzel's courtship, and then the marriage with the king of the Huns, Kriemhild uses exclusively for the implementation of his bloody plans. The compositional structure of the Nibelungenlied is symmetrical, and the characters repeat each other's actions. So, Krimhilda persuades Etzel, as Brynhilda had entreated Gunther before, to invite her brothers to visit in order to inflict reprisals on them.

The Nibelungenlied is a story about the vicissitudes of human destinies, about fratricidal wars that tore apart the feudal world. Etzel - the most powerful ruler early medieval, acquired the features of an ideal ruler, who paid for his nobility and gullibility, who became a victim of those whom he considered to be the closest people.

The heroic epic of the early Middle Ages in the twelfth century was replaced by a new genre - the novel, which was destined long life in art - up to the present day. In the medieval novel actor the knight remained, but his appearance and inner world have undergone significant changes. Being an epic hero, the knight conquered with his valiant prowess, which he tirelessly demonstrated when fighting foreign infidels. Such was Roland - the nephew and faithful vassal of his king, Charlemagne. The dying words of the brave warrior Roland are addressed to God and the King. But what is surprising is that the dying knight did not remember his bride Alda, the sister of his colleague and friend Olivier. Upon learning of the death of her lover, Alda died of grief, which, however, is reported without any particular details and details by the narrator, who called himself Turold, although little is known about him either. It is unlikely that he was the author of the Song of Roland, rather he became famous as a talented juggler who could afford to leave his name in the text. But in general, the heroic epic - we emphasize again - is the result of the creations of a collective folk genius.

"Tristan and Isolde"

The relationship between the knight and the king also changed somewhat. The noble paladin of his king, while remaining a vassal, often acquires a slightly different status: a friend and confidante of the monarch. Sometimes a knight, on the orders of the king, performs a feat, but a heroic deed is connected not with politics, but with his personal life. For example, Tristan goes to conquer Iseult. The overseas beauty is to become the wife of King Mark, who is his uncle. The distance between the vassal and the king is reduced, the knight falls into the number of close ones. The conflict of the novel about Tristan and Isolde is based on the fact that the vassal becomes a rival of the king himself, which would be absolutely impossible in a heroic epic. The love experiences of the heroes are revealed with great psychological persuasiveness, their feelings are devoid of static, the persecution of lovers only stimulates their passion.

The chivalric romance spread throughout the territories of the future Germany and France, easily overcoming the language barrier. Many novels arose about the adventures of the knights of the round table at the court of King Arthur. The source was Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (circa 1137), which became widely popular in France.

Wolfram is the largest poet of the German Middle Ages, the author of many lyrical works, the unfinished novel "Villehalm" (c. 1198-1210), is valued primarily as the creator of the monumental novel "Parzival" (c. 1200-1210), numbering 28840 verses. But it's not about scale. Wolfram von Eschenbach revolutionized the very genre of the novel, shifting the focus from external events (adventures, accidental meetings, duels) to the inner world of the hero, who gradually, in the process of painful searches, disappointments and delusions, finds harmony with the world and peace of mind.

"Parzival"- a kind of family chronicle, since Wolfram von Eschenbach tells three stories in great detail - three biographies: Parzival's father Gamuret, Parzival himself and his son Lohengrin.

Gamuret is the ideal hero of a German chivalric romance. He longs to serve God alone and dreams of the only reward - the love of a beautiful lady, whose name is Herzloyd, which means yearning in heart. Herzloyd had to choose her husband in a jousting tournament. The brave Gamuret defeats all rivals, but he cannot live without the stadiums. Taking advantage of the freedom that the generous Herzloyd gave him, he went to fight and died in the battles.

The story of Parzival ends with the triumph of justice and universal joy. Beloved wife Condviramur, whom the wandering knight missed for so long, also arrives in the castle. Happy Parzival immediately saw his wonderful sons Kardeis and Lohengrin.

The finale of the story is idyllic: the Holy Grail nourishes everyone with food and quenches thirst with wine. Parzival rules his country wisely and justly.

Lohengrin is the son of Parzival and Kondviramur. He was born, like his father, after the departure of the knight to the war. Their first meeting and mutual recognition occurs when Parzival has already mastered the Holy Grail. The further history of Lohengrin by Wolfram is outlined in dotted lines. It speaks of the courage of Lohengrin, of his victories in many battles. Lohengrin fell in love with the beautiful princess Elsa of Brabant, who rejected all seekers of her hand. He arrives in Antwerp on a boat harnessed to a swan. Slender blond handsome Lohengrin instantly won the heart of the princess. He married her on one condition: Elsa must not ask where he came from. Obviously, Lohengrin had no right to reveal to anyone the secret of Muncalves Castle, in which the Holy Grail was kept. Lohengrin's wife complied with the condition for a long time, but as soon as she tried to find out her husband's secret, Lohengrin disappeared without a trace, drawn by a beautiful swan.

