Among the many ancient Greek states, two stood out - Laconia or Laconia (Sparta) and Attica (Athens). In essence, these were antagonist states with a social system opposite to each other.
Sparta of Ancient Greece existed in the southern lands of the Peloponnese from the 9th to the 2nd century BC. e. It is notable for the fact that it was ruled by two kings. They passed on their power by inheritance. However, the real administrative power belonged to the elders. They were chosen from among respected Spartans aged at least 50 years.
Sparta on the map of Greece
It was the council that decided all state affairs. As for the kings, they performed purely military functions, that is, they were commanders of the army. Moreover, when one king went on a campaign, the second remained in the city with part of the soldiers.
An example here is the king Lycurgus, although it is not known for sure whether he was a king or simply belonged to the royal family and had great authority. The ancient historians Plutarch and Herodotus wrote that he was the ruler of the state, but did not specify what position this person held.
The activities of Lycurgus belonged to the first half of the 9th century BC. e. It was under him that laws were passed that did not give citizens the opportunity to enrich themselves. Therefore, in Spartan society there was no property stratification.
All land suitable for plowing was divided into equal plots, which were called cleres. Each family received an allotment. He provided people with barley flour, wine and vegetable oil. According to the legislator, this was quite enough to lead a normal life.
Luxury was relentlessly pursued. Gold and silver coins were even withdrawn from circulation. Crafts and trade were also banned. It was forbidden to sell agricultural surpluses. That is, under Lycurgus, everything was done so that people could not earn too much.
War was considered the main occupation of the Spartan state. It was the conquered peoples who provided the conquerors with everything necessary for life. And on the land plots of the Spartans worked slaves, who were called helots.
The entire society of Sparta was divided into military units. In each of them, joint meals were practiced or sissy. People ate from a common cauldron, and food was brought from home. During the meal, the commanders of the detachment made sure that all portions were eaten. In the event that someone ate badly and without appetite, then there was a suspicion that the person ate tightly somewhere on the side. The offender could be expelled from the detachment or punished with a large fine.
Spartan warriors armed with spears
All the men of Sparta were warriors, and they were taught the art of war with early childhood. It was believed that a mortally wounded warrior should die in silence, not even uttering a quiet groan. The Spartan phalanx, bristling with long spears, horrified all the states of Ancient Greece.
Mothers and wives, seeing off their sons and husbands to the war, said: "With a shield or on a shield." This meant that the men were expected to go home either with a victory or dead. The bodies of the dead were always carried by the comrades-in-arms on shields. But those who ran away from the battlefield were awaited by universal contempt and shame. Parents, wives, and their own children turned away from them.
It should be noted that the inhabitants of Laconica (Laconia) have never been distinguished by verbosity. They were short and to the point. It was from these Greek lands that such terms as "laconic speech" and "laconicism" spread.
It must be said that Sparta of Ancient Greece had a very small population. Its number over the centuries has not consistently exceeded 10 thousand people. However, this small number of people kept all the southern and middle lands of the Balkan Peninsula at bay. And such superiority was achieved due to cruel customs.
When a boy was born in the family, the elders examined him. If the baby turned out to be too frail or sick in appearance, then he was thrown from a cliff onto sharp stones. The corpse of the unfortunate bird of prey was immediately eaten.
The customs of the Spartans were extremely cruel
Only healthy and strong children remained alive. Upon reaching the age of 7, the boys were taken away from their parents and united in small detachments. They were dominated by iron discipline. Future warriors were taught to endure pain, courageously endure beatings, unquestioningly obey their mentors.
For periods, children were not fed at all, and they had to earn their own living by hunting or stealing. If such a child was caught in someone's garden, then they were severely punished, but not for theft, but for being caught.
This barracks life continued until the age of 20. After that, the young man was given a plot of land, and he got the opportunity to start a family. It should be noted that Spartan girls were also trained in the art of war, but not in such harsh conditions as among boys.
Sunset of Sparta
Although the conquered peoples were afraid of the Spartans, they periodically rebelled against them. And the conquerors, although they had excellent military training, did not always turn out to be winners.
An example here is the uprising in Messenia in the 7th century BC. e. It was led by the fearless warrior Aristomenes. Under his leadership, several sensitive defeats were inflicted on the Spartan phalanxes.
However, there were traitors in the ranks of the rebels. Thanks to their betrayal, the army of Aristomenes was defeated, and the fearless warrior himself began a guerrilla war. One night, he made his way to Sparta, entered the main sanctuary and, wanting to shame the enemies before the gods, left on the altar the weapon taken from the Spartan warriors in battle. This shame remained in the memory of people for centuries.
In the IV century BC. e. Sparta of ancient Greece began to gradually weaken. Other peoples entered the political arena, headed by smart and talented commanders. Here one can name Philip of Macedon and his famous son Alexander of Macedon. The inhabitants of Laconica fell into complete dependence on these prominent political figures of antiquity.
Then came the turn of the Roman Republic. In 146 BC. e. The Spartans submitted to Rome. However, formally freedom was preserved, but under full control Romans. In principle, this date is considered the end of the Spartan state. It became history, but it has been preserved in the memory of people to this day.
The statue of Leonidas was erected in 1968 in Sparta, Greece.
Ancient Sparta is a city in Laconia, in the Peloponnese in Greece. In ancient times it was a powerful city-state with a famous military tradition. Ancient writers sometimes referred to him as Lacedaemon and his people as the Lacedaemonians.
Sparta reached the height of its power in 404 BC. after the victory over Athens in the second Peloponnesian War. When it was at its height, Sparta had no city walls; its inhabitants seem to have preferred to defend it by hand rather than with a mortar. However, within a few decades of the defeat against Thebans at the Battle of Leuctra, the city found itself reduced to "second class", a status from which it never recovered.
