Vladimir Propp is a famous scientist, researcher of Russian folk tales. His pen belongs unique works in philology. Modern researchers consider him the founder of the text theory.

Philologist's parents

Vladimir Propp is a native Petersburger, he was born in April 1895. His real name is German Voldemar. His father was a wealthy peasant from the Volga region, a native of the Volgograd region. By education, he was a philologist, a specialist in national and German literature. Graduated from Petrograd University.

Propp's father taught German students in St. Petersburg higher educational institutions. When the First World War began, he took a direct part in it, working as a nurse and a brother of mercy.

Childhood and youth

After the October Revolution, the family moved temporarily to live on a farm. However, Vladimir Propp visited his parents only a few times. In 1919 his father died after a long illness. Vladimir came to the funeral, and then stayed for some time to work on the land in the farm itself. Not finding himself in peasant labor, he got a job as a school teacher in the village of Goly Karamysh, which was located at a distance of 70 kilometers from the farm. Now it is the city of Krasnoarmeysk in the Saratov region. But soon Vladimir Propp nevertheless returned to Leningrad.

In 1929, the Propp family was dispossessed. All the property, the main mistress of which at that time was the mother - Anna Fridrikhovna, was transferred in an ultimatum to the Stalin collective farm.

Teaching work

In 1932, Propp went to work at Leningrad University, after 5 years he became an associate professor, and in 1938 a professor. Works at this time at the Department of Romano-Germanic Philology, Folklore and Russian Literature. From 1963 to 1964 he worked as the head of the department. He also taught at the Faculty of History for about three years, his lectures were a success at the Department of Ethnography and Anthropology.

Morphology of the fairy tale

Vladimir Propp entered Russian philology as the author of a literary work. The Morphology of a Fairy Tale was published in 1928. In it, the author examines in detail the structure of a magical work. This is perhaps the most popular study of Russian folklore in the 20th century. In his work, Propp decomposes the tale into its component parts and explores the relationship of each of them to each other. Studying folk art, he notes the presence in fairy tales of constant and variable values, the former include the functions inherent in the main characters, as well as the sequence in which they are implemented.

What is Vladimir Propp trying to say in his work? "Morphology of a fairy tale" formulates several basic provisions. First, the main constituents are formed permanent elements. They serve as functions for actors. Secondly, the number of such functions in a fairy tale is strictly limited. Thirdly, they all develop in the same sequence. True, such a pattern is present only in folklore works, and modern works do not follow it. Fourthly, fairy tales are of the same type in their structure. Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp refers to variables as the number and methods by which functions are implemented. As well as the language style and attributes of the characters.

Functions of a fairy tale

Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp argues that the functions of a fairy tale ultimately constitute a single composition, the core for the entire genre. Only the details of the plots differ. As a result of great work, Propp identifies 31 functions. All of them are present in the Russian folk tale. Most of them are arranged in pairs, for example, the prohibition is always opposed to its violation, the struggle is victory, and after the persecution, a happy salvation is mandatory.

The number of characters in a Russian fairy tale is also limited. There are always no more than 7 of them. Propp refers to them the main character, the pest (his antipode), the sender, the donor, the main character's assistant, the princess and the false hero. Considering all these factors, we end up with classic, which has a name - a Russian fairy tale. Propp insists that they are all variants of a fairy tale.

Fairy tale

In 1946, another book by Propp, The Historical Roots of a Fairy Tale, was published by a Leningrad publishing house. In it, he dwells in detail on the hypothesis expressed by the French ethnographer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Emile Nurri. According to her, in folklore tales there are often references to the performance of the sacrament to which the protagonist is subjected, in other words, initiation. The very structure of the majority of Russian folk tales has the same character.

Also, analyzing the "Historical roots of a fairy tale, Propp examines the meaning of the premises, looks for references to the social institutions of the past in the works, finds a rethinking of many rituals. The Russian folklorist notes that the main task is to establish what the rituals described in the fairy tale refer to - to a specific stage of development of society, or they are not associated with a specific historical period.

Examples of initiations

Propp's classic example is totemic initiations. They were completely inaccessible to women, but at the same time, in Russian fairy tales, such an initiation occurs with Baba Yaga, an old witch, one of the main negative characters in folklore. Thus, this character fits into the hypothesis of the ritual genesis of Russian fairy tales. Baba Yaga in this case acts as an initiating hero.

Propp comes to the conclusion that there is no specific historical or cultural period in fairy tales. Styles and cycles in folk art constantly collide and mix with each other. At the same time, only classical patterns of behavior that could be present in many historical eras are preserved.

Evidence that fairy tales originate from oral traditions that are passed from mouth to mouth during initiation rites is that the motives and functions of the characters are identical in cultures of completely different peoples, often living thousands of kilometers from each other.

In addition, Propp cites ethnographic data as evidence. He also had a direct relationship to this science. He demonstrates how oral traditions passed down from father to son eventually took shape in the tales we are familiar with. Thus, based on these ideas, he comes to the conclusion about the unity of the origin of all fairy tales among all peoples of the world. A vivid example of this conclusion is just Russian folk fairy tales.

Another one important work to understand the meaning of Propp in Russian philology - "Russian Agrarian Holidays". In this monograph, the author explores most Slavic holidays, customs and beliefs, coming to the conclusion that almost all of them are agricultural in nature.

Heroic epic

In 1955, Propp published a monograph entitled "Russian". This is a very interesting and original study, which, however, was not reprinted for a long time after 1958. The work became available to a wide readership only in the 2000s. This is one of the author's largest works in terms of volume Moreover, critics note not only its scientific, but also moral significance.It was relevant at that time, and remains the same today.

"Russian heroic epic" is a comparison of the features of the epic of different eras, a detailed analysis of epics. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that the basis of such works is the struggle for the spiritual ideals of the people themselves. Distinctive feature epic works - their saturation with a patriotic spirit and educational motives.

Authors from the people invest in epic works the most important thing - morality, folk epos. This is a direct reflection of the moral consciousness of the society in which it was created. Propp insists that the foundations of Russian epics are not foreign, but exclusively domestic stories and legends.

Another important epic is its poetry. Thanks to her, the works are interesting and perceived by listeners and readers with any level of education. In a broad sense, for the people, the epic is an integral part of its history. Epics embody the inner experiences of the people, their desire to live freely, independently and happily.

Propp's monograph allows you to get acquainted in detail with epic works, starting from ancient times. All obscure points are explained in detail here.

Major writings

In addition to the above, among the main works of Vladimir Propp, literary scholars-researchers single out the monograph "Russian Fairy Tale", published only in 1984, a decade and a half after the author's death.

It is also worth noting the work "Folklore and Reality", published in the journal "Science" in 1989 and published in 1999 in the capital's publishing house "Labyrinth". In addition, the publication "Problems of comedy and laughter. Ritual laughter in folklore" was published. This work provides a detailed and thorough analysis of the tale of Nesmeyan with an unexpected literary interpretation.

At the end of life

Propp Vladimir Yakovlevich (1895-1970) - an outstanding philologist, doctor of sciences, who managed to do a lot in his life and is still considered the largest and most authoritative researcher of Russian fairy tales. His works and monographs are held in universities, literary critics take them as a basis for creating their own research and dissertations. Vladimir Propp lived all his life in Leningrad. He died in the city on the Neva on August 22, 1970 at the age of 75. After himself, he left many students and followers who still appreciate and remember his merits. Among them: Cherednikova, Shakhnovich and Becker.