Gothic

The grandiose performance that was played out in the city square - mystery(lat. mysterium - sacrament). It could be an action about the fall of Adam and Eve or an image of the way of the cross of Jesus Christ. Comic episodes began to penetrate into a serious dramatic performance. Appeared farce(French farce - filling), which depicted unfaithful wives, imaginary blind men begging for alms, rogue lawyers, stingy old men and amorous spinsters. The writers of farces laughed at them without malice, amusing the spectators who had gathered to watch the mysteries.

A drama with a happy ending miracle(French miracle - a miracle). In the miracles, the heavenly forces intervened in the fate of the sinner and saved him. Such is the already mentioned miracle “The Miracle of Theophilus” by Ryutbef (middle of the 13th century). Nicholas of Mirlikiy often acted in the miracles, who saved drowning seafarers, helped dowry women to find worthy suitors, healed the sick, and even exposed thieves.

Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321) was born in Florence, took an active part in public life, was elected one of the priors - governors of the city. However, when political opponents of Dante came to power, he was forced to go into exile. Although the famous poet was received with honors in many cities of Italy, he was very upset by the separation from Florence. major event The spiritual life of the poet was a meeting with Beatrice, who became for him the earthly embodiment of heavenly love. The name Beatrice means bestower of bliss. Dante's poetic work became a glorification of the ideal, he created an image that embodies faith, wisdom, beauty, justice, compassion - in a word, all human virtues.

He first spoke about his love for Beatrice in a book « New life» (1292), which became the world's first autobiography of the poet. He tells of meetings with Beatrice, of which there were only three. He experienced bliss when he beheld her lovely face. He experienced terrible grief when he learned that Beatrice had died. In the "New Life" poetry is combined with prose. In sonnets and canzones, he captured her image, and in prose explanations, he told about what was the reason for the creation of the poem and what thought he wanted to express in it.

Above "Divine Comedy" Dante worked in exile for about 20 years. The poet called his work "Comedy". This did not mean belonging to the dramatic genre; in the time of Dante, a comedy was called a work that begins tragically, but ends happily. The descendants called the creation of Dante "Divina commedia", thereby expressing their admiration. The poem is in three parts: "Hell", "Purgatory", "Paradise"”, corresponding to the three states human soul in the underworld. Each part consists of 33 songs.

The worst crime in the poet's mind is betrayal. The most painful tortures are prepared for Judas, Brutus and Cassius. To them, Dante, who survived treason and betrayal, is merciless.

At the end of the poem, Dante meets Beatrice, who introduces him to Divine Providence and eternity.

The Renaissance: the genesis of humanism, the titans of the Renaissance, Shakespeare and Cervantes

Since the fourteenth century Italian artists and poets turned their attention to the ancient heritage and tried to revive in their art the appearance of the beautiful in harmony developed person. Among the first who took the work of the ancient Greeks and Romans as a model were Giotto and Dante, and then the poet Francesco Petrarch and the short story writer Giovanni Boccaccio, the sculptor Niccolo Pisano and the painter Simone Martini. Initially, the term Renaissance or Renaissance (fr. Renaissance) denoted the cultural and historical stage from which the study began ancient art and literature, perceived as the ideal embodiment of the external appearance and inner spiritual life of a person.

The fundamental difference between Renaissance art and medieval art was the embodiment of not the divine, but the human essence of being. From here arises the main philosophical principle of the Renaissance - anthropocentrism, according to which man is the center and the highest goal of the universe.

The modern system of genres of literature and art took shape to a large extent during the Renaissance. A kind of analogue of a self-portrait in literature can be considered lyric poetry. The lyrics of Francesco Petrarch, Pierre Ronsard, William Shakespeare interpreted their inner life experience, however, connoisseurs of their lyrics recognized in the poems of poets not only and not so much the authors as themselves, discovering the coincidence and similarity in sorrows and joys. Lyrics are subjective, but at the same time, lyrical poetry is capable of becoming a uniter of people in an emotional outburst. During the Renaissance, the main genre of poetry was the sonnet. All the poets listed above wrote sonnets, they managed to convey in fourteen lines of a sonnet a creative aspiration, a dream of poetic immortality, gaining love and losing a beloved.