The valor and fearlessness of the warriors of Sparta have inspired the Western world for millennia, and even in the 21st century, it has been included in Hollywood movies such as "300 Spartans" and the futuristic video game series "Halo" (where a group of super-soldiers are called "Spartans").
But real story cities are more complex than popular mythology makes. The task of sorting out what really refers to the Spartans from what is myth has become more difficult because many of the ancient stories were not written by Spartans. As such, they must be taken with appropriate distrust.
The ruins of an ancient theater sit not far from modern city Sparta, Greece Early Sparta
Although Sparta was not built until the first millennium BC, recent archaeological discoveries show that early Sparta was an important site at least as early as 3,500 years ago. In 2015, a 10-room palace complex containing ancient records written in a script archaeologists call "linear B" was discovered just 7.5 kilometers (12 kilometers) from where early Sparta was built. Frescoes, a goblet with a bull's head and bronze swords were also found in the palace.
The palace burned down in the 14th century. Supposedly there was an older Spartan city located somewhere around a 3500 year old palace. Sparta was built later. Future excavations may reveal where this older city lies.
It is not clear how many people continued to live in the area after the burning of the palace. Recent studies show that a drought that lasted three centuries was warming Greece around the time the Spartan palace burned down.
Archaeologists know that sometime during the early Iron Age, after 1000 BC, four villages - Limna, Pitana, Mezoa and Chinosura, which are located near what will be the Spartan acropolis, came together to form a new Sparta .
Historian Nigel Kennell writes in his book The Spartans: new story(John Wiley & Sons, 2010) that the city's location in the fertile valley of Eurotas gave its inhabitants access to an abundance of food that its local rivals did not experience. Even the name Sparta is a verb meaning "I sowed" or "sow".
Culture of early Sparta
Although early Sparta made efforts to fortify its territory in Laconia, we also know that at this early stage the inhabitants of the city seem to have been proud of their artistic ability. Sparta was known for its poetry, culture and it was ceramics, its products were found in places that are so far from Cyrene (in Libya) and the island of Samos, not far from the coast of modern Turkey. Researcher Konstantinos Kopanias notes in his 2009 journal article that before the sixth century B.C. Sparta seems to have held a seminar on ivory. Surviving elephants from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta depict birds, male and female figures, and even a "tree of life" or "sacred tree".
Poetry was another key early Spartan achievement. “In fact, we have more evidence of poetic activity in Sparta in the seventh century than for any other Greek state including Athens,” writes historian Chester Starr in a chapter of Sparta (Edinburgh University Press, 2002).
While much of this poetry survives in fragmentary form, and some of it, such as that of Tirtai, reflects the development of the martial values that Sparta became famous for, there is also work that appears to reflect a society devoted to art and not just war. .
This fragment from the poet Alcman, which he composed for a Spartan festival, stands out. It refers to a choir girl named "Agido". Alcman was a Spartan poet who lived in the seventh century BC.
There is such a thing as retribution from the gods.
Happy is he who, the sound of the mind,
weaving throughout the day
unwept. I sing
the light of Agido. I see
like the sun that
Agido calls to speak and
witness for us. But the glorious choirmaster
forbid me to praise
or blame her. For she seems
outstanding, as if
one placed in the pasture
perfect horse, prize winner with loud hooves,
one of the dreams that live below the rock...
Sparta's war with Messenia
The key event in Sparta's path to becoming a more militaristic society was the conquest of the land of Messenia, located to the west of Sparta, and turning it into slavery.
Kennell points out that this conquest appears to have begun in the eighth century BC, with archaeological evidence from the city of Messene showing that the last evidence of habitation was during the eighth and seventh centuries BC. before the start of the desertion.
The incorporation of people from Messenia into Sparta's slave population was important as it provided Sparta with "the means to maintain the closest to a standing army in Greece", Kennell writes, freeing all of its adult male citizens from the need manual labor.
Keeping this group of slaves under control was a problem that the Spartans could exploit for centuries with some brutal methods. The writer Plutarch claimed that the Spartans used what we might think of as death squads.
“The magistrates from time to time sent into the country for the most part the most reserved young warriors, equipped only with daggers and such accessories as were necessary. During the daytime they dispersed to obscure and well-kept places where they hid and were silent, but at night they went down the highway and killed every Helot they caught."
Spartan education system
The presence of a large number of slaves made it easier for the Spartans from manual labor and allowed Sparta to build a system of citizen education that prepared the city's children for the brutality of war.
“At seven years old, a Spartan boy was taken from his mother and raised in the barracks under the eyes of older boys,” writes University of Virginia professor J. E. Landon in his book Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity (Yale University Press, 2005 ). "The boys rebelled to command respect and obedience, they were ill-dressed to make them tough, and they were hungry to make them resistant to hunger..."
If they were too hungry, the boys were encouraged to try stealing (as a way to improve their stealth), but were punished if they were caught.
The Spartans trained rigorously and developed through this system of training until the age of 20, at which time they were allowed to enter the communal order and therefore become a full citizen of the community. Each member is expected to provide a certain amount of food and exercise rigorously.
The Spartans mocked those who could not fight due to disability. “Because of their extreme norms of masculinity, the Spartans were cruel to those who were not capable, rewarding those who were capable despite their transgressions,” wrote Walter Penrose Jr., professor of history at the University of San Diego, in a newspaper published by in 2015 in the Classical World magazine.