“RUSSIAN HEROIC EPO IN THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA"
Abstract of the student of the 244th group of the faculty (JNF)
Novikov Boris Yurievich
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
State educational institution higher professional education
St. Petersburg State Institute of Fine Mechanics and Optics
(Technical University)
Faculty of Humanities
Department of Cultural Studies
St. Petersburg
2000
I Introduction
The works of Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970), a well-known professor of Leningrad University, a specialist in Russian folklore, created by him in the first half and middle of the 20th century, are considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of Russian folklore. I am a little interested in Russian folklore and I have long wanted to get acquainted with them. These fundamental studies are available even to readers who do not have special philological training. They explore not only folklore, its genres and manifestations in rites and rituals, but also its significance for the people, its poetics, its influence on modern culture. Book V.Ya. Propp "Russian Heroic Epic" is the first and still the only monograph devoted to Russian epics. It first appeared in 1955, the second revised edition was published in 1958. The works of the scientist “The Morphology of a Fairy Tale” (1928) and “The Historical Roots of a Fairy Tale” (1946) have already seen the light, which influenced the nature of this study. The author has considered all the diverse plots, so it is possible to use the book as a reference book on the epic. Each thought is first formulated, and then developed and proved. The most important judgments are duplicated. Pedagogical experience allowed V.Ya. Propp most clearly organize sections and topics, present the facts and their analysis in an accessible and lively language. The reader is not tired of unnecessary details, but is not left without numerous references and explanations. The ordered material and the description of the methods of its processing convince of the correctness of the conclusions made by the author. The monograph "Russian Heroic Epic" received the first university prize. In the future, it will be considered precisely it, all references, except for those specifically indicated, will refer to the publication indicated in the list of references.
II. main part
II-1. VIEWS OF VARIOUS SCIENTISTS ON THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA
After the publication of the work "The Russian Heroic Epic", an impulse to controversy arose on many issues of epic studies. The main dispute with V.Ya. Proppa turned around with B.A. Rybakov, an influential supporter of the historical school in the folklore environment (Rybakov B.A. Historical view of Russian epics // History of the USSR. 1961. No. 5. P. 141-166; No. 6. P. 80-96; Propp V.Ya. On the historicism of the Russian epic (answer to Academician B.A. Rybakov) // Russian Literature, 1962. No. 11. P. 98-111, see also: On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study // Propp V.Ya. Poetics folklore, Moscow, 1998, pp. 185-208). Scientists B.N. Putilov, Yu.I. Yudin and I.Ya. Froyanov developed and supplemented the ideas of V.Ya. Propp. In the future, there was a tendency to both apply the method of the scientist in the analysis of the epic plot, and to identify the historical basis of the epic. In the study of epics, modern folklorists conduct a scientific search, invariably using the achievements of V. Ya Propp.
II-2. METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ANALYSIS
In his work "Russian Heroic Epic" V.Ya. Propp shows the talent of a researcher and the skills of a teacher. Before proceeding to the consideration of the material, the author determines the subject of study itself. He considers the most decisive features of the epic, of course, the heroic nature of its content, as well as the musical form of performance, poetic and special metrical structures. It is important for him here to separate the heroic epos proper from both some prose genres, for example, fairy tales and some types of old stories, and in general from works of epic meter, such as epic spiritual poems, songs of a ballad and buffoon character. Also, historical songs closely related to it are separated from the epic, and the author stands here in opposition to the historical and neohistorical schools that were dominant at that time [see: pp. 6-12]. Supporters of this trend sought to find in the epic a reflection of a specific historical event and to find historical prototypes for its heroes. At the same time, the general idea of ​​the song and its main idea were not taken into account. From this followed unjustified and debunked attempts to bring epic characters out of chronicles, to correlate the appearance of the epic with the formation of Kievan Rus, to attribute the authorship of the epic not to the people, but to the retinue elite. The author strongly objects to this. He himself stands on the fact that the epic, a part of folklore, is an exclusively folk creation, expresses folk ideals and therefore is stored in the people's memory. From this point of view, the scientist successfully explains almost all epic stories, only in rare cases resorting to references to ideological or authorial influence.
After establishing the area of ​​consideration V.Ya. Propp explores the issues of epic methodology in pre-revolutionary and Soviet science. He shows the failure of most of the directions, tries to focus on the need to study the epic without breaking away from the historical or artistic sides. Much attention is paid to the merits of Russian revolutionary democrats (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky and, especially, V.G. Bellinsky, the author of many articles on folk poetry), as well as A.M. Gorky. This is undoubtedly connected with the situation of the struggle against cosmopolitanism and the chauvinistic spread of the ideas of the superiority and originality of all Russian, characteristic of the time when the monograph was created. Of course, the opinions of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and other social democrats are also due to the non-orientation of V.Ya. Propp, but the dominant ideology. The author himself insists on defining the ideas of epics, for which you need to correctly understand them, to delve into all the details. He examines and compares various records to give a complete picture of the plot. Here he does not compile a consolidated version and does not identify the most common options, does not look for regional differences, but by analyzing the author's additions and alterations made over time, he tries to show the meaning that was originally invested. The resulting picture may not be confirmed by any of the specific variants of the epic, but it always makes it possible to reveal the collective intention of the people. Diverse records in relation to this idea are only particular artistic cases of its implementation. V.Ya. Propp sees an epic that reflects the age-old ideals of the people, its creation refers to all the centuries during which it was polished and acquired new or lost old features. He denies the mythologization of the history of the people by the epic, because, on the contrary, the epic in its development discards the remnants of mythology. The process of the relationship between the epic and history is conceived by him as dependent not on events, but on various epochs. It is in this direction that he conducts his research [see: pp. 12-28].
An undoubted advantage is that it is placed in applications brief reference about the analysis of each of the epics under consideration by other researchers [see: pp. 558-591]. In the event that there is too much literature on a given song to mention it all, the author selects the most significant works. He singles out works with which he completely disagrees, leaving the rest without comment.
II-3. FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPO OF DIFFERENT AGES
Primitive communal system. V.Ya. Propp is convinced that the heroic epic began to take shape long before the start of feudal relations. Since there are no direct traces of the existence of such a phenomenon, he cites as an example the numerous peoples who inhabited the territory of the USSR, who were delayed in development at the level of decomposition of the primitive communal system. All of them have a heroic epic. Using the comparison method, the scientist reveals the development of the epic from mythology in the epic songs of the peoples of Siberia and the Far North; the transition of heroic deeds from the struggle for the family unit (lyrical feelings do not play a role) to the protection of the native people or battles against the oppressors; transformation of elemental hosts into hostile monsters; high morale common to all heroes and willingness to forget their interests for the common good (often they are leaders); exaggerated appearance and actions of heroes and their enemies. The epic testifies to the beginning of the struggle for a new social order: so the family is a factor that destroys tribal relations, and the chivalry of the hero is not a sign of the past, where support was implied by itself, but a reaction to the emergence of class inequality and exploitation. In the Russian epic, however, the collisions of the hero in various worlds took their place in fairy tales, not preserved in epics. Heroic texts reflect the ideals that lie in the future, the aspirations of the era. This is the key to their longevity. The conclusions drawn are used by the author in the study of the Russian epic, making it possible to single out its most ancient elements, which makes it easier to consider its development. The author reveals very interesting feature Russian epic songs. While the external form of the songs of other peoples is multi-component and the plot develops not due to complication, but by the addition of new, identical links, Russian epics are essentially one-component and monolithic. Only the songs about Sadko and Potyk retained the features of their former multi-part composition. Possible merging of two plots into one (contamination), according to V.Ya. Propp, this is a secondary phenomenon, and simplicity, brevity and indivisibility are the result of a long improvement of the epic [see. details: pp. 29-58].
Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. The epic of Kievan Rus is not considered as a continuation of the epic that developed in the era of the tribal system. State relations required not the development of previous ideas, but the approval of new ones, therefore, in the epic one can trace not the remnants of the old in the new, but a conflict of worldviews belonging to these two always opposing times. Having originated in the communal system, traditions have not been interrupted. Old stories were preserved, but filled with new content. Some of them were used and reworked in order to establish the ideals of the young state, some acquired a semi-fairylike character. Such a clash of ideals can be traced in the most ancient Russian epics, epics of the era of Kievan Rus [see. details: pp. 59-61].
The entire Russian epic V.Ya. Propp considers as one Vladimirov or Kyiv cycle, and not regional epics. However, not all epics belong to the Vladimirov cycle. Part of the epics was formed even before the formation of Kievan Rus, and their content did not succumb to the process of cyclization. Such, for example, are epics about the Volkh and Svyatogor. Others were created after the formation of the cycle had ended. These are, for example, epics about the raid of the Lithuanians or about Khoten Bludovich, which appeared in the Moscow period. Some are semi-fabulous and reflect narrower ideals than the interests of the state. Among them, for example, the epic about Gleb Volodyevich or about Soloman and Vasily Okulovich. Finally, the cycle does not include epics of a clearly local character, like Novgorod ones. The author denies the concept of dividing epics into two cycles: into Kyiv and Novgorod. The picture of the existence and distribution of epics in the modern North shows the general fame of the main characters and plots, and the national ideas reflected in the epics could hardly excite only the inhabitants of any particular region. The rest are local formations that are not widely used [see. details: pp. 66-69].
The author divides the development of the early state Russian epic into two periods: Kyiv and feudal fragmentation, when the significance of Kyiv was obscured among many local centers. In new and reworked old songs, the people reflected the intense struggle against foreign invaders, created images of heroes-defenders of the homeland. Epics of the Kyiv or Vladimir cycle are united by a common center - Kyiv, the head of which, Prince Vladimir ("Red Sun"), are the heroes. The image of Vladimir is twofold. From the period of the progressive development of the state, he inherited the role of the people's leader, while class stratification later creates a social conflict between the heroes and the prince, who has become the head of his class. The secondary image of Vladimir's wife, Princess Eupraxia (Opraksa) changes somewhat differently. From the tribal system, she, as a woman, can get the role of the enemy’s handyman, as, for example, in the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, in the future she is endowed with the features of a heroic woman, in particular, saving Ilya Muromets from the wrath of her husband. Epic Kyiv served the people as a banner of unity, although it was not one. Bogatyrs from various regions become heroes of the epic only from the moment they arrive in Kyiv. They serve the Motherland and always come to the prince of Kyiv voluntarily. Specific wars are not reflected at all in the Russian epic, because they were not popular. Also, the service of heroes to specific princes is not reflected [see. details: pp. 61-70].
Period of the centralized state. With the creation in the tenth century. new powerful state, the aspirations of the people for unification and national independence came true. Former epics began to receive the names of "stars", but they are not forgotten, but belong to the area of ​​the heroic past. Military functions are transferred to the historical song. With the growth of class antagonism, epics about the social struggle come to the fore. We have met such songs before, but now they are losing their monumentality, winning at the same time in realism, they describe life and estates more widely, class conflicts become the main theme. Women begin to play a new role, their new positive images arise. Types mighty heroes stop in their development, ceasing to enter new songs. The bylina begins to approach the ballad, but its spirit remains heroic [see. details: pp. 369-374].
New time (capitalism). Under capitalism, the active development of the epic stops. Its geographic range is shrinking from the once ubiquitous distribution to the deaf regions of the North. V.Ya. Propp argues with numerous theories looking for the causes of this extinction, everywhere defending the creative independence of the people. He explains the extinction of the epic by social relations and contradictions that have developed in modern times, and its preservation by private causes found in the North: the slow penetration of exploitation, the specific labor of the peasantry and natural features [see. details: pp. 505-510]. From the middle of the nineteenth century science became interested in epics. Only since then can one judge the performance of epics. The author delicately approaches the definition of the role of the performer in the singing of the epic. By examining the degree and nature of the singer's talent, one can establish the role of individual singers and the role of the entire people in the creation of the epic [see. details: pp. 510-516]. Much attention is paid to the poetic language of epics: its richness, expressiveness, accuracy of descriptions, rhythm. The epics reflected the affectionate attitude of the people towards the defenders-heroes, hatred of the invaders, admiration for the beauty of their native land, ideas about so many things that are relevant to the people [see. details: pp. 516-540]. Generally speaking, the dying of the epic by V.Ya. Propp connects with the historically logical transition to new forms of folk art [see. details: pp. 540-545].
Soviet time. The expeditions of Soviet scientists showed not only the existence of the epic in its last stronghold, the Russian North, but also the gradual cessation of the epic tradition [see. details: pp. 546-548]. Nevertheless, we can talk about a new epic epic. The author discusses this problem on the example of the famous singer M.S. Kryukova. Her talent was discovered in 1934. In Soviet time in fact, she was the only performer who consciously devoted herself not only to preserving the existing heritage, but also to creating songs with a qualitatively new content. Kryukova creates new topics herself on the material of old epics and fairy tales, draws from fiction, popular science literature and the media. She overcame the isolation of the old epic, but the life of her contemporaries did not become the subject of chanting. The new content did not fit well into the old forms, often influencing the transmitted information. The epic form of the epic has outlived its own, it has become part of the heritage of national culture. The epic continues to exist in a different form, its best achievements have an impact on the heroic poetry and literature of the tradition [see. details: pp. 549-557].
II-4. ANALYSIS OF BYLIN
All considered by V.Ya. Propp divided the epics into thematic groups based on both the era, the ideals of which it reflects, and the main theme. Within the group, they are arranged in conditionally chronological order, starting with those that contain the most ancient elements or layers.
Epics of the period of Kievan Rus and feudal fragmentation. Before proceeding to the Kyiv cycle, the author examines the surviving ancient heroes [see: part 2, ch. II], whose images were formed so long before the formation of the state that it was difficult to attract them to the new ideology. Among them, he places Volkh (or Volga Vseslavlavich or Svyatoslavovich) and Svyatogor, bearing not only primitive views, but also rejected by the new time artistic techniques. In the stories about the Volkh, the oldest totemic and magical ideas have been preserved. Behind his foreign campaign for the defense of Kyiv, a glorified predatory raid is visible, initially in search of hunting grounds, and later with the aim of stealing livestock. The combination of old and new, fantastic and pseudo-historical, however, did not help the epic song about him to survive and it belongs to the rarest in the Russian epic. Subsequently, the image of Volga is used as a purely negative one and is opposed to Mikula Selyaninovich [see. details: pp. 70-76].
Unlike the Volkh, the image of Svyatogor is very popular, although it has also been noticeably erased. Its main features - enormous strength and size - characteristic of the primitive epic, are not as important in modern times as the way in which this force is used. He cannot accomplish a feat, the strength of Svyatogor is a burden, and not only to him. Both epic stories connected with him - about Mikula's purse and about the prepared coffin - are connected with the death of the hero. Death Svyatogor bears in itself. The time of chthonic world ordering has passed, hard work of development is needed and fate sends him, if not death, then eternal sleep [see. details: pp. 76-87].
The matchmaking of the hero is presented in the Russian epic in various versions [see: part 2, ch. III]. In such epics, the glorification of matchmaking itself and the rejection of such glorification by the state collide. It is interesting that the woman in them, if not a hero, is almost always a sorceress or a creature of evil spirits. death the last people supports healthy family foundations. In the bylina about Sadko that has come down to us, the main motive is the conflict between a man from the bottom and social leaders who do not accept him. The song is a Novgorod creation, it is full of vivid life realities, but at the same time it is fabulously fantastic. Its unique feature is its versatility. In the first part, the sea king, the elemental master, helps the poor harpman Sadko to get rich, to move to higher social strata. The second one is completely realistic. Sadko is trying to establish himself on an equal footing among the higher merchants, comes into conflict with her, but it is clear that he is in conflict with the great Novgorod and the city remains the winner. In the most archaic third part, the hero overcomes the temptation of marriage with a sea princess for the sake of his native Novgorod. The real world triumphs over the mythical [see. details: pp. 87-111].
Another multi-linked and in some places even more archaic epic is the song about Mikhailo Potyk. According to the plot, it is one of the most difficult, and for me, one of the most interesting. Marya the white swan, having appeared to Potyk, who had left Kyiv, proposes herself as a wife and easily enters into marriage with him, setting the condition: upon the death of one of the spouses, both will be buried. Soon Mikhailo lies down with her in the grave, but finds a way to revive her and return himself. The deception allows Marya to make several more attempts to kill him, moreover, when she has already cheated on him. An unholy marriage to someone else’s is condemned by everyone, but nevertheless, it is thanks to human and higher help that Potyk remains alive after all the ups and downs. Fighting for his wife, he does not accomplish a feat, but comes to a shameful fall. Fascinated by magical passion, Mikhailo alone is unable to understand the infernal nature of the chosen one. For the Russian epic, the motive of marriage ceases to be heroic, a struggle is waged against it [see. details: pp. 111-128]. Personally, in this epic, in the image of Marya, I see the development of the concept of evil spirits, merged with the opposition of Russian to foreign, and not just an enemy. She chooses Potyk as her husband to use him as a chance to revive, but when Marya later tries to get rid of Mikhailo, he does not die. The time for people like her is over. Devilry has an influence on a person, but cannot build his fate as she pleases.
Ivan Godinovich deliberately looks for a foreign bride. She, at the first opportunity, prefers to betray the Kyiv hero in order to return to the pagan world. The people do not allow the Russian hero to die at the hands of strangers, give him the opportunity to take revenge, thus destroying the hostile evil spirits, but at the same time mock him [see. details: pp. 128-136].
The dramatic and highly artistic epic about the Danube and Nastasya is not without reason considered one of the best in the Russian epic. In this song, the source of all evil is the proud hero who has strayed from Kyiv, and not his alien wife, and in his shame he is not worthy of the people's pity. The Danube, who was previously in the service of a foreign king, goes to him for his daughter, a bride for Prince Vladimir, whom she takes by force. On the way back, he encounters a warrior in battle, defeats her, but at the last moment he recognizes in the hero another daughter of his former master, with whom he had been in close relations for a long time. A double wedding, according to the laws of the epic, is overshadowed by a conflict. The Danube boasting of his strength (a real hero is modest) leads to a shooting contest between him and Nastasya, who indicated to him the acceptable degree of politeness and the real price of the hero. Angered by failures, the Danube kills his wife, knowing that she is pregnant, and when, having spread her womb, he sees a wonderful baby, the future great hero, he throws himself on a spear next to the corpse [see. details: pp. 136-156].
The epic song about Kozarin has a semi-ballad character and only on the basis of saving a woman can it be attributed to epics about matchmaking. Noble in character and rejected by his own family, the hero saves from the hands of the Tatars, who play the role of kidnappers here, and not conquerors, a girl who turns out to be his sister. Having returned her to the family, he again goes to the open field. The Russian hero does not seek approval for exploits, but accomplishes them because he cannot do otherwise [see. details: pp. 156-169].
The idyllic epic of a completely ballad character about Nightingale Budimirovich also belongs to the field of the epic. After a gradual decrease in the alienation of the bride from a representative of evil spirits to a Russian sorceress (see the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka below), a song about the happy marriage of the hero naturally appeared. The happy epic, closely associated with ritual wedding poetry, completes a major step in the Russian epic, giving way to the development of other forms of heroic songs [see. details: pp. 169-181].