Renaissance in Italy. Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) - the first European humanist. His father, shortly before the birth of the poet, was expelled from Florence by political opponents. Being a notary, his father wanted Francesco to also become a lawyer. Petrarch studied law at the universities of Montpellier and Bologna. After the death of his father, by his own admission, he sent all legal writings to a long prison. Having taken the priesthood, he in 1330. entered the service of Cardinal Giovanni Colonna. As his secretary, Francesco Petrarch accompanied the cardinal on trips to France, Flanders, and Germany.

In the memory of the descendants of Francesco Petrarch remained the author "Books of Songs" on which he worked from the first meeting with Laura until his death. Like Dante's Beatrice, Laura in the verses of Petrarch is the personification of spiritual perfection, wisdom, love. But the images of lovers among poets have one significant difference. Beatrice is beautiful, Laura is beautiful. In Dante, we will not find a description of the external appearance, while Petrarch notices the whiteness of her hands, the gold of her hair, and her light gait. The portrait of Laura is more real and concrete, but the main attention is still paid not to passion, but to virtue.

The Book of Songs consists of two parts: "On the Life of Madonna Laura" and "On the Death of Madonna Laura".

"Book of Songs" includes 317 sonnets, 29 canzones, 9 sextins, 7 ballads and 4 madrigals. Most of these are poems about love, but Petrarch was no stranger to patriotic issues. In the famous canzone "My Italy" he laments the ruin of the country caused by internecine strife.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) during his lifetime did not win from his contemporaries the recognition that he received later. The author of The Decameron entered the history of world literature as the creator of the novel genre.

"Decameron"(1348-1353) - in Greek - ten days. Seven beautiful Florentine girls and three well-bred boys take refuge in a country villa from a plague epidemic. They spend ten days in seclusion. Everyone tells one funny, touching, or cautionary tale. In total, the Decameron produced one hundred short stories. Framing carries an important meaning. The optimistic content of most novels contrasts with the atmosphere of the plague city. The author inspires the thought: remembering death, rejoice in life.

The Decameron contains many anti-clerical anecdotes. Monks and clergy achieve love pleasures by all sorts of tricks. The author condemns them not for craving for pleasure, but for hypocrisy and hypocrisy. In satirical short stories, the comic effect is created due to the fact that the sermons of the churchmen diverge from their postulates. The positive hero of many short stories is an active, enterprising person who, being subjected to various kinds of trials, emerges victorious from them, due to his mind and will to live. Such are the misadventures of the novels of the fifth day, in which the heroes manage to outwit fortune.

Francois Rabel.

The future writer was born in the family of a lawyer in the south of France in the province of Touraine. He made the sunny fertile land of vineyards the setting for the first two parts of his book. Gargantua and Pantagruel". Francois Rabelais was a monk, but a monk of a special kind - a scientist, philosopher and physician. He studied medicine at the University of Montpellier and was one of the first to risk dissecting corpses, which was forbidden by the Church. The young doctor was invited as a personal physician by the Bishop of Paris, Jean du Bellay. Together with him, he visited Italy, whose Renaissance culture had a beneficial effect on the writer.

In 1532, at a fair in Lyon, Rabelais bought a popular popular print book "Great and invaluable chronicles about the great and huge giant Gargantua". The anonymous authors made fun of the knights, who turned from brave warriors into gluttons and drunkards. The satire on the knights testified to a historical turning point, when warriors in armor and chain mail could no longer perform past feats, since firearms were invented.

Rabelais retained the outline of the plot, but behind the taunts of the talkative joker and merry fellow, as the narrator seems to be, a thoughtful look at the present is hidden.

The trinity of giants - the grandfather of Granguzier, the son of Gargantua and the grandson of Pantagruel - are fairy-tale kings, busy with libations and plentiful meals. They care little about the welfare of their subjects, but according to Rabelais, this is the best form of government, because a free king does not infringe on the freedom of his people. In wine drinking one should see a game: like real village drunkards, kings and their entourage compete to see who will outdrink whom. Rabelais has a great many harmless deceit, all sorts of jokes, false oaths, swearing - in a word of all kinds of deception. But at the same time, he is always accurate, confidentially reporting, to the accuracy of the last mug, how many large and small kegs were drunk. The more lies, the more exact figures - the deceiver Rabelais perfectly mastered this rule and constantly used it.