Women of Sparta
Girls who are not militarily trained are expected to be physically trained. Physical fitness was considered as important to women as it was to men, and girls took part in races and tests of strength,” writes Sue Blundell in her book Women in Ancient Greece. This included running, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing. They also knew how to drive horses and rode in two-wheeled chariots.”
According to ancient writers, a Spartan woman even participated in Olympic Games, at least in chariot competitions. In the fifth century BC, a Spartan princess named Cynitsa (also spelled Kyniska) became the first woman to win the Olympic Games.
“She was extremely ambitious to succeed in the Olympics and was the first woman to breed horses and the first to win an Olympic victory. After Siniscus, other women, especially women from Lacedaemon, won Olympic victories, but none of them was more distinguished for their victories than she, ”wrote the ancient writer Pausanias, who lived in the second century AD.
Kings of Sparta
Sparta developed a system of a double kingdom in time (two kings at once). Their power was balanced by an elected council of ephs (which could only serve one year's term). There was also a Council of Elders (Gerousia), each of whom was over 60 years of age and could serve for life. The general assembly, made up of every citizen, also had the opportunity to vote on legislation.
The legendary legislator Lycurgus is often mentioned in ancient sources, providing the basis for Spartan law. However, Kennell notes that he probably never existed and was in fact a mythical character.
Sparta's war with Persia
Sparta was initially hesitant to engage in Persia. When the Persians threatened Greek cities in Ionia, on the west coast of what is now Turkey, the Greeks who lived in those areas sent an emissary to Sparta to ask for help. The Spartans refused, but threatened King Cyrus, telling him to leave the Greek cities alone. “He should not have harmed any city in Greek territory, otherwise the Lacedaemonians would not have attacked him,” Herodotus wrote in the fifth century BC.
The Persians did not listen. Darius I's first invasion took place in 492 BC. and was repulsed mainly by an Athenian force at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The second invasion was launched by the Xerxes in 480 BC, the Persians crossing the Hellespont (the narrow strait between the Aegean and Black Seas) and moving south, gaining allies along the way.
Sparta and one of their kings, Leonidas, became the head of an anti-Persian coalition that eventually made the ill-fated position at Thermopylae. Located off the coast, Thermopylae contained a narrow passage that the Greeks blocked and used to stop Xerxes' advance. Ancient sources indicate that Leonidas started the battle with several thousand soldiers (including 300 Spartans). He faced a Persian force many times their size.
Lacedaemonians
The Lacedaemonians fought in a manner that deserves attention, and proved to be much more skillful in combat than their opponents, often turning their backs and making it look as if they were all flying away, on which the barbarians rush after them with great noise and shouting when the Spartans at their approach will be bypassed and brought before the pursuers, thereby destroying a huge number of enemies.
Eventually, the Greek man showed Xerxes a passage that allowed part of the Persian army to outmaneuver the Greeks and attack them on both flanks. Leonidas was doomed. Many of the troops that were with Leonidas left. According to Herodotus, the Thespians chose to stay with the 300 Spartans of their own free will. Leonidas made his fateful stand and "fought bravely along with many other famous Spartans," writes Herodotus.
Ultimately, the Persians killed almost all of the Spartans. The helots, carried down with the Spartans, were also killed. The Persian army went south, sacking Athens and threatening to infiltrate the Peloponnese. A Greek naval victory at the Battle of Salamis halted this approach, the Persian king Xerxes went home and left an army behind that would later be destroyed. The Greeks, led by the now dead Leonidas, won.
Peloponnesian War
As the Persian threat receded, the Greeks resumed their intercity rivalry. Two of the most powerful city states were Athens and Sparta, and tensions between them escalated in the decades following the victory over Persia.
In 465/464 BC powerful earthquakes hit Sparta and the helots took advantage of the situation to revolt. The situation was serious enough that Sparta called on allied cities to help stop it. However, when the Athenians arrived, the Spartans refused their help. This was taken as an insult in Athens and reinforced anti-Spartan views.
The Battle of Tanagra fought in 457 BC heralded a period of conflict between the two cities that went on and on for over 50 years. At times, Athens has proven to have an advantage, such as the Battle of Sphacteria in 425 BC. when, disgustingly, 120 Spartans surrendered.
Nothing that happened in the war surprised the Hellenes as much as this. It was believed that no force or hunger could force the Lacedaemonians to give up their weapons, but they would fight as best they could and die with them in their hands, wrote Thucydides (460-395 BC).
There were periods when Athens was in trouble, such as in 430 BC when the Athenians, who were packed outside the city walls during a Spartan attack, suffered from a plague that killed many people, including their leader Pericles. There have been suggestions that the plague was actually an ancient form of the Ebola virus.
Conflict between Sparta and Athens
Ultimately, the conflict between Sparta and Athens was resolved at sea. While the Athenians enjoyed naval advantage for most of the war, the tide turned when a man named Lysander was named commander of Sparta's fleet. He sought Persian financial support to help the Spartans build their fleet.
He persuaded the Persian king Cyrus to provide him with money. The king had brought with him, he said, five hundred talents, if this amount proved insufficient, he would use his own money which his father had given him, and if that too proved inadequate, he would go so far as to smash the throne on which he sat on silver and gold,” wrote Xenophon (430-355 BC).
With the financial backing of Persians, Lysander built his fleet and trained his sailors. In 405 BC he was in charge of the Athenian fleet at Egospopati, on the Hellespon. He managed to catch them by surprise, winning a decisive victory and cutting off Athens from grain supplies from the Crimea.
Now Athens was forced to make peace under the terms of Sparta.
“The Peloponnesians with great enthusiasm began to tear down the walls [of Athens] with the music of flute girls, thinking that this day was the beginning of freedom for Greece,” wrote Xenophon.
Fall of Sparta
The fall of Sparta began with a series of events and mistakes.