A group of epics about the struggle of a hero with monsters (see: part 2, ch. IV) combines the names of favorite folk heroes. The appearance of the enemy changed depending on the real historical struggle of the Russian people. The most common epic in the Russian epic about Dobrynya and the Serpent confronts the most cultured and diplomatic hero with a vivid artistic embodiment of the natural elements. The first battle with the Serpent at the Puchay River lies outside the Kyiv cycle and cannot be brought to an end, so that, freeing Zabava Putyatishna on the orders of her uncle Vladimir, the hero could, after fighting the Serpent for the second time, lead many Russian people out of his lair . The ancient motif of kidnapping helps to turn the feat accomplished on the orders of the prince into a feat to protect Russia. Dobrynya's rejection of the hand of Zabava and the peculiarities of some versions of the song draw attention to the hidden antagonism of the heroes, folk heroes, and higher layers [see details: pp. 181-208]. This conflict is emphasized in the Russian epic more than once, and the author, in view of the prevailing ideological attitudes, pays great attention to social confrontation.
The song about Alyosha and Tugarin is very close to the epic about Dobrynya's snake fighting. However, here a cheerful, witty and sometimes not very strong hero, with the help of ingenuity, cracks down on an awkward, rude and ill-mannered opponent, in which fantastic features are partially replaced by those close to reality. The enemy has brazenly settled down in the chambers of Vladimir, he behaves defiantly and freely keeps with Princess Evpraksia, demonstrating their close relationship. However, no one protests (the heroes are absent at this time). Alyosha, who came modestly, finds this. He mocks Tugarin's dishonorable behavior, challenges him to a fight and destroys the shame of the Russian prince's groveling before the invaders [see. details: pp. 208-227].
The central figure of the Russian heroic epic is Ilya Muromets. In it, the people combined selfless love for the Motherland, the highest moral qualities and maturity respectfully distinguishing the hero. In the epic about Idolishche, most likely originating from the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, an almost anthropomorphic monster, bearing some Tatar features, surrounds Kyiv with troops, and itself goes to princely palace, where it also misbehaves. Having learned about this from the "passable Kalika", Ilya hurries to the rescue. Having arrived in the clothes of beggars persecuted by the new owner of the city, he kills the enemy without unnecessary preludes. In another existing version, when Idolishche settles in Constantinople and forbids Orthodoxy there, a later church influence is clearly felt. The people who keep this bylina themselves mock the kalika-messenger and the pilgrimage image of Elijah [see. details: pp. 227-239].
Stories about the healing of Ilya Muromets and the conquest of the Nightingale the Robber are often combined into an epic song about Ilya's first trip. In the first narrative, references to a peasant origin, Ilya's long illness from youth to mature years and the heroic power bestowed on him by wonderful wanderers. The archaic plot here acquires realistic features. The people bring their beloved hero closer not only to a conceivable ideal, but also to themselves, to reality. In the second, Ilya, who is going to serve the Motherland in Kyiv, destroys the hostile army near Chernigov, captures the Nightingale the Robber, who blocked the straight path with his outpost, and destroys his unclean brood. Along the way, he bridges the swamps and clears an abandoned road from the forest. His main merit in paving the way to Kyiv. Fragmented Russia begins to unite. Already at the first meeting, the conflict between Ilya and Vladimir is visible, which will only increase in the future. The prince and the boyars are made ridiculous when they try to give orders to the proud, but more than Vladimir, Nightingale, who understands the role of Muromets [see. details: pp. 239-260].
A fairy tale is a more ancient genre than an epic; it retains much of prehistoric antiquity. The epic becomes more complex and discards or transforms what does not meet the increasing requirements. However, there is a group of epics that are very close to a fairy tale. They are not typical for the heroic epic, they are often personal and entertaining in nature, but nevertheless, due to the presence of heroic motives, V.Ya. Propp also explores them [see: part 2, ch. IV]. One of the most interesting stories is the battle of Ilya Muromets with his son. The temporary marriage of Ilya with the “woodpile” he defeated and the abandonment of his pregnant wife are the most archaic. At the same time, their son is teased by peers and he goes to avenge the dishonor of his mother. Muromets faces his son as a border trespasser, recognizes him and introduces him into the circle of heroes. But when he again tries to kill his father at night, Ilya does not hesitate to doubly kill the traitor [see. details: pp. 263-266].
In the epic about the three trips of Ilya, the hero from the crossroads of three roads follows in directions where, according to the road stone, death, marriage and wealth await him. The calm choice of the first road by him and the destruction of the danger lurking there are close to the heroic epic, while the rest of the adventures are of a fabulous and ecclesiastical nature [see. details: pp. 260-270].
I like the song about Dobrynya and Marinka. And so, having high moral qualities, the hero appears morally completely pure, and the sorceress harming him - a seductive enchantress. Marinka, trying to seduce the hero, causes only disgust in his chaste soul. Then the evil sorceress bewitches him, and when he, exhausted by witchcraft, comes to her against his will, turns him into a tour. Dobrynya's mother, who herself is sometimes a pure sorceress, contributes to the salvation of her son, and he, having agreed to a symbolic marriage with Marinka, brutally cracks down on the enemy as a husband [see. details: pp. 270-279].
The epic about the departure of Dobrynya and the failed marriage of Alyosha is one of the most common in the Russian epic. Due to Dobrynya's long absence, his wife is about to marry Alyosha, who brought the news of her husband's death, when Dobrynya returns unharmed and Alyosha is left in an uncomfortable position. The intriguing conflict of two characters very different in temperament, united by the defense of the Motherland, cannot acquire the gloomy bloody denouement characteristic of the epic. The ancient plot takes on a comic coloring in the finale, the heroes reconcile, and the woman says goodbye. This song gave many scientists the opportunity to try to portray Alyosha Popovich in a negative and immoral way, as a deceiver of honest women, although the only thing that can be accused of him here is false news. Generally speaking, in the epic Alyosha appears temperamental and mischievous, but not immoral in any way. Prince Vladimir, on the other hand, who in some cases forced Dobrynya's wife into marriage, is sharply condemned [see. details: pp. 279-288].
Epics about the reflection of the Tatars. The heavy yoke of the Mongol conquerors, which hindered the development of Russia, at the same time contributed to a new stage in the development of the Russian epic, the emergence of a number of patriotic epics that glorified the military overthrow of oppression. The songs were filled with new ideological content, acquired new artistic features and broke with the old traditions. The only content of the epics for a long time was the theme of the struggle for independence, honor and freedom of the Motherland [see: part 3]. In the song about Ilya's rebellion against Vladimir, we see as if a contradiction in the main idea of ​​the Russian epic, serving Kyiv, however, here the social difference between a hero from the people and a rich prince finally results in a clash. Muromets, uninvited to the feast, comes there without permission. The prince does not recognize him, once again demonstrating how little he appreciates all the services of the hero. Insulted, Ilya defiantly leaves and arranges his feast for all the poor. On the slander of the boyars, Vladimir puts him here in the cellar to starve to death. Sometimes, this instruction is carried out, in other cases, Vladimir is forced to reconcile with the hero and arrange a feast especially for him, or Ilya and all the heroes leave Kyiv. In any case, the prince will be put to shame in the future, while the hero will triumph. This epic demonstrates how an insurmountable abyss opened between the people and the class power before the invasion of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 291-303].
In almost all epics about the reflection of the Tatars, the appearance of the Tatars near Kyiv and their dispersal by Russian troops is sung. A circle of songs about Ilya Muromets and Tsar Kalin, organically connected with one another, V.Ya. Propp considers in totality [see: part 3, ch. II, item 2]. This allows you to get a picture of the invasion painted by the people step by step and find out the deep folk aspirations in each song. The poetic chant, which opens one of the epics of the cycle under consideration, tells of a sign that foreshadows death for Kyiv. Since this is the only case of a meeting of faith in signs in the epic, Kyiv does not perish at all, but is saved, and there is a separate antiquity with a similar plot on a completely religious theme, the author with every reason sees here a motif unreasonably attached to the military epic [see. details: pp. 306-310]. The appearance of the Tatars is described with a high degree of historicity: huge enemy hordes, a clear organization of the troops, an absolute command, the siege tactics of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 310-314]. The Tatar ambassador, who arrived in Kyiv with the khan's label, always behaves defiantly, emphasizing the ultimatum terms of surrender and contempt for the Russians [see. details: pp. 314-316]. Also historical are many cruel demands and threats of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 316-318]. Vladimir, in the face of impending danger, does nothing to actively defend the city. He prays, thinks about the surrender of the city, about the acceptance of the Tatar conditions [see. details: pp. 318-321]. There are no heroes in Kyiv at this time. Sometimes they went away on business, but more often they are in the prince's disgrace, which he regrets [see. details: pp. 321-322]. The main defender of the city, Ilya Muromets, sentenced to starvation in the cellar, was secretly supplied with food through the efforts of Princess Evpraksia, and now Vladimir is trying to persuade him to defend not the authorities, but the Fatherland. The hero agrees, often after reprisals against the boyars who are guilty of slander [see. details: pp. 322-326]. Soberly assessing the strength of the enemy [see. details: pp. 326-327], Ilya himself goes to the camp to Kalinin, where he asks for a delay and receives it [see. details: pp. 327-328]. By entrusting someone with the fortification of the city [see. details: pp. 328-329], Muromets undertakes to look for heroes. He finds them at Samson's Headquarters, a new camp where warriors have been idle since their disgrace. Oddly enough for the epic, the heroes refuse to go. But this desire arises because of the proximity to the people, and not the princely-boyar Russia. They will strike at the decisive moment [cf. details: pp. 329-331]. In the deserted Kyiv, a young hero Yermak (not a historical person, but a character of the same name introduced into the epic for merit) appears to Vladimir and asks for permission to fight the enemies. Having failed to fulfill the princely orders, Yermak goes to the heroic headquarters. Muromets sends him to count the enemy force, but the hot Yermak rushes into battle and dies. This exceptional in the Russian epic case of the death of a hero is a consequence of a violation of the order of Ilya [see. details: pp. 332-334]. Combat is always described briefly. If there is no heroic support, then Muromets rushes into battle alone. If it is, he sensibly directs the distribution of forces [see. details: pp. 334-337]. Sometimes Ilya is captured by cunning and brought to Kalin, who is trying to lure the hero to his side [see. details: pp. 337-338]. The hostile proposal leads Muromets into such a rage that he breaks his chains and, waving the first Tatar that comes across and calling Samson and other heroes with a spoken arrow, finally finishes off the Tatars. Leaving, the enemy takes an oath never to return [see. details: pp. 338-339]. Along with the final defeat of the enemy, there is another ending to this song, called the epic about the Kama (Mamaev) battle, or about the time since when the knights were transferred to Russia. In one version of it, two brothers who did not participate in the battle begin to boast and the Tatars come to life, and it is not possible to chop the living dead, their number only increases. Prayer destroys the unearthly power, while the heroes disperse to the monasteries. This song has a religious and church orientation, it is due to sermons about humility. In another version, proud of their victory, the heroes themselves challenge the "heavenly powers." They fearlessly destroy the revived power. The character of this epic, on the contrary, is atheistic, and it expresses folk thoughts[cm. details: pp. 339-344]. In addition to this song, many later ones based on it also tell about the struggle against the Tatars, for example, the epic about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyga. Before the impending invasion, Vladimir goes to a tavern to ask for help from the only remaining hero Vasily, who has been drinking for years and skipped absolutely everything. Having drunkenly, he kills Batu's close associates with spoken arrows, who sends a demand to extradite the guilty one. In one case, the hero himself goes to the enemy camp and, having deceived the Tatar army into the wilderness, destroys it. In another, the advice of the boyars immediately betrays Vasily. Now he really concludes an agreement with the enemy in order to lead him against the city's rich, sparing Prince Vladimir after all. The Tatars plunder the city, not respecting the treaty, and Vasily personally expels them. One way or another, the enemy is exterminated, and the rebellious aspirations of the peasants are looking for ways to get rid of the hostile, albeit relying on the people of the top [see. details: pp. 344-355].
The epic about Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich shows us the liberation struggle in other forms, when the invasion ended in a long yoke. Vladimir sends tribute to Batu. For her delivery, unworthy of a hero, the faithful servant Vasily is taken, he is accompanied by Dobrynya, who is the main character. When Batu tests the heroes in order to execute them as a failure, Dobrynya turns out to be more skillful than the Tatars. Entering into a rage during the struggle, he cracks down on the Tatar army. The people believe in victory even under the strongest oppression [see. details: pp. 355-368].
The epic of the era of the formation of a centralized Russian state. In the epic about Volga and Mikul, the main character is a farmer, which is unusual for a Russian epic, although the peasantry is the keeper of the songs. On the way to the cities granted to him by the prince, the warrior Volga meets the plowman Mikula and invites him with him. It soon turns out that the oratay (plowman, yell - plow, plowshare - plow) surpasses the hero in everything: in the wealth of clothes, in strength, in prowess, even his inconspicuous filly turns out to be better than the magnificent Volgin horse. Mikula is proud of his class and his work. Such a song could take shape only when the peasantry realized its significance. In the face of Mikula, it exalts itself [cf. details: pp. 374-387].
In this historical period, Kyiv and Vladimir are losing their significance as symbols of united Russia. The image of the former Red Sun, the main representative of the feudal and social elite, is finally debunked, and social injustice is depicted in the epic as a moral evil, which helped the people educate themselves accordingly [see: part 4, ch. III]. The hidden opposition of the hero and the prince in the epic about Sukhman ends in the suicide of the hero, offended by the despotic behavior of Vladimir. The knight goes hunting for a swan for the princely table. Such an assignment for a hero is a voluntary exile or disgrace if the prince sends him. The hunt is unsuccessful, just as peaceful relations between antagonists are impossible. On the way back near the Dnieper, Sukhman encounters the advancing Tatars and destroys the entire army. In battle, he receives a wound, which prepares the tragic denouement of the song, which he lays with a poppy leaf. The story of the hero about his feat is not taken seriously by Vladimir, and the hero will be punished. When the truth is revealed, Sukhman proudly rejects attempts at reconciliation and, pulling out the leaves from the wound, bleeds, showing what is best for him [see. details: pp. 387-397].
In the song about Danilo Lovchanin, the prince is presented as a direct scoundrel and criminal. Vladimir is looking for a wife, and for the people - a sovereign. Mishata Putyatin tells him to take possession of Danilo Lovchanin's wife Vasilisa, and send him on a deadly mission. The warrior copes with the task, but on the way back he encounters an army sent from Kyiv to kill him. Although Danilo beats the entire Russian army with tears, he still dies from the treacherous hand of Mishata. Without delay, the prince sends matchmakers to Vasilisa. The faithful woman, anxiously letting her husband go, asks first to take her to the body of Danila and kills herself over his corpse. As in the previous epic, the victory of the enemy is temporary, the future belongs to the heroes [see. details: pp. 397-407].
Although with the new tactics of wars that took shape after the overthrow of the yoke, the military epic gave way to the historical song, nevertheless, its fading went on gradually. At the heart of the last epic of military content, the epic about the arrival of Lithuanians, was originally the motif of the abduction of a woman, characteristic of the epic, but it was subsequently supplanted by patriotic ideas. The nephews of the Lithuanian king, the Liviki brothers, invade Russia with predatory and devastating goals. They also kidnap the sister of Prince Roman Dmitrievich. The prince pursues them with his army and defeats the foreign army. Although the song is full of archaic details, nevertheless, the epic is no longer talking about ideal heroes, but about living people [see. details: pp. 407-418].
At this time, later epics about matchmaking still appear [see: part 4, ch. IV], but the struggle for the bride in them has the character of a social struggle. The song about Alyosha Popovich and Elena Petrovichna moved me very much. The Petrovich brothers, nicknamed Zbrodovichi, boast at the feast that they keep their sister Elena in seclusion. Alyosha teases them, hinting that he sees Elena and she has long belonged to him. The brothers' anger turns to their sister, whom they sentence to public execution. In their face, the very system that allowed such oppression is condemned. At the last moment, Alyosha appears and takes the girl away, often right to the church. Here the hero fights not with mythical, but with human monsters [see. details: pp. 418-426].
In the epic about Khoten Bludovich, rich in various details, the bride and groom are separated solely by class differences. At the feast, the poor Fornication widow woo from the wealthy Clockwork widow, sometimes even a relative of Vladimir, her daughter China for her heroic son Khoten, who often does not know about it. The watch widow only brutally insults the entire Fornication family. In response, Khoten destroys the court of the Sentinels, threatens to repeat the matchmaking with the same tough temper as her mother Chyne and challenges her brothers to battle. After the hero deals with the sons of the Clockwork Widow and with the army sent against him, the proud mother of China herself offers her daughter. Khoten refuses, but at the request of the Prodigal Widow, satisfied with the humiliation of her rival, she agrees, and the song ends with a merry wedding [see p. details: pp. 426-441].
The pinnacle of epic songs about the social struggle can be considered epics about the rebellion of Vasily Buslaevich against Novgorod and his death [see: part 4, ch. VI]. I do not quite agree with V.Ya. Propp, who believes that Vasily, for all his actions, is not an ushkuin. In my opinion, the hero is exactly like that, although, of course, this does not affect the meaning of his image in any way. From childhood, Vasily bullied the children of wealthy parents, and the heroic strength already allowed him to cripple them. Growing up, Vasily recruits a squad, as it was more reasonable during the fierce internal political struggle of Novgorod at that time. His select detachment consists of people of the lower strata, handicraft labor. When a fight breaks out at the brotherhood (a feast arranged in clubbing on church holidays) and the whole squad is drawn into it, Vasily calls the whole of Novgorod to battle. The mother locks the hero and tries to stop the conflict, begging her son's opponents to cancel the bloodshed, to which they do not agree. While Vasily resorts to battle, his squad manages to suffer greatly. Having let her go, he alone defends himself, destroys the houses of the rich and defeats the old pilgrim, symbolizing the old system. The idea of ​​"lord of the great Novgorod" has long collapsed in the minds of the people. Only the mother stops the dispersed hero [see. details: pp. 441-464].
Having not completed the conflict, Vasily does not reconcile, but translates it into new forms. He asks his mother for a blessing for a trip to Jerusalem for repentance, but in fact, although he performs external religious rites on the spot, he is full of a challenge to otherworldly forces. He neglects the prophecy of the skull he kicked, sneers at the misfortune predicted for bathing naked in the Jordan, and when he finds a stone that does not recommend jumping over it, he begins to have fun, violating the ban. His death was caused by the untimeliness of the struggle. The tragedy is in the awareness of the destruction of the old way of life, but the impossibility for the time being to carry it out [see. details: pp. 464-475].
Despite the sharply satirical nature of the epic About Duke Stepanovich and his competition with Churila, it is free from buffoon influence, its action is prompted by ridicule of the prosperous boyar class. Incredibly rich dandy Duke arrives in Kyiv to show himself. After Dobrynya, sent by Vladimir for verification, confirms the enormous state of the boastful schap (dandy, dude), Duke's rivalry with the main dude of Kyiv Churila begins in the beauty of clothes, in which Duke wins, but always has mercy on his opponent. Like all the heroes of the epic, Duke Stepanovich is endowed with the highest quality things, however, unlike the heroes, for whom quality was a sign of idealization and greatness, in Duke we see unnecessary pomp and foppish demonstrativeness. Chainmail and arrows made of expensive materials serve not for military affairs, but for panache. Duke's sophistication gives him a reason to scold the lack of sophistication and simplicity, wealth allows him to be proud and show off. To Kyiv, he complacently opposes his country and his own economy [see. details: pp. 475-504].
III. Conclusion
The main content of the songs of V.Ya. Propp defines the struggle for the highest ideals of the people and the victory in the name of their implementation. Epics are saturated with patriotism and educational spirit. The people put their aspirations into the epic, the content of the songs tunes it to a high moral level. The epic reflects the development and self-awareness of the people. The scientist rejects the theory of the foreign origin of epics, emphasizes the connection of the epic with Russian history, with Russian reality and life. Descriptions and realities of epic songs are historical. The people understand the epic as part of their history. Epics are a sign of a harmonious inner life and the liberation aspirations of the people, the struggle for the opportunity to live independently and be happy.
Acquaintance with the monograph by V.Ya. Propp "Russian Heroic Epic" gave me great pleasure. I was able to get acquainted with the development of the epic from ancient times to the present day, meeting valuable and very detailed explanations. Epic stories were painted for me with a high meaning, allowing me to feel pride in the patriotism and morality of my people. It is a pity that the author did not consider in detail the mythological basis of the epic, probably due to attacks on the scientist’s previous works, but the data he cited are very interesting in themselves, and are also necessary if you want to understand the creative aspirations and ideological views of the Russian people.
Bibliography
1) V.Ya. Propp "Russian Heroic Epos" (Collected Works of V.Ya. Propp). Commentary article by N.A. Krichnina. Compilation, scientific edition, name index S.P. Bushkevich. - M., 1999. - 640 pages.
2) Propp V.Ya. "On the historicism of the Russian epic" // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. Page. 98-111.
3) Propp V.Ya. "Poetics of folklore" (article "On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study"). Page 185-208. - M., 1998.
4) Putilov B.N. “Rereading and rethinking Propp” // Living Antiquity. 1995. No. 3. Pp. 2-7.