The atmosphere of the game is enhanced by a special linguistic element of the narrative. For Rabelais, the rule is not acceptable: brevity is the sister of talent. On the contrary, he is garrulous, talkative, talkative, squabbling. He owns an incalculable wealth of language and generously shares his reserves with the reader. French speech in all its glory crowds out laconic Latin. The Frenchman Rabelais was one of the creators of the language of French prose.

Gargantua and Pantagruel is not yet a novel, but Rabelais's text contains the origins of several varieties of the romance genre. Talking about how Gargantua was brought up by a wise humanist teacher, Rabelais outlines the contours of a biographical educational novel. An episode of a battle in a vineyard with a neighboring king - a bilious villain, why not a sketch of a battle novel? And when brother Jean, who distinguished himself in a brawl, sets up a Thelema monastery, where everyone has the right to do what he wants, this is already an application for a utopian novel.

Panurge embodies freedom, everything in the world, ignoring obsolete moral rules. He is free as a country boy who has run away from his masters to the city. But he does not have an understanding of why he needs freedom, how he can dispose of it.

With the advent of Panurge, the narrative rushes into a new genre channel - a travel epic. The fact is that Panurge planned to marry, but he fears whether he will be horned. Since none of the two dozen advisers recommended anything worthwhile, it was decided to go to China for the truth to the oracle of the divine bottle. All the characters moved there by ship, sailing past the islands on which Rabelais gathered all the enemies of the human race: bribe-takers of judges, fat Catholic monks, Protestant ascetics, scholastics, theologians and other evil spirits.

Poetry Pierre de Ronsard (1524 - 1584)h ends the Renaissance in France. Ronsard was a patriot of France, he glorified the fatherland and the heroes of his country in solemn odes and hymns. He grieved that religious strife was ruining the homeland and its people, the poet stood up for the unity of his compatriots.

Continuing the tradition of Petrarch, he sang the feeling of love in sonnets. Moreover, the poet's hobbies Cassandra, Mary and Helena, to which he devoted poetic cycles were not speculative, but quite real, which is why love confessions sound sincere and frank.

Germany

German folk books have become a remarkable monument of humanistic culture - a special kind of grassroots literature addressed to the democratic reader. The first folk books appeared in the middle of the 15th century. in Germany in connection with the invention of printing and became widespread in late XVI in.

The heroes of popular popular publications were both historical heroes, whether it be Alexander the Great, Charlemagne or Henry the Lion, as well as fictional ones: the swindler Til Ulenspiegel and the sage doctor Faust. In the first case, the character inspired respect with heroic courage, in the second he attracted with resourcefulness and ingenuity, which were in great price in a burgher environment. Such is Til Ulenspiegel - the hero of the German folk book of the same name. The nickname of the characters consists of two words: "Ule" (owl) and ("Spiegel") (mirror). "Owl Mirror" is perceived as a wise mockery of human stupidity. The biography of Til Ulenspiegel consists of ninety-five satirical stories that tell how Til, wandering around the wide world, fools representatives of various classes and professions.

Thiel Ulenspiegel - collective image, which reflected the critical aggravation popular consciousness in the period immediately preceding the Peasants' War and the Reformation in Germany in the first quarter of the 16th century. The favorite of the people constantly breaks the stable established class order, ridiculing the nobility, the rich and the saints.

Renaissance in Spain . Humanistic ideas penetrate the Iberian Peninsula at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. Spain during this period was an absolutist monarchy, rulers and subjects remained zealous Catholics. The Spanish economy was one of the most backward in Europe. The influx of income from the colonies led to a sharp rise in the price of goods and products. Aristocrats had nothing to eat on golden dishes, and what can we say about petty nobles - hidalgos, among whom the greatest celebrity is still Don Quixote of La Mancha, created by the imagination of Cervantes.

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547 - 1616) was the son of a poor doctor who belonged to the hidalgo class. In search of a job, his father had to wander around the Spanish provinces, so that in his childhood the future writer visited Seville and Toledo, Madrid and Cordoba. The literary gift of Cervantes manifested itself early, already in his youth he composed sonnets.

The novel was conceived by Cervantes as a parody of the romance of chivalry and chivalry in general, which had already ceased to play its role in society. As for the chivalric novels that the crazy hidalgo and some of his neighbors and friends read, only very naive people who were not versed in real life. The satirical effect of Cervantes' narration is based on the complete discrepancy between the images and situations of chivalric novels and everything that the crazy hidalgo encounters on the paths and crossroads of his wanderings. However, Don Quixote sees what he wants to see: in the cowgirl Dulcinea - beautiful lady, in windmills - giants, in a mountain cave - a crystal castle.