Soon after the victory, the Spartans turned against their Persian supporters and launched an inconclusive campaign in Turkey. Then, in the following decades, the Spartans were forced to campaign on multiple fronts.
In 385 BC the Spartans clashed with the Mantes and used the floods to tear apart their city. “The lower bricks became soaked and could not support those above them, the wall began to crack at first, and then give way,” Xenophon wrote. The city was forced to abandon this unorthodox onslaught.
More problems affected the Spartan hegemony. In 378 BC Athens formed a second maritime confederation, a group that challenged Spartan control of the seas. Ultimately, however, the fall of Sparta did not come from Athens, but from a city called Thebes.
Thebes and Sparta
Under the influence of the Spartan king Agesilaus II, relations between the two cities of Thebes and Sparta became increasingly hostile, and in 371 BC. a key battle took place at Leuctra.
The Lacedaemonian force was defeated by Thebes on the field of Leuctra. Although an ally of Sparta during the long Peloponnesian War, Thebes became a conductor of resistance when victorious Sparta became an evil tyrant in turn, writes Landon. He notes that after peace was negotiated with Athens in 371 BC, Sparta turned its attention to Thebes.
At Leuctra, for reasons unclear, the Spartans sent their cavalry ahead of their phalanx. The Lacedaemonian cavalry was poor because the good Spartan warriors still insisted on serving as hoplites [foot soldiers]. The Thebans, on the other hand, had an old cavalry tradition, and their fine horses, much exercised in recent wars, quickly routed the Spartan cavalry and brought them back into the phalanx, throwing them into disarray.
With confusion in the Spartan lines, the slaughter continued.
Clembrutus, fighting in the phalanx like the Spartan kings, was overwhelmed and pulled out of the battle, Landon writes. Other leading Spartans were soon killed in the battle as well. The Theban general Epaminondas is said to have said: Give me one step and we shall have victory!
Of the seven hundred full Spartan citizens, four hundred died in the battle ...
Later history of Sparta
In the following centuries, Sparta, in its reduced state, came under the influence of various powers, including Macedon (ultimately led by Alexander the Great), the Achaean League (a confederation of Greek cities), and later Rome. During this period of decline, the Spartans were forced to build a city wall for the first time.
There were attempts to restore Sparta to its former military power. The Spartan kings Agis IV (244-241 BC) and later Cleomenes III (235-221 BC) introduced reforms that canceled debt, redistributed land, allowed foreigners and non-citizens to become Spartans, and eventually expanded the civilian corps to 4,000 men. Although the reforms brought about some renewal, Cleomenes III was forced to cede the city to Achaean control. The Ageean League, in turn, along with all of Greece, eventually fell to Rome.
But while Rome controlled the region, the people of Sparta never forgot their history. In the second century AD, the Greek writer Pausanias visited Sparta and noted the presence of a large market.
"The most bright feature in the market there is a portico, which they call Persian, because it was made from spoils taken in Persian wars. Over time, they changed it until it was as big and beautiful as it is now. poles are white marble figures Persians…” he wrote.
He also describes a tomb dedicated to Leonidas, who by this point had died 600 years ago at Thermopylae.
“Opposite the theater there are two tombs, the first is Pausanias, a general in Plataea, the second is Leonidas. Every year they give speeches over them and hold a competition in which no one can compete except the Spartans," he wrote, "A plate has been created with the names and names of their fathers, from those who survived the fight with Thermopylae against the Persians."
Ruins of Sparta
Sparta continued into the Middle Ages and, indeed, never got lost. Today, the modern city of Sparta stands beside the ancient ruins, with a population of over 35,000.
Historian Cannell writes that only three sites can be identified with certainty today: the sanctuary of Artemis Orthius next to the Eurotas [river], the temple of Athena Halsiocus (Bronze House) on the acropolis, and an early Roman theater just below.
Indeed, even the ancient writer Thucydides predicted that the ruins of Sparta do not stand out.
Suppose, for example, that the city of Sparta was to become deserted and that only the temples and the foundations of buildings remained, I think that future generations in time would find it very difficult to believe that this place really was as powerful as it was presented.
But Thucydides was only half right. While the ruins of Sparta may not be as impressive as those of Athens, Olympia, or a number of other Greek cities, stories and legends about the Spartans live on. And modern people watching movies, playing video games or studying ancient history, know something about what this legend means.
Ancient Sparta
Sparta - main city the region of Laconia (the southeastern part of the Peloponnese), the most Doric of all the states of Ancient Greece. Ancient Sparta was located on the western bank of the Eurotas River and extended north from the modern city of Sparta. Laconia is an abbreviated name for the area, which was fully called Lacedaemon, so the inhabitants of this area were often called "Lacedaemonians", which is almost equivalent to the words "Spartan" or "Spartiate".
Sparta, whose name may mean “scattered” (other interpretations are also suggested), consisted of estates and estates scattered over the area, the center of which was a low hill, which later became the acropolis. Initially, the city did not have walls and remained true to this principle until the 2nd century BC. BC. During the excavations of the British School of Athens (carried out in 1906-1910 and 1924-1929), the remains of several buildings were discovered, including the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya and the theater. The theater was built of white marble and, according to Pausanias, who described the buildings of Sparta c. 160 AD, was a “landmark”, but this stone building dates back to the era of Roman rule. From the low acropolis, a magnificent view of the Evrota Valley and the majestic Mount Taygetus, rising steeply to a height of 2406 m and forming the western border of Sparta, opened.