The works of Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970), a well-known professor of Leningrad University, a specialist in Russian folklore, created by him in the first half and middle of the 20th century, are considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of Russian folklore. I am a little interested in Russian folklore and I have long wanted to get acquainted with them. These fundamental studies are available even to readers who do not have special philological training. They explore not only folklore, its genres and manifestations in rites and rituals, but also its significance for the people, its poetics, its influence on modern culture. Book V.Ya. Proppa VlRussian heroic eposV "TAU is the first and still the only monograph dedicated to Russian epics. It first appeared in 1955, the second revised edition was published in 1958. The works of the scientist VlMorfologiya skazki (1928) and VlHistorical roots of a fairy tale (1946) have already seen the light, which influenced the nature of this study. The author has considered all the diverse plots, so it is possible to use the book as a reference book on the epic. Each thought is first formulated, and then developed and proved. The most important judgments are duplicated. Pedagogical experience allowed V.Ya. Propp most clearly organize sections and topics, present the facts and their analysis in an accessible and lively language. The reader is not tired of unnecessary details, but is not left without numerous references and explanations. The ordered material and the description of the methods of its processing convince of the correctness of the conclusions made by the author. Monograph VlRussian heroic epos" received the first university award. In the future, it will be considered precisely it, all references, except for those specifically indicated, will refer to the publication indicated in the list of references.