"Don Quixote"- the first novel in European literature, because the nature of the genre of the novel is based on the fact that a person, by his own example, tests universal ideals, studies the ways and possibilities of their implementation.

Alliance of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza Ridiculous in external and internal contrast: a thin hidalgo and a fat peasant, a visionary dreamer and a smart pragmatist. However, during their long wanderings, they will learn a lot from each other. But something else is important. Cervantes, in two inseparably connected characters, for the first time showed the integrity of human consciousness, in which two contrasting views of the world coexist. After all, both Don Quixote and Sancho Panza live inside everyone.

Renaissance in England . In English Renaissance art at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. the leading role belonged to the theater. William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was the most repertoire playwright. In London, or rather outside the city limits, there were several theatrical buildings: "Swan", "Curtain", "Globe". The latter was the property of Richard Burbage and his family. Shakespeare was friendly with him and wrote plays with the expectation that Burbage would play the leading roles in them. By the way, the actors were only men. All in the troupe were shareholders, William Shakespeare was a mediocre performer, but became famous as a playwright. However, at that time, dramaturgy was not valued as high literature, since the plays were rewritten many times, the text adapted to the capabilities of the troupe. The playwright gave his offspring to the theater, received a reward and lost the ownership of the tragedy or comedy.

By the first period includes a significant part of Shakespeare's comedies: "The Comedy of Errors", "The Taming of the Shrew", "Two Veronets", "Dream in midsummer night”, “The Merry Wives of Windsor”, “Much Ado About Nothing”, “As You Like It”. There are always several in comedies. love lines. Between the characters in love there is a competition in wit, eloquence, resourcefulness. The heroes are endowed with an active Renaissance character, they stubbornly go towards the goal, and every obstacle on the way only provokes them, as it gives them a reason to demonstrate the originality of nature. The heroines are by no means timid, they know how to stand up for themselves, but are ready to obey the groom, equal in mind and willpower. Numerous jokes, tricks of envious people, carnival travesty emphasize the conflict-free nature of comedies. The Shakespearean audience is always sure: “The end is the crown of business,” as the title of one of the comedies sounds.

Tragedy belongs to the first period "Romeo and Juliet", in which there is not yet that gloomy coloring, as in subsequent tragedies. The love story of two young Veronians who fell in love despite family strife is played out in the town square, at a ball and during a nightly date. It can be assumed that Romeo and Juliet could also find happiness, like Hero and Claudio in the comedy Much Ado About Nothing. At first glance, the cause of the death of the heroes in a fatal combination of circumstances. However, the conflict of tragedy is different: in a world that preserves medieval remnants, the heroes dared to live in a Renaissance way. They were ahead of their time and paid the price.

Shakespeare reveals the laws of time, their power over rulers and ordinary people in historical chronicles: "Richard II", "Henry IV", "Henry V", "Richard III". The events of the chronicle are mainly limited chronologically to the War of the Scarlet and White Roses (1455-1485). Shakespeare shows how, at the end of bloody civil strife, legitimate power is established in England. In the chronicles, the idea is persistently carried out that only an internally free person who, nevertheless, follows the law in everything, can be a just ruler. Such is Henry V. As a prince, in the chronicle "Henry IV" he made friends with Falstaff, participated in revels and buffoonish tricks. But having inherited the crown and throne, he did not recognize his “long-time friend”, it was no longer appropriate for him to be familiar with the freedom-loving merry fellow.

By the second period The works of William Shakespeare, limited to 1600-1608, include, first of all, his great tragedies: Hamlet (1601), Othello (1604), King Lear (1605), Macbeth(1606) and tragedies based on a story from the history of ancient Rome.

The Legend of the Prince Hamlet was first recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammatik at the beginning of the 13th century. It told that a certain Fengon, tormented by envy of his reigning brother, killed him and married his wife Gerut. Hamlet, pretending to be weak-minded, and thereby lulling his uncle's vigilance, cruelly took revenge on Fengon and his associates.

Shakespeare addresses the archetypal plot of fratricide. The shadow of Hamlet's father calls on the prince to avenge the death of his parent. Hamlet does not immediately decide to kill Claudius, he seeks to find indisputable confirmation of what happened, arranging with the help of actors a test of his uncle, who falls into a trap, seeing on the stage the crime he committed in reality. However, on sound reflection, Hamlet comes to the idea of the senselessness of revenge. He realizes that revenge and justice are not the same thing, since by shedding blood, he will not correct the world. Hamlet tragically feels the imperfection of the environment. He sees Denmark as a prison, the palace of Elsinore is filled with traitors and spies, and the people closest to him act as spies. This paralyzes the will to live of Hamlet, in the famous monologue "To be or not to be?", he calls into question the expediency of human existence itself in an unjust world order. This monologue echoes sonnet 66.