Many historians believe that Sparta arose relatively late, after the “Dorian invasion”, which supposedly took place between 1150 and 1100 BC. Initially, the invaders settled in or near the cities they conquered, and often destroyed, but a century later they created their own "capital" near the river Evrota. Since Sparta had not yet emerged in the period to which most historians attribute the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC), the myth of the abduction of Helen, the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus, by Paris, was probably attributed to Sparta. In neighboring Therapnae, where there was a large city of the Mycenaean era, there was a sanctuary of Menelaion, and the cult of Menelaus and Helen went up to the classical period.
Population growth and the associated economic and social problems inspired the Spartans to expand outwardly. Excluding the one founded in Italy in the 8th century. BC. the colony of Tarentum Sparta expanded only at the expense of Greece proper. During the 1st and 2nd Messenian Wars (between 725 and 600 BC), Messenia was conquered to the west of Sparta, and the Messenians were turned into helots, i.e. state slaves. Evidence of Spartan activity is the legend of how the inhabitants of Elis, with the support of Sparta, managed to win control of the Olympic Games from their rivals, the inhabitants of Pisa. The first recorded victory of the Spartans in Olympia is the victory of Akanthos in running at the 15th Olympiad (720 BC). For more than a century, Spartan athletes have dominated the Olympic Games, achieving 46 victories out of 81 recorded in the annals.
Having won another part of the territory from Argos and Arcadia, Sparta moved from a policy of conquest to building up its power through the conclusion of agreements with various states. As the head of the Peloponnesian Union (began to emerge c. 550 BC, took shape c. 510–500 BC), Sparta actually dominated the entire Peloponnese, with the exception of Argos and Achaia on the northern coast, and by .e. became the most powerful military power in Greece. Thus, a force was created that became a counterweight to the impending invasion of the Persians, the combined efforts of the Peloponnesian League and Athens with their allies led to a decisive victory over the Persians at Salamis and Plataea in 480 and 479 BC.
Conflict between the two greatest Greek states, Doric Sparta and Ionian Athens, land and sea power, was inevitable, and in 431 BC. The Peloponnesian War broke out. Ultimately, in 404 BC. Sparta prevailed, and the Athenian power perished. Dissatisfaction with Spartan dominance in Greece led to a new war. The Thebans and their allies, led by Epaminondas, inflicted a heavy defeat on the Spartans at Leuctra (371 BC) and at Mantinea (362 BC), after which, if we forget about short bursts of activity and random periods of takeoff, Sparta became lose its former power.
Under the tyrant Nabid c. 200 BC or soon after Sparta was surrounded by a wall, at the same time a stone theater appeared. During the period of Roman rule, which began in 146 BC, Sparta turned into a large and prosperous country town, defensive and other structures were erected here. Sparta flourished until 350 AD. In 396 the city was destroyed by Alaric.
Special meaning in world history has an influence on later government systems political and social structure of Sparta. At the head of the Spartan state were two kings, one from the Agids clan, the other from the Eurypontides clan, which was probably originally associated with the union of the two tribes. The two kings held meetings together with the gerousia, i.e. Council of Elders, to which 28 people over 60 were elected for life. All Spartans who had reached the age of 30 and had enough funds to perform what was considered necessary for a citizen (in particular, contribute their share to participate in joint meals, fiditiya) participated in the national assembly (apella). Later, the institution of ephors arose, five officials who were elected by the assembly, one from each region of Sparta. The five ephors acquired power that surpassed that of the kings (perhaps after the exercise of this office by Chilo c. 555 BC). In order to prevent uprisings of the helots who had a numerical superiority and to maintain the combat readiness of their own citizens, secret sorties (they were called cryptia) were constantly arranged to kill the helots.
Surprisingly, the type of civilization that is now called Spartan is not typical of early Sparta. The excavations carried out by the British confirmed the theory put forward by historians on the basis of written monuments that before 600 BC Spartan culture generally coincided with the way of life of the then Athens and other Greek states. Sculpture fragments, fine ceramics, ivory, bronze, lead and terracotta figurines found in this area testify to the high level of Spartan culture, just like the poetry of Tyrtaeus and Alcman (7th century BC). However, shortly after 600 BC. there was a sudden change. Art and poetry disappear, the names of Spartan athletes no longer appear on the lists of Olympic winners. Before these changes made themselves felt, the Spartan Gitiades built the “copper house of Athena” (the temple of Athena Poliuhos); 50 years later, on the contrary, foreign craftsmen Theodore of Samos and Batikl from Magnesia had to be invited to build, respectively, the Skiada (probably a meeting room) in Sparta and the temple of Apollo Hyacinthius in Amikla. Sparta suddenly became a military camp, and from then on, the militarized state produced only soldiers. The introduction of this way of life is usually attributed to Lycurgus, although it is not clear whether Lycurgus was a god, a mythical hero, or a historical figure.
The Spartan state consisted of three classes: the Spartans, or Spartans; perieki (lit. “living nearby”), inhabitants of the allied cities surrounding Lacedaemon; helots. Only Spartans could vote and enter the governing bodies. They were forbidden to engage in trade and, in order to discourage them from making a profit, use gold and silver coins. The land plots of the Spartans, cultivated by the helots, were supposed to give their owners sufficient income to purchase military equipment and meet daily needs. Trade and production were carried out by the perieks. They did not participate in political life Sparta, but had some rights, as well as the privilege to serve in the army. Thanks to the labor of numerous helots, the Spartans could devote all their time to physical exercises and military affairs.
It is estimated that by 600 BC. there were approx. 25 thousand citizens, 100 thousand perieks and 250 thousand helots. Later, the number of helots exceeded the number of citizens by 15 times. Wars and economic hardships reduced the number of Spartans. During the Greco-Persian Wars (480 BC), Sparta fielded ca. 5000 Spartans, but a century later at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC) only 2000 fought. It is mentioned that in the 3rd century. Sparta had only 700 citizens.
To maintain their position in the state, the Spartans felt the need for a large regular army. The state controlled the life of citizens from birth to death. At the birth of a child, the state determined whether a healthy citizen would grow out of him or whether he should be taken to Mount Taygetos. The boy spent the first years of his life at home. From the age of 7, education was taken over by the state, and almost all the time the children devoted to physical exercises and military drill. At the age of 20, a young Spartiate joined phiditia, i.e. company of companions of fifteen people, continuing his military training with them. He had the right to marry, but he could only visit his wife in secret. At the age of 30, a Spartiate became a full citizen and could participate in the people's assembly, but he spent the lion's share of his time in the gymnasium, forestry (something like a club) and fidity. On the gravestone of a Spartan, only his name was carved; if he died in battle, the words “in war” were added.
Spartan girls also received athletic training that included running, jumping, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing. It is reported that Lycurgus introduced such training for girls in order that they would grow up strong and courageous, capable of producing strong and healthy children.
The Spartans deliberately introduced a despotism that deprived the individual of freedom and initiative and destroyed the influence of the family. However, the Spartan way of life was very appealing to Plato, who included in his ideal state many of its militaristic, totalitarian and communist features.
Ancient Sparta very popular today. The Spartans are considered great warriors who could bring even the most powerful enemy to their knees. At the same time, they were smart and gave Greece a large number of philosophers and scientists. But, were they as severe and stoic as the myths about Sparta are imposed on us? Today we will figure it all out and know what it was Ancient Sparta.
Ancient Sparta "uncut"
In general, the name Sparta is not original. It was invented and spread by the ancient Romans. The Spartans themselves called themselves the Lacedaemonians, and their country Lacedaemon. But it so happened that original name did not take root in historical documents, but the name Ancient Sparta has come down to our days.
Ancient Sparta, like most states of its time, was distinguished by a rather complex social structure. All the inhabitants of Sparta were divided into three groups:
- Full citizens;
- Incompetent citizens;
- Dependents.
At the same time, each of the groups was divided into subgroups. So, for example, helots were slaves, but in the unique understanding of the Spartans. They had their families, their villages, and even received monetary rewards for their work. But, they were always attached to their land plot, pledged to fight on the side Ancient Sparta and belonged, interestingly, not to anyone alone, but to all full-fledged citizens of Sparta at once. In addition to the helots, in the Spartan state there were hypomeions - handicapped children of full-fledged citizens of Sparta. They were considered incomplete citizens of the state, but at the same time they were significantly higher in the social ladder of all other segments of the population, such as helots or dependents.
Note that the presence in the social structure of Ancient Sparta of such a class as hypomeions quite strongly hits the most famous legend about the Spartans, according to which they threw all handicapped children into the abyss immediately after birth.
The myth of cast children was first mentioned by Plutarch. He wrote that weak children at the behest of the government Ancient Sparta were thrown into one of the gorges of the Taygetov mountains. On the this moment scientists are more and more inclined to believe that this is just a legend that played the role of a “horror story” among contemporaries, but did not have a serious substantiated basis. Among other things, the Spartans themselves, who loved a separate way of life, could spread such myths about their people.
Ancient Sparta and the army
Popular legend has it that the Spartan army was virtually invincible. It should be noted that at that time Ancient Sparta could really put on the battlefield best warriors Greece, but, as we all know very well, they were often defeated. Moreover, due to the isolation policy, the Spartan army was in many ways inferior to the armies of other states. The Spartans were considered excellent foot soldiers, capable of defeating any enemy in the field or steppe, as well as mountain gorges, with the help of tough discipline, training and a dense phalanx. On the other side, Ancient Sparta hardly interested engineering, and therefore was simply not capable of waging effective wars of conquest, since it was not possible to besiege large cities of opponents. Trouble came to the Spartans along with the Romans. Although the ancient Romans admired in many ways the army of Sparta, the mobile and flexible maniples in the ranks quickly dealt with the linear phalanx of Sparta, which ultimately led to the complete conquest of the Greek state by the Romans.
Each Spartan man considered it his duty to be disciplined in battle, courageous and show his valor. Modesty was highly valued, but feasts and orgies, including homosexual ones, were also very loved by the Spartans. In the late period at the decline of the state Ancient Sparta was already associated with completely different qualities - deceit and treachery.
Ancient Sparta and Society
Ancient Sparta had the same political system as most of the policies of ancient Greece - democracy. Of course, the democracy of Sparta was different from that of Athens. For example, if most decisions were nevertheless decided by a general meeting of citizens, then especially important issues were discussed and considered by the Areopagus, the supreme authority consisting of elders.
The home life of the Spartans was the same as that of everyone else. Products traditional for the ancient Greeks were grown, and the Spartans bred sheep. Agricultural work was assigned to helots, dependent and incomplete citizens Ancient Sparta.
Sparta did not particularly like to strain their brains, but there were still thinkers and poets. Particularly outstanding were Terpander and Alkman, who, however, were also excellent athletes. Tisamen of Elea, who predicts the future, was also famous among his contemporaries as a discus thrower, and not as a priest-soothsayer. So, the physical data of a Spartan man was more valued than mental abilities.
Breakfast and dinner at Ancient Sparta only at group meetings. There is an opinion that despite the high position, even the Areopagus was forced to eat with the rest. This equalized the citizens and prevented the influential Spartans from forgetting that they were also part of the people.
In the II millennium BC. e. Greek tribes invade the south of the Balkan Peninsula. Within the narrow framework outlined by the nature of the country (small valleys fenced with high mountains), a special Greek civilization developed in the form of city-states ( policy ). AT historical time the Greeks were never a single state: their relations with each other were built as international relations. However, at some point, among the numerous policies, Sparta and Athens began to play an important role. Therefore, in the discipline "History of the state and the law of foreign countries" Sparta is studied as an example of the Greek monarchy and Athens as an example of democracy.
State of Sparta
The emergence of the state in Sparta
On the Peloponnesian peninsula, Sparta became the earliest polis state. Compared with other Greek policies, the formation of the state here had significant features. In the IX century. BC e. Dorian tribes invade Laconia and displace or enslave the local population - the Achaeans, which subsequently leads to the unification of the tribal elite of the conquerors and the conquered.
The conquerors were divided into three clan tribes, each of which was subdivided into nine phratry(“brotherhoods”) representing religious and legal associations with internal self-government.
The Dorians settled in independent villages (there were about a hundred of them), organized into six kingdoms. They were divided into three genera phyla, further divided into five groups (villages) that received topographic names. Then there is a union of five villages in the Spartan state. The territory of Laconia was divided into districts ( obam), whose number and organization are unknown. Five "kings" made up the Council of the policy. In the period 800-730 BC. e. the Spartans conquered all the other villages, and their inhabitants became vassals - perieks (lit. "living around").
This was followed by the conquest of Messenia (740-720 BC) and the annexation of the country, which was divided into shares for the Spartans, and the perieks were pushed into the highlands. Thanks to these conquests, Sparta became the potentially richest and most powerful state in Greece in the 8th century. BC e.
Under the conditions of the wars of conquest, the state structure of Sparta underwent some changes. The social development of Sparta took on a stagnant character: elements of the communal system remained for a long time, urban life and craft developed poorly. The inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture.
Maintaining order and dominance over the enslaved population determined the military system of the entire life of the Spartans. Legislator Lycurgus (VIII century BC) are credited with establishing public order and the state system through the issuance of a treaty ( Retras). He creates Council of Elders– Gerousia ("older", "elder"). Then he took up redistribution of land, which had socio-political significance, and, according to the ancient Greek writer Plutarch (second half of the 1st century BC), the reformer did this “in order to expel impudence, envy, malice, luxury and even older, even more formidable the ailments of the state are wealth and poverty. To this end, he persuaded the Spartans to unite all the lands, and then divide them again. He divided the lands belonging to the city of Sparta into 9,000 plots according to the number of Spartans, and the Laconian lands into 30,000 plots between the perieks. Each allotment was supposed to bring 70 medimnov(one medimn - about 52 liters of loose bodies) barley.
His third reform was the division of movable property in order to abolish all inequality. To this end, he removes gold and silver coins from use, replacing them with iron ones (of huge size and weight). According to Plutarch, "to store an amount equal to ten mines (one mine - an average of 440 to 600 grams), a large warehouse was required, and for transportation - a pair of teams." In addition, this iron could not be used for other purposes, because it was hardened by dipping in vinegar, and this deprived the metal of its strength, it became brittle. The Spartans lost their desire to steal and take bribes, because the uncleanly acquired could not be hidden, so many types of crimes disappeared in Laconia. Lycurgus expelled useless and superfluous crafts from the country, which was also directed against luxury, and therefore houses were made only with the help of an ax and a saw. And gradually, according to Plutarch, luxury "withered and disappeared."
In order to destroy the passion for wealth among the Spartans, the reformer establishes common meals ( sissy), where adult citizens of 15 people gathered together and ate the same simple food. Each companion made monthly contributions of food and money. It was forbidden to eat at home. During the meal, the Spartans vigilantly watched each other, and if they saw that a person was not eating or drinking, they blamed him, calling him “unbridled and pampered.” Meals not only fought against wealth, but also contributed to the rallying of the soldiers, since the comrades-in-arms did not separate from each other even on the battlefield, entering into one military unit.
In everyday life, the Spartans retained many customs dating back to ancient times. For example, unions by age groups, which apparently represented a kind of teams that had places of constant meetings ( leshi), where not only common meals were held, but entertainment was also arranged, where young people and mature warriors spent most of their time not only during the day, but also at night.
To combat wealth and establish equality, the rich were ordered to marry the poor, and wealthy women to marry the poor.
Lycurgus establishes a mandatory uniform education and training of the Spartans. This extended to girls as well. The reformer also regulated the marriage and family sphere, and women were largely equalized with men, going in for sports and military affairs.
social order
The ruling class were the Spartans, enjoying all political rights. They were provided with land allotments transferred to them along with slaves ( helots), who processed them and actually kept the Spartans. The latter lived in the city of Sparta, which was a military camp. Plutarch wrote that “no one was allowed to live the way he wanted, just like in a military camp; everyone in the city obeyed strictly established rules and did what was assigned to them useful for the state.
The state took care of the upbringing of children: from the age of 7, boys were separated from the family and they underwent training under the guidance of special persons ( pedonomists) and in special schools - agelah(lit. "cattle"). At the same time, special attention was paid to physical education, to the development of the qualities of a staunch and enduring warrior, to discipline, the habit of obeying elders and authorities. They even had to speak briefly, laconically.“They learned literacy only to the extent that it was impossible to do without it,” Plutarch noted.
With age, the requirements became tougher: children walked barefoot, from 12 to 16 years old they were taught to walk naked (including girls), receiving only one raincoat for a year. Their skin was tanned and rough. They slept together on beds of reeds. From the age of 16, a young man (epheb) was included in the lists of full citizens. Training ended at the age of 20, and until the age of 60 the Spartans remained liable for military service. They were allowed to marry only from the age of 30, when the Spartan was considered an adult and acquired political rights. The number of Spartans was small, by the 5th century. BC e. there were no more than 8 thousand of them, and later - much less - about 1,000 people.
In the process of conquest, part of the conquered population was turned into slaves ( helots). They were attached to claram, on the territory of which they were to manage the economy under the control of persons specially authorized by the state. They were considered state property and were placed at the disposal of the Spartans, who could kill them, transfer them to another fellow citizen, or sell them abroad. With the permission of the authorities, the master could release the helot to freedom, and in this case the released was called neodamodom. The helots did not have their own land, but cultivated the land plots of the Spartans, paying them half the harvest. Helots were drafted into the army as lightly armed warriors.
The Spartans maintained their dominance over the helots with terror: every year they declared war ( cryptia), during which strong and courageous helots were killed. The master who sheltered a strong helot was punished. In addition, helots received a certain number of blows every year without any guilt, so that they would not forget how to feel like slaves. The ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote that they were ready to eat their masters with skin and hair. Therefore, the Spartan warriors always went armed. The number of helots was several times greater than the number of Spartans.
Subjugated inhabitants of the mountainous regions of Sparta - perieki also did not enjoy political rights, but were free, occupying an intermediate position between the helots and the Spartans. They could acquire property and make transactions. Their main occupations were trade and craft. They carried military service as heavily armed warriors. Perieki were under supervision garmostov. The highest officials of Sparta - the ephors - were given the right to put the perieks to death without trial.
Political system
He was a monarchist and was a model of the slave-owning aristocracy. People's Assembly(apella) did not play a big role and met once a month. It was attended by citizens who had reached the age of 30 and retained their land allotments and the political rights associated with their possession. The meeting was convened by the kings, and then by the ephors, who presided. In addition to regular meetings, emergency meetings were also convened, in which only citizens who were in the city at the time took part. Such meetings were called small meetings ( mikra appell). Only officials and ambassadors of foreign powers could make speeches and proposals in the assembly.
The competence of the people's assembly included lawmaking; election of officials and ambassadors; issues of alliance with other states; issues of war and peace (during the war, it decided which of the two kings to go on a campaign); questions of the Peloponnesian Union; accepted new citizens or deprived individual Spartans of the rights of citizenship. The assembly also acted as a judicial body when it came to the deposition of an official for his crimes. In the event of a dispute over the succession to the throne, it made its decision. Voting was carried out by a shout or a divergence of the participants of the meeting on the sides. Aristotle called this way of conducting a people's assembly "children's."
royal power carried out by two kings archagetes or basileus) and was hereditary. The dual royal power, apparently, arose as a result of the unification of the top tribes of the Dorians and Achaeans. However, royal power was basically real only in war time when the basileus could issue all orders, and they were reported on all matters; they acquired the right of life and death over the warriors. Every eight years the board of higher officials in Sparta ( ephors) conducted divination by the stars, as a result of which the kings could be put on trial or removed from office. The ephors accompanied the king on a military campaign and watched him. Monthly, the ephors and the kings swore an oath to each other: the basileus swore that they would reign according to the laws, and the ephors swore on behalf of the state that if the kings observed their oath, the state would unshakably observe their power.
In addition to military power, the kings had priestly and judicial power, were part of gerousia- council of elders The kings also oversaw the correct distribution and use of land allotments. In later times, they also ordered the marriage of girls who became heirs of ancestral clans. The kings were surrounded by honor, various fees were established in their favor, everyone had to stand before them.
Gerousia(council of elders) consisted of 28 members and two kings. It originates from the tribal organization, from the council of elders. Gerousia members ( gerontes) were, as a rule, from representatives of noble families and from the age of 60, since they had already been exempted from military service. Their election took place in the popular assembly by shouting, and the one who was shouted louder than other candidates was considered elected. They held the position for life. The Gerousia was originally convened by the kings, and later by the ephors. Its competence was as follows: a preliminary discussion of cases that were to be considered in the national assembly; negotiations with other states; court cases (state and criminal offenses), as well as against kings; military issues. However, the council of elders did not have legislative initiative. Cases on property disputes were under the jurisdiction of the ephors. The role of gerusia decreased with the increase in the role of ephors.
ephors("observers") - a board of senior officials, which occupied a completely exceptional position in the state. Initially, they were the deputies of the kings in the civil court, later their power expanded so much that the kings bowed to it. The ephors were annually elected by the popular assembly by a shout in the amount of five people. At the head of the college was the first ephor, whose name denoted the year. The powers of the ephors: convening the gerousia and the national assembly, leading them; internal management; monitoring officials and checking their reports, as well as removal from office for misconduct and referral to the court; supervision of morals and observance of discipline; external relations; civil jurisdiction. During the war, they led the mobilization of troops, gave the order to march, and two ephors accompanied the king on a military campaign. They also declared cryptia against the helots and perieks. The ephors constituted a single board and made their decisions by a majority of votes. They reported to their successors after a one-year term.
Such a state-political system among the Spartans remained almost unchanged for many centuries. The Spartans exercised military leadership among the Greek policies, for this purpose in the VI century. BC e. they led the Peloponnesian League to fight for supremacy in Hellas. After the victory in the Peloponnesian War over Athens and its allies, other Greek policies, the Spartan society, having grown rich, began to stratify. As a result, the number of full-fledged citizens is decreasing, which at the end of the 4th century. BC e. there were about 1,000 people. In the next century, as a result of another political crisis in Sparta, the old institutions of power are almost eliminated, and the kings become dictators. In the II century. BC e. the rebellious helots seize power, and in the middle of this century the state of Sparta becomes part of the province of the Roman Empire.