II. main part

II-one. VIEWS OF VARIOUS SCIENTISTS ON THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA

After the publication of the work VlRussian heroic epic, there was an impulse to controversy on many issues of epic studies. The main dispute with V.Ya. Proppa turned around with B.A. Rybakov, an influential supporter of the historical school in the folklore environment (Rybakov B.A. Historical view of Russian epics // History of the USSR. 1961. No. 5. P. 141-166; No. 6. P. 80-96; Propp V.Ya. On the historicism of the Russian epic (answer to Academician B.A. Rybakov) // Russian Literature, 1962. No. 11. P. 98-111, see also: On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study // Propp V.Ya. Poetics folklore, Moscow, 1998, pp. 185-208). Scientists B.N. Putilov, Yu.I. Yudin and I.Ya. Froyanov developed and supplemented the ideas of V.Ya. Propp. In the future, there was a tendency to both apply the method of the scientist in the analysis of the epic plot, and to identify the historical basis of the epic. In the study of epics, modern folklorists conduct a scientific search, invariably using the achievements of V. Ya Propp.

II-2. METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ANALYSIS

In his work VlRussian heroic epic "V.Ya. Propp shows the talent of a researcher and the skills of a teacher. Before proceeding to the consideration of the material, the author determines the subject of study itself. He considers the most decisive features of the epic, of course, the heroic nature of its content, as well as the musical form of performance, poetic and special metrical structures. It is important for him here to separate the heroic epic itself from both some prose genres, for example, fairy tales and some types of old stories, and in general from works of epic verse, such as epic spiritual poems, songs of a ballad and buffoon character. Also, historical songs closely related to it are separated from the epic, and the author stands here in opposition to the historical and neohistorical schools that were dominant at that time [see: pp. 6-12]. Supporters of this trend sought to find in the epic a reflection of a specific historical event and to find historical prototypes for its heroes. At the same time, the general idea of ​​the song and its main idea were not taken into account. From this followed unjustified and debunked attempts to bring epic characters out of chronicles, to correlate the appearance of the epic with the formation of Kievan Rus, to attribute the authorship of the epic not to the people, but to the retinue elite. The author strongly objects to this. He himself stands on the fact that the epic, a part of folklore, is an exclusively folk creation, expresses folk ideals and therefore is stored in the people's memory. From this point of view, the scientist successfully explains almost all epic stories, only in rare cases resorting to references to ideological or authorial influence.

After establishing the area of ​​consideration V.Ya. Propp explores the issues of epic methodology in pre-revolutionary and Soviet science. He shows the failure of most of the directions, tries to focus on the need to study the epic without breaking away from the historical or artistic sides. Much attention is paid to the merits of Russian revolutionary democrats (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky and, especially, V.G. Bellinsky, the author of many articles on folk poetry), as well as A.M. Gorky. This is undoubtedly connected with the situation of the struggle against cosmopolitanism and the chauvinistic spread of the ideas of the superiority and originality of all Russian, characteristic of the time when the monograph was created. Of course, the opinions of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and other social democrats are also due to the non-orientation of V.Ya. Propp, but the dominant ideology. The author himself insists on defining the ideas of epics, for which you need to correctly understand them, to delve into all the details. He examines and compares various records to give a complete picture of the plot. Here he does not compile a consolidated version and does not identify the most common options, does not look for regional differences, but by analyzing the author's additions and alterations made over time, he tries to show the meaning that was originally invested. The resulting picture may not be confirmed by any of the specific variants of the epic, but it always makes it possible to reveal the collective intention of the people. Diverse records in relation to this idea of ​​tAU are only particular artistic cases of its implementation. V.Ya. Propp sees an epic that reflects the age-old ideals of the people, its creation refers to all the centuries during which it was polished and acquired new or lost old features. He denies the mythologization of the history of the people by the epic, because, on the contrary, the epic in its development discards the remnants of mythology. The process of the relationship between the epic and history is conceived by him as dependent not on events, but on various epochs. It is in this direction that he conducts his research [see: pp. 12-28].

An undoubted advantage is a brief note on the analysis of each of the epics under consideration by other researchers, which is included in the appendices [see: pp. 558-591]. In the event that there is too much literature on a given song to mention it all, the author selects the most significant works. He singles out works with which he completely disagrees, leaving the rest without comment.

II-3. FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPO OF DIFFERENT AGES

Primitive communal system. V.Ya. Propp is convinced that the heroic epic began to take shape long before the start of feudal relations. Since there are no direct traces of the existence of such a phenomenon, he cites as an example the numerous peoples who inhabited the territory of the USSR, who were delayed in development at the level of decomposition of the primitive communal system. All of them have a heroic epic. Using the comparison method, the scientist reveals the development of the epic from mythology in the epic songs of the peoples of Siberia and the Far North; the transition of heroic deeds from the struggle for the family unit (lyrical feelings do not play a role) to the protection of the native people or battles against the oppressors; transformation of elemental hosts into hostile monsters; high morale common to all heroes and willingness to forget their interests for the common good (often they are leaders); exaggerated appearance and actions of heroes and their enemies. The epic testifies to the beginning of the struggle for a new social order: so the family is a factor that destroys tribal relations, and the chivalry of the hero is not a sign of the past, where support was implied by itself, but a reaction to the emergence of class inequality and exploitation. In the Russian epic, however, the collisions of the hero in various worlds took their place in fairy tales, not preserved in epics. Heroic texts reflect the ideals that lie in the future, the aspirations of the era. This is the key to their longevity. The conclusions drawn are used by the author in the study of the Russian epic, making it possible to single out its most ancient elements, which makes it easier to consider its development. The author reveals a very interesting feature of Russian epic songs. While the external form of the songs of other peoples is multi-component and the plot develops not due to complication, but by the addition of new, identical links, Russian epics are essentially one-component and monolithic. Only the songs about Sadko and Potyk retained the features of their former multi-part composition. Possible merging of two plots into one (contamination), according to V.Ya. Propp, this is a secondary phenomenon, and simplicity, brevity and indivisibility are the result of a long improvement of the epic [see. details: pp. 29-58].

Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. The epic of Kievan Rus is not considered as a continuation of the epic that developed in the era of the tribal system. State relations required not the development of previous ideas, but the approval of new ones, therefore, in the epic one can trace not the remnants of the old in the new, but a conflict of worldviews belonging to these two always opposing times. Having originated in the communal system, traditions have not been interrupted. Old stories were preserved, but filled with new content. Some of them were used and reworked in order to establish the ideals of the young state, some acquired a semi-fairylike character. Such a clash of ideals can be traced in the most ancient Russian epics, epics of the era of Kievan Rus [see. details: pp. 59-61].

The entire Russian epic V.Ya. Propp considers as one Vladimirov or Kyiv cycle, and not regional epics. However, not all epics belong to the Vladimirov cycle. Part of the epics was formed even before the formation of Kievan Rus, and their content did not succumb to the process of cyclization. Such, for example, are epics about the Volkh and Svyatogor. Others were created after the formation of the cycle had ended. These are, for example, epics about the raid of the Lithuanians or about Khoten Bludovich, which appeared in the Moscow period. Some are semi-fabulous and reflect narrower ideals than the interests of the state. Among them, for example, the epic about Gleb Volodyevich or about Soloman and Vasily Okulovich. Finally, the cycle does not include epics of a clearly local character, like Novgorod ones. The author denies the concept of dividing the epics into two cycles: into Kyiv and Novgorod. The picture of the existence and distribution of epics in the modern North shows the general fame of the main characters and plots, and the national ideas reflected in the epics could hardly excite only the inhabitants of any particular region. The rest are local formations that are not widely used [see. details: pp. 66-69].

The author divides the development of the early state Russian epic into two periods: Kyiv and feudal fragmentation, when the significance of Kyiv was obscured among many local centers. In new and reworked old songs, the people reflected the intense struggle against foreign invaders, created images of heroes-defenders of the homeland. Epics of the Kyiv or Vladimir cycle are united by a common center - Kyiv, the head of which, Prince Vladimir (VlKrasno SolnyshkoV), are the heroes. The image of Vladimir is twofold. From the period of the progressive development of the state, he inherited the role of the people's leader, while class stratification later creates a social conflict between the heroes and the prince, who has become the head of his class. The secondary image of Vladimir's wife, Princess Eupraxia (Opraksa) changes somewhat differently. From the tribal system, she, as a woman, can get the role of the enemy’s handyman, as, for example, in the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, in the future she is endowed with the features of a heroic woman, in particular, saving Ilya Muromets from the wrath of her husband. Epic Kyiv served the people as a banner of unity, although it was not one. Bogatyrs from various regions become heroes of the epic only from the moment they arrive in Kyiv. They serve the Motherland and always come to the prince of Kyiv voluntarily. Specific wars are not reflected at all in the Russian epic, because they were not popular. Also, the service of heroes to specific princes is not reflected [see. details: pp. 61-70].

Period of the centralized state. With the creation in the tenth century. new powerful state, the aspirations of the people for unification and national independence came true. Former epics began to receive the names VlstarinV, but they are not forgotten, but belong to the area of ​​the heroic past. Military functions are transferred to the historical song. With the growth of class antagonism, epics about the social struggle come to the fore. We have met such songs before, but now they are losing their monumentality, winning at the same time in realism, they describe life and estates more widely, class conflicts become the main theme. Women begin to play a new role, their new positive images arise. Types of mighty heroes stop in their development, ceasing to enter new songs. The bylina begins to approach the ballad, but its spirit remains heroic [see. details: pp. 369-374].

New time (capitalism). Under capitalism, the active development of the epic stops. Its geographic range is shrinking from the once ubiquitous distribution to the deaf regions of the North. V.Ya. Propp argues with numerous theories looking for the causes of this extinction, everywhere defending the creative independence of the people. He explains the extinction of the epic by social relations and contradictions that have developed in modern times, and its preservation by private causes found in the North: the slow penetration of exploitation, the specific labor of the peasantry and natural features [see. details: pp. 505-510]. From the middle of the nineteenth century science became interested in epics. Only since then can one judge the performance of epics. The author delicately approaches the definition of the role of the performer in the singing of the epic. By examining the degree and nature of the singer's talent, one can establish the role of individual singers and the role of the entire people in the creation of the epic [see. details: pp. 510-516]. Much attention is paid to the poetic language of epics: its richness, expressiveness, accuracy of descriptions, rhythm. The epics reflected the affectionate attitude of the people towards the defenders-heroes, hatred of the invaders, admiration for the beauty of their native land, ideas about so many things that are relevant to the people [see. details: pp. 516-540]. Generally speaking, the dying of the epic by V.Ya. Propp connects with the historically logical transition to new forms of folk art [see. details: pp. 540-545].

Soviet time. The expeditions of Soviet scientists showed not only the existence of the epic in its last stronghold, the Russian North, but also the gradual cessation of the epic tradition [see. details: pp. 546-548]. Nevertheless, we can talk about a new epic epic. The author discusses this problem on the example of the famous singer M.S. Kryukova. Her talent was discovered in 1934. In Soviet times, she was actually the only performer who consciously devoted herself not only to preserving the existing heritage, but also to creating songs with a qualitatively new content. Kryukova creates new topics herself on the material of old epics and fairy tales, draws from fiction, popular science literature and the media. She overcame the isolation of the old epic, but the life of her contemporaries did not become the subject of chanting. The new content did not fit well into the old forms, often influencing the transmitted information. The epic form of the epic has outlived its own, it has become part of the heritage of national culture. The epic continues to exist in a different form, its best achievements have an impact on the heroic poetry and literature of the tradition [see. details: pp. 549-557].

II-4. ANALYSIS OF BYLIN

All considered by V.Ya. Propp divided the epics into thematic groups based on both the era, the ideals of which it reflects, and the main theme. Within the group, they are arranged in conditionally chronological order, starting with those that contain the most ancient elements or layers.

Epics of the period of Kievan Rus and feudal fragmentation. Before proceeding to the Kyiv cycle, the author examines the surviving ancient heroes [see: part 2, ch. II], whose images were formed so long before the formation of the state that it was difficult to attract them to the new ideology. Among them, he places Volkh (or Volga Vseslavlavich or Svyatoslavovich) and Svyatogor, who bear not only primitive views, but also artistic techniques rejected by the new time. In the stories about the Volkh, the oldest totemic and magical ideas have been preserved. Behind his foreign campaign for the defense of Kyiv, a glorified predatory raid is visible, initially in search of hunting grounds, and later with the aim of stealing livestock. The combination of old and new, fantastic and pseudo-historical, however, did not help the epic song about him to survive and it belongs to the rarest in the Russian epic. Subsequently, the image of Volga is used as a purely negative one and is opposed to Mikula Selyaninovich [see. details: pp. 70-76].

Unlike the Volkh, the image of Svyatogor is very popular, although it has also been noticeably erased. Its main features of tAU are enormous strength and the magnitude of tAU, characteristic of the primitive epic, is not as important in modern times as the way in which this force is used. He cannot accomplish a feat, the strength of Svyatogor is a burden, and not only to him. Both related epic tAU stories about Mikula's handbag and about the prepared coffin of tAU are connected with the hero's death. Death Svyatogor bears in itself. The time of chthonic world ordering has passed, hard work of development is needed and fate sends him, if not death, then eternal sleep [see. details: pp. 76-87].

The matchmaking of the hero is presented in the Russian epic in various versions [see: part 2, ch. III]. In such epics, the glorification of matchmaking itself and the rejection of such glorification by the state collide. It is interesting that the woman in them, if not a hero, is almost always a sorceress or a creature of evil spirits. By the death of the latter, the people maintain healthy family foundations. In the bylina about Sadko that has come down to us, the main motive is the conflict between a man from the bottom and social leaders who do not accept him. The song is a Novgorod creation, it is full of vivid life realities, but at the same time it is fabulously fantastic. Its unique feature is tAU multi-composition. In the first part, the sea king, the elemental master, helps the poor harpman Sadko to get rich, to move to higher social strata. The second tAU is already completely realistic. Sadko is trying to establish himself on an equal footing among the higher merchants, comes into conflict with her, but it is clear that he is in conflict with the great Novgorod and the city remains the winner. In the most archaic third part, the hero overcomes the temptation of marriage with a sea princess for the sake of his native Novgorod. The real world triumphs over the mythical [see. details: pp. 87-111].

Another multi-linked and in some places even more archaic epic TAU song about Mikhailo Potyk. According to the plot, it is one of the most difficult, and for me, one of the most interesting. Marya the white swan, having appeared to Potyk, who had left Kyiv, proposes herself as a wife and easily enters into marriage with him, setting the condition: upon the death of one of the spouses, both will be buried. Soon Mikhailo lies down with her in the grave, but finds a way to revive her and return himself. The deception allows Marya to make several more attempts to kill him, moreover, when she has already cheated on him. An unholy marriage to someone else’s is condemned by everyone, but nevertheless, it is thanks to human and higher help that Potyk remains alive after all the ups and downs. Fighting for his wife, he does not accomplish a feat, but comes to a shameful fall. Fascinated by magical passion, Mikhailo alone is unable to understand the infernal nature of the chosen one. For the Russian epic, the motive of marriage ceases to be heroic, a struggle is waged against it [see. details: pp. 111-128]. Personally, in this epic, in the image of Marya, I see the development of the concept of evil spirits, merged with the opposition of Russian to foreign, and not just an enemy. She chooses Potyk as her husband to use him as a chance to revive, but when Marya later tries to get rid of Mikhailo, he does not die. The time for people like her is over. The evil spirit has an influence on a person, but cannot build his fate as she pleases.

Ivan Godinovich deliberately looks for a foreign bride. She, at the first opportunity, prefers to betray the Kyiv hero in order to return to the pagan world. The people do not allow the Russian hero to die at the hands of strangers, give him the opportunity to take revenge, thus destroying the hostile evil spirits, but at the same time mock him [see. details: pp. 128-136].

The dramatic and highly artistic epic about the Danube and Nastasya is not without reason considered one of the best in the Russian epic. In this song, the source of all evil is the proud hero who has strayed from Kyiv, and not his alien wife, and in his shame he is not worthy of the people's pity. The Danube, who was previously in the service of a foreign king, goes to him for his daughter, a bride for Prince Vladimir, whom she takes by force. On the way back, he encounters a warrior in battle, defeats her, but at the last moment he recognizes in the hero another daughter of his former master, with whom he had been in close relations for a long time. A double wedding, according to the laws of the epic, is overshadowed by a conflict. The Danube boasting of his strength (a real hero is modest) leads to a shooting contest between him and Nastasya, who indicated to him the acceptable degree of politeness and the real price of the hero. Angered by failures, the Danube kills his wife, knowing that she is pregnant, and when, having spread her womb, he sees a wonderful baby, the future great hero, he throws himself on a spear next to the corpse [see. details: pp. 136-156].

The epic song about Kozarin has a semi-ballad character and only on the basis of saving a woman can it be attributed to epics about matchmaking. Noble in character and rejected by his own family, the hero saves from the hands of the Tatars, who play the role of kidnappers here, and not conquerors, a girl who turns out to be his sister. Having returned her to the family, he again goes to the open field. The Russian hero does not seek approval for exploits, but accomplishes them because he cannot do otherwise [see. details: pp. 156-169].

The idyllic epic of a completely ballad character about Nightingale Budimirovich also belongs to the field of the epic. After a gradual decrease in the alienation of the bride from a representative of evil spirits to a Russian sorceress (see the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka below), a song about the happy marriage of the hero naturally appeared. The happy epic, closely associated with ritual wedding poetry, completes a major step in the Russian epic, giving way to the development of other forms of heroic songs [see. details: pp. 169-181].

A group of epics about the struggle of a hero with monsters (see: part 2, ch. IV) combines the names of favorite folk heroes. The appearance of the enemy changed depending on the real historical struggle of the Russian people. The most common epic in the Russian epic about Dobrynya and the Serpent confronts the most cultured and diplomatic hero with a vivid artistic embodiment of the natural elements. The first battle with the Serpent at the Puchay River lies outside the Kyiv cycle and cannot be brought to an end, so that, freeing Zabava Putyatishna on the orders of her uncle Vladimir, the hero could, after fighting the Serpent for the second time, lead many Russian people out of his lair . The ancient motif of kidnapping helps to turn the feat accomplished on the orders of the prince into a feat to protect Russia. Dobrynya's rejection of the hand of Zabava and the peculiarities of some versions of the song draw attention to the hidden antagonism of heroes, folk heroes, and the upper strata [see. details: pp. 181-208]. This conflict is emphasized in the Russian epic repeatedly, and the author, in view of the prevailing ideological attitudes, pays great attention to social confrontation.

The song about Alyosha and Tugarin is very close to the epic about Dobrynya's snake fighting. However, here a cheerful, witty and sometimes not very strong hero, with the help of ingenuity, cracks down on an awkward, rude and ill-mannered opponent, in which fantastic features are partially replaced by those close to reality. The enemy has brazenly settled down in the chambers of Vladimir, he behaves defiantly and freely keeps with Princess Evpraksia, demonstrating their close relationship. However, no one protests (the heroes are absent at this time). Alyosha, who came modestly, finds this. He mocks Tugarin's dishonorable behavior, challenges him to a fight and destroys the shame of the Russian prince's groveling before the invaders [see. details: pp. 208-227].

The central figure of the Russian heroic epic TAU Ilya Muromets. In it, the people combined selfless love for the Motherland, the highest moral qualities and maturity respectfully distinguishing the hero. In the epic about Idolishche, most likely derived from the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, an almost anthropomorphic monster, bearing some Tatar features, surrounds Kyiv with troops, and itself goes to the prince's palace, where it also behaves outrageously. Having learned about this from Vlkaliki perekhozhego, "Ilya hurries to the rescue. Having come in the clothes of beggars persecuted by the new owner of the city, he kills the enemy without unnecessary preludes. In another existing version, when Idolishche settles in Constantinople and forbids Orthodoxy there, a later church influence is clearly felt. The people who keep this bylina themselves mock the kalika-messenger and the pilgrimage image of Elijah [see. details: pp. 227-239].

Stories about the healing of Ilya Muromets and the conquest of the Nightingale the Robber are often combined into an epic song about Ilya's first trip. In the first narrative, references to a peasant origin, Ilya's long illness from youth to adulthood, and the heroic power bestowed on him by wonderful wanderers are unchanged. The archaic plot here acquires realistic features. The people bring their beloved hero closer not only to a conceivable ideal, but also to themselves, to reality. In the second TAU, Ilya, who is going to serve the Motherland in Kyiv, destroys the hostile army near Chernigov, captures the Nightingale the Robber, who blocked the straight path with his outpost, and destroys his unclean brood. Along the way, he bridges the swamps and clears an abandoned road from the forest. His main merit in paving the way to Kyiv. Fragmented Russia begins to unite. Already at the first meeting, the conflict between Ilya and Vladimir is visible, which will only increase in the future. The prince and the boyars are made ridiculous when they try to give orders to the proud, but more than Vladimir, Nightingale, who understands the role of Muromets [see. details: pp. 239-260].

A fairy tale is a more ancient genre than an epic; it retains much of prehistoric antiquity. The epic becomes more complex and discards or transforms what does not meet the increasing requirements. However, there is a group of epics that are very close to a fairy tale. They are not typical for the heroic epic, they are often personal and entertaining in nature, but nevertheless, due to the presence of heroic motives, V.Ya. Propp also explores them [see: part 2, ch. IV]. One of the most interesting plots of TAU is the battle of Ilya Muromets with his son. Ilya's temporary marriage to Vlpolenitsa, whom he defeated, and his leaving his pregnant wife are the most archaic. At the same time, their son is teased by peers and he goes to avenge the dishonor of his mother. Muromets faces his son as a border trespasser, recognizes him and introduces him into the circle of heroes. But when he again tries to kill his father at night, Ilya does not hesitate to doubly kill the traitor [see. details: pp. 263-266].

In the epic about the three trips of Ilya, the hero from the crossroads of three roads follows in directions where, according to the road stone, death, marriage and wealth await him. The calm choice of the first road by him and the destruction of the danger lurking there are close to the heroic epic, while the rest of the adventures are of a fabulous and ecclesiastical nature [see. details: pp. 260-270].

I like the song about Dobrynya and Marinka. And so, having high moral qualities, the hero appears morally completely pure, and the sorceress tAU, who harms him, is a seductive enchantress. Marinka, trying to seduce the hero, causes only disgust in his chaste soul. Then the evil sorceress bewitches him, and when he, exhausted by witchcraft, comes to her against his will, turns him into a tour. Dobrynya's mother, who herself is sometimes a pure sorceress, contributes to the salvation of her son, and he, having agreed to a symbolic marriage with Marinka, brutally cracks down on the enemy as a husband [see. details: pp. 270-279].

The epic about the departure of Dobrynya and the failed marriage of Alyosha is one of the most common in the Russian epic. Due to Dobrynya's long absence, his wife is about to marry Alyosha, who brought the news of her husband's death, when Dobrynya returns unharmed and Alyosha is left in an uncomfortable position. The intriguing conflict of two characters very different in temperament, united by the defense of the Motherland, cannot acquire the gloomy bloody denouement characteristic of the epic. The ancient plot takes on a comic coloring in the finale, the heroes reconcile, and the woman says goodbye. This song gave many scientists the opportunity to try to portray Alyosha Popovich in a negative and immoral way, as a deceiver of honest women, although the only thing that can be accused of him here is tAU false news. Generally speaking, in the epic Alyosha appears temperamental and mischievous, but not immoral in any way. Prince Vladimir, on the other hand, who in some cases forced Dobrynya's wife into marriage, is sharply condemned [see. details: pp. 279-288].

Epics about the reflection of the Tatars. The heavy yoke of the Mongol conquerors, which hindered the development of Russia, at the same time contributed to a new stage in the development of the Russian epic, the emergence of a number of patriotic epics that glorified the military overthrow of oppression. The songs were filled with new ideological content, acquired new artistic features and broke with the old traditions. The only content of the epics for a long time was the theme of the struggle for independence, honor and freedom of the Motherland [see: part 3]. In the song about Ilya's rebellion against Vladimir, we see as if a contradiction in the main idea of ​​the Russian epic, serving Kyiv, however, here the social difference between a hero from the people and a rich prince finally results in a clash. Muromets, uninvited to the feast, comes there without permission. The prince does not recognize him, once again demonstrating how little he appreciates all the merits of the hero. Insulted, Ilya defiantly leaves and arranges his feast for all the poor. On the slander of the boyars, Vladimir puts him here in the cellar to starve to death. Sometimes, this instruction is carried out, in other cases, Vladimir is forced to reconcile with the hero and arrange a feast especially for him, or Ilya and all the heroes leave Kyiv. In any case, the prince will be put to shame in the future, while the hero will triumph. This epic demonstrates how an insurmountable abyss opened between the people and the class power before the invasion of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 291-303].

In almost all epics about the reflection of the Tatars, the appearance of the Tatars near Kyiv and their dispersal by Russian troops is sung. A circle of songs about Ilya Muromets and Tsar Kalin, organically connected with one another, V.Ya. Propp considers in totality [see: part 3, ch. II, item 2]. This allows you to get a picture of the invasion painted by the people step by step and find out the deep folk aspirations in each song. The poetic chant, which opens one of the epics of the cycle under consideration, tells of a sign that foreshadows death for Kyiv. Since this is the only case of a meeting of faith in signs in the epic, Kyiv does not perish at all, but is saved, and there is a separate antiquity with a similar plot on a completely religious theme, the author with every reason sees here a motif unreasonably attached to the military epic [see. details: pp. 306-310]. The appearance of the Tatars is described with a high degree of historicity: huge enemy hordes, a clear organization of the troops, an absolute command, the siege tactics of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 310-314]. The Tatar ambassador, who arrived in Kyiv with the khan's label, always behaves defiantly, emphasizing the ultimatum terms of surrender and contempt for the Russians [see. details: pp. 314-316]. Also historical are many cruel demands and threats of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 316-318]. Vladimir, in the face of impending danger, does nothing to actively defend the city. He prays, thinks about the surrender of the city, about the acceptance of the Tatar conditions [see. details: pp. 318-321]. There are no heroes in Kyiv at this time. Sometimes they went away on business, but more often they are in the prince's disgrace, which he regrets [see. details: pp. 321-322]. The main defender of the city, Ilya Muromets, sentenced to starvation in the cellar, was secretly supplied with food through the efforts of Princess Evpraksia, and now Vladimir is trying to persuade him to defend not the authorities, but the Fatherland. The hero agrees, often after reprisals against the boyars who are guilty of slander [see. details: pp. 322-326]. Soberly assessing the strength of the enemy [see. details: pp. 326-327], Ilya himself goes to the camp to Kalinin, where he asks for a delay and receives it [see. details: pp. 327-328]. By entrusting someone with the fortification of the city [see. details: pp. 328-329], Muromets undertakes to look for heroes. He finds them at Samson's Headquarters, a new camp where warriors have been idle since their disgrace. Oddly enough for the epic, the heroes refuse to go. But this desire arises because of the proximity to the people, and not the princely-boyar Russia. They will strike at the decisive moment [cf. details: pp. 329-331]. In the deserted Kyiv, a young hero Yermak (not a historical person, but a character of the same name introduced into the epic for merit) appears to Vladimir and asks for permission to fight the enemies. Having failed to fulfill the princely orders, Yermak goes to the heroic headquarters. Muromets sends him to count the enemy force, but the hot Yermak rushes into battle and dies. This exceptional in the Russian epic case of the death of a hero is a consequence of a violation of the order of Ilya [see. details: pp. 332-334]. Combat is always described briefly. If there is no heroic support, then Muromets rushes into battle alone. If it is, he sensibly directs the distribution of forces [see. details: pp. 334-337]. Sometimes Ilya is captured by cunning and brought to Kalin, who is trying to lure the hero to his side [see. details: pp. 337-338]. The hostile proposal leads Muromets into such a rage that he breaks his chains and, waving the first Tatar that comes across and calling Samson and other heroes with a spoken arrow, finally finishes off the Tatars. Leaving, the enemy takes an oath never to return [see. details: pp. 338-339]. Along with the final defeat of the enemy, there is another ending to this song, called the epic about the Kama (Mamaev) battle, or about the time since when the knights were transferred to Russia. In one version of it, two brothers who did not participate in the battle begin to boast and the Tatars come to life, and it is not possible to chop the living dead, their number only increases. Prayer destroys the unearthly power, while the heroes disperse to the monasteries. This song has a religious and church orientation, it is due to sermons about humility. In another version, proud of their victory, the heroes themselves challenge the Heavenly Forces. They fearlessly destroy the revived power. The character of this epic, on the contrary, is atheistic, and it expresses the thoughts of the people [see. details: pp. 339-344]. In addition to this song, many later ones based on it also tell about the struggle against the Tatars, for example, the epic about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyga. Before the impending invasion, Vladimir goes to a tavern to ask for help from the only remaining hero Vasily, who has been drinking for years and skipped absolutely everything. Having drunkenly, he kills Batu's close associates with spoken arrows, who sends a demand to extradite the guilty one. In one case, the hero himself goes to the enemy camp and, having deceived the Tatar army into the wilderness, destroys it. In another, the advice of the boyars immediately betrays Vasily. Now he really concludes an agreement with the enemy in order to lead him against the city's rich, sparing Prince Vladimir after all. Tatars plunder the city, not observing the agreement, and

Watching along with it.

“RUSSIAN HEROIC EPO IN THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA"

Abstract of the student of the 244th group of the faculty (JNF)

Novikov Boris Yurievich

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

St. Petersburg State Institute of Fine Mechanics and Optics

(Technical University)

Faculty of Humanities

Department of Cultural Studies

St. Petersburg

I. Introduction

The works of Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970), a well-known professor of Leningrad University, a specialist in Russian folklore, created by him in the first half and middle of the 20th century, are considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of Russian folklore. I am a little interested in Russian folklore and I have long wanted to get acquainted with them. These fundamental studies are available even to readers who do not have special philological training. They explore not only folklore, its genres and manifestations in rites and rituals, but also its significance for the people, its poetics, its influence on modern culture. Book V.Ya. Propp "Russian Heroic Epic" is the first and still the only monograph devoted to Russian epics. It first appeared in 1955, the second revised edition was published in 1958. The works of the scientist “The Morphology of a Fairy Tale” (1928) and “The Historical Roots of a Fairy Tale” (1946) have already seen the light, which influenced the nature of this study. The author has considered all the diverse plots, so it is possible to use the book as a reference book on the epic. Each thought is first formulated, and then developed and proved. The most important judgments are duplicated. Pedagogical experience allowed V.Ya. Propp most clearly organize sections and topics, present the facts and their analysis in an accessible and lively language. The reader is not tired of unnecessary details, but is not left without numerous references and explanations. The ordered material and the description of the methods of its processing convince of the correctness of the conclusions made by the author. The monograph "Russian Heroic Epic" received the first university prize. In the future, it will be considered precisely it, all references, except for those specifically indicated, will refer to the publication indicated in the list of references.

II. main part

II-one. VIEWS OF VARIOUS SCIENTISTS ON THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA

After the publication of the work "The Russian Heroic Epic", an impulse to controversy arose on many issues of epic studies. The main dispute with V.Ya. Proppa turned around with B.A. Rybakov, an influential supporter of the historical school in the folklore environment (Rybakov B.A. Historical view of Russian epics // History of the USSR. 1961. No. 5. P. 141-166; No. 6. P. 80-96; Propp V.Ya. On the historicism of the Russian epic (answer to Academician B.A. Rybakov) // Russian Literature, 1962. No. 11. P. 98-111, see also: On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study // Propp V.Ya. Poetics folklore, Moscow, 1998, pp. 185-208). Scientists B.N. Putilov, Yu.I. Yudin and I.Ya. Froyanov developed and supplemented the ideas of V.Ya. Propp. In the future, there was a tendency to both apply the method of the scientist in the analysis of the epic plot, and to identify the historical basis of the epic. In the study of epics, modern folklorists conduct a scientific search, invariably using the achievements of V. Ya Propp.

II-2. METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ANALYSIS

In his work "Russian Heroic Epic" V.Ya. Propp shows the talent of a researcher and the skills of a teacher. Before proceeding to the consideration of the material, the author determines the subject of study itself. He considers the most decisive features of the epic, of course, the heroic nature of its content, as well as the musical form of performance, poetic and special metrical structures. It is important for him here to separate the heroic epic itself from both some prose genres, for example, fairy tales and some types of old stories, and in general from works of epic verse, such as epic spiritual poems, songs of a ballad and buffoon character. Also, historical songs closely related to it are separated from the epic, and the author stands here in opposition to the historical and neohistorical schools that were dominant at that time [see: pp. 6-12]. Supporters of this trend sought to find in the epic a reflection of a specific historical event and to find historical prototypes for its heroes. At the same time, the general idea of ​​the song and its main idea were not taken into account. From this followed unjustified and debunked attempts to bring epic characters out of chronicles, to correlate the appearance of the epic with the formation of Kievan Rus, to attribute the authorship of the epic not to the people, but to the retinue elite. The author strongly objects to this. He himself stands on the fact that the epic, a part of folklore, is an exclusively folk creation, expresses folk ideals and therefore is stored in the people's memory. From this point of view, the scientist successfully explains almost all epic stories, only in rare cases resorting to references to ideological or authorial influence.

After establishing the area of ​​consideration V.Ya. Propp explores the issues of epic methodology in pre-revolutionary and Soviet science. He shows the failure of most of the directions, tries to focus on the need to study the epic without breaking away from the historical or artistic sides. Much attention is paid to the merits of Russian revolutionary democrats (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky and, especially, V.G. Bellinsky, the author of many articles on folk poetry), as well as A.M. Gorky. This is undoubtedly connected with the situation of the struggle against cosmopolitanism and the chauvinistic spread of the ideas of the superiority and originality of all Russian, characteristic of the time when the monograph was created. Of course, the opinions of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and other social democrats are also due to the non-orientation of V.Ya. Propp, but the dominant ideology. The author himself insists on defining the ideas of epics, for which you need to correctly understand them, to delve into all the details. He examines and compares various records to give a complete picture of the plot. Here he does not compile a consolidated version and does not identify the most common options, does not look for regional differences, but by analyzing the author's additions and alterations made over time, he tries to show the meaning that was originally invested. The resulting picture may not be confirmed by any of the specific variants of the epic, but it always makes it possible to reveal the collective intention of the people. Diverse records in relation to this idea are only particular artistic cases of its implementation. V.Ya. Propp sees an epic that reflects the age-old ideals of the people, its creation refers to all the centuries during which it was polished and acquired new or lost old features. He denies the mythologization of the history of the people by the epic, because, on the contrary, the epic in its development discards the remnants of mythology. The process of the relationship between the epic and history is conceived by him as dependent not on events, but on various epochs. It is in this direction that he conducts his research [see: pp. 12-28].

An undoubted advantage is a brief note on the analysis of each of the epics under consideration by other researchers, which is included in the appendices [see: pp. 558-591]. In the event that there is too much literature on a given song to mention it all, the author selects the most significant works. He singles out works with which he completely disagrees, leaving the rest without comment.

II-3. FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPO OF DIFFERENT AGES

Primitive communal system. V.Ya. Propp is convinced that the heroic epic began to take shape long before the start of feudal relations. Since there are no direct traces of the existence of such a phenomenon, he cites as an example the numerous peoples who inhabited the territory of the USSR, who were delayed in development at the level of decomposition of the primitive communal system. All of them have a heroic epic. Using the comparison method, the scientist reveals the development of the epic from mythology in the epic songs of the peoples of Siberia and the Far North; the transition of heroic deeds from the struggle for the family unit (lyrical feelings do not play a role) to the protection of the native people or battles against the oppressors; transformation of elemental hosts into hostile monsters; high morale common to all heroes and willingness to forget their interests for the common good (often they are leaders); exaggerated appearance and actions of heroes and their enemies. The epic testifies to the beginning of the struggle for a new social order: so the family is a factor that destroys tribal relations, and the chivalry of the hero is not a sign of the past, where support was implied by itself, but a reaction to the emergence of class inequality and exploitation. In the Russian epic, however, the collisions of the hero in various worlds took their place in fairy tales, not preserved in epics. Heroic texts reflect the ideals that lie in the future, the aspirations of the era. This is the key to their longevity. The conclusions drawn are used by the author in the study of the Russian epic, making it possible to single out its most ancient elements, which makes it easier to consider its development. The author reveals a very interesting feature of Russian epic songs. While the external form of the songs of other peoples is multi-component and the plot develops not due to complication, but by the addition of new, identical links, Russian epics are essentially one-component and monolithic. Only the songs about Sadko and Potyk retained the features of their former multi-part composition. Possible merging of two plots into one (contamination), according to V.Ya. Propp, this is a secondary phenomenon, and simplicity, brevity and indivisibility are the result of a long improvement of the epic [see. details: pp. 29-58].

Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. The epic of Kievan Rus is not considered as a continuation of the epic that developed in the era of the tribal system. State relations required not the development of previous ideas, but the approval of new ones, therefore, in the epic one can trace not the remnants of the old in the new, but a conflict of worldviews belonging to these two always opposing times. Having originated in the communal system, traditions have not been interrupted. Old stories were preserved, but filled with new content. Some of them were used and reworked in order to establish the ideals of the young state, some acquired a semi-fairylike character. Such a clash of ideals can be traced in the most ancient Russian epics, epics of the era of Kievan Rus [see. details: pp. 59-61].

The entire Russian epic V.Ya. Propp considers as one Vladimirov or Kyiv cycle, and not regional epics. However, not all epics belong to the Vladimirov cycle. Part of the epics was formed even before the formation of Kievan Rus, and their content did not succumb to the process of cyclization. Such, for example, are epics about the Volkh and Svyatogor. Others were created after the formation of the cycle had ended. These are, for example, epics about the raid of the Lithuanians or about Khoten Bludovich, which appeared in the Moscow period. Some are semi-fabulous and reflect narrower ideals than the interests of the state. Among them, for example, the epic about Gleb Volodyevich or about Soloman and Vasily Okulovich. Finally, the cycle does not include epics of a clearly local character, like Novgorod ones. The author denies the concept of dividing the epics into two cycles: into Kyiv and Novgorod. The picture of the existence and distribution of epics in the modern North shows the general fame of the main characters and plots, and the national ideas reflected in the epics could hardly excite only the inhabitants of any particular region. The rest are local formations that are not widely used [see. details: pp. 66-69].

The author divides the development of the early state Russian epic into two periods: Kyiv and feudal fragmentation, when the significance of Kyiv was obscured among many local centers. In new and reworked old songs, the people reflected the intense struggle against foreign invaders, created images of heroes-defenders of the homeland. Epics of the Kyiv or Vladimir cycle are united by a common center - Kyiv, the head of which, Prince Vladimir ("Red Sun"), are the heroes. The image of Vladimir is twofold. From the period of the progressive development of the state, he inherited the role of the people's leader, while class stratification later creates a social conflict between the heroes and the prince, who has become the head of his class. The secondary image of Vladimir's wife, Princess Eupraxia (Opraksa) changes somewhat differently. From the tribal system, she, as a woman, can get the role of the enemy’s handyman, as, for example, in the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, in the future she is endowed with the features of a heroic woman, in particular, saving Ilya Muromets from the wrath of her husband. Epic Kyiv served the people as a banner of unity, although it was not one. Bogatyrs from various regions become heroes of the epic only from the moment they arrive in Kyiv. They serve the Motherland and always come to the prince of Kyiv voluntarily. Specific wars are not reflected at all in the Russian epic, because they were not popular. Also, the service of heroes to specific princes is not reflected [see. details: pp. 61-70].

Period of the centralized state. With the creation in the tenth century. new powerful state, the aspirations of the people for unification and national independence came true. Former epics began to receive the names of "stars", but they are not forgotten, but belong to the area of ​​the heroic past. Military functions are transferred to the historical song. With the growth of class antagonism, epics about the social struggle come to the fore. We have met such songs before, but now they are losing their monumentality, winning at the same time in realism, they describe life and estates more widely, class conflicts become the main theme. Women begin to play a new role, their new positive images arise. Types of mighty heroes stop in their development, ceasing to enter new songs. The bylina begins to approach the ballad, but its spirit remains heroic [see. details: pp. 369-374].

New time (capitalism). Under capitalism, the active development of the epic stops. Its geographic range is shrinking from the once ubiquitous distribution to the deaf regions of the North. V.Ya. Propp argues with numerous theories looking for the causes of this extinction, everywhere defending the creative independence of the people. He explains the extinction of the epic by social relations and contradictions that have developed in modern times, and its preservation by private causes found in the North: the slow penetration