The conflict of the tragedy is aggravated by the fact that Hamlet is at odds with himself. He realizes that the mission that fell to his lot is impossible, because he is not given to realize humanistic principles. But Hamlet is active in the finale. He does not fight Laertes, who lost his father, killed by Hamlet, he fights the world of evil without hope of success, and in the end does the will of his father. By killing Claudius, he achieves that there is one less villain in the world.

In Othello, Shakespeare focuses on the relationship between the Venetian Moor and the beautiful Desdemona. Here again the motive of female betrayal, moreover imaginary, but which led to an irreparable tragedy. It would be naive not to notice the jealousy of Othello, as well as to explain everything that happened with his violent jealousy. A.S. Pushkin once remarked: "Othello is not jealous by nature - on the contrary: he is trusting." In our country, it is customary to interpret Othello as a tragedy of deceived trust. fatal role in the conflict plays Iago, who hates Othello, not because he is bypassed in ranks, but for another reason. It infuriates him that the world seems beautiful to a warrior and a happy newlywed, and people are honest and kind. Iago sees the world as a mass of abomination and vice. He seeks to defile the ideals of Othello, he manages to turn him into his unbelief, "proving" that the one who seems to the Moor as an ideal is dissolute and sinful. The greatness of Othello is manifested in the fact that, having believed the villain and having committed a crime, he severely punishes himself.

Tragedy "King Lear”carries the features of a parable and a fairy tale, it is not for nothing that the events are attributed to the 9th century. BC, when Britain as such did not exist. Lear in Shakespeare renounces power and possessions in favor of his daughters in order to enjoy their gratitude. Lear believes in the insolent flattery of Goneril and Regan, because he considers himself the center of the universe and the benefactor of mankind. He made an idol out of himself. Cordelia annoys him and he disinherits her.

Macbeth- a brave warrior, infected with ambition, which was awakened in him by witches-soothsayers. For Shakespeare, the tragic in Macbeth lies in the moral and psychological destruction of the heroic personality.

Third period creativity of Shakespeare - 1608-1612. The playwright creates such dramatic works as The Tempest, Cymbeline, Winter's Tale". They have a lot of fabulous, fantastic. The tragic conflict winter fairy tale"is similar to the conflict of the tragedy" Othello ", but finds a happy resolution in the finale, the characters forgive each other. In these plays, one feels reconciliation with life, acceptance of being, no matter how dramatic it may be.

Classicism andbaraboutkko 17th century- the main trends in art and literature of the seventeenth century, marked by the establishment of absolutism in France and Spain, the Counter-Reformation and the Thirty Years' War in Germany, the first bourgeois revolutions in the Netherlands and England. These events were reflected in dramaturgy and poetry, in prose and in the visual arts. However, writers and poets of the seventeenth century relatively rarely illustrated the political life of their era, preferring to speak of the present, resorting to historical associations and mythological allusions.

Imitating ancient artists and poets, the champions of classicism, in contrast to the Renaissance humanists, borrowed from the heritage of antiquity not so much the content as artistic principles, which were understood quite formally. So, based on the fact that in ancient tragedies events took place in front of the palace from sunrise to sunset, and all storylines were interconnected, the famous demand for three unities is put forward: the unity of place, time and action, to which the playwright was obliged to obey.

Classicism found its most complete embodiment in French art, which turned out to be very consonant with the idea of serving the sovereign and the state. In France, under Louis XIII (1610-1643), the de facto ruler of the country was Cardinal Richelieu, who managed to defeat the Fronde - the uprisings of the nobility against centralized power.

The aesthetics of classicism was finally formed in the treatise of Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711) "Poetic Art". The son of a judicial official at the beginning of his creative way acted as a satirist. Presented to the king, he soon becomes court historiographer. In The Poetic Art (1674), written in verse, he formulates the official doctrine of classic art.

The “poetic art” of Boileau is a holistic aesthetic system in which the goals of art are indicated - the glorification of the monarchy - and the poetic means of achieving the desired effect. At the forefront of the first literary theorist of modern times puts reasonableness, expediency and plausibility, alien to imitation. However, this is not enough to create a true work of art, you also need taste and talent.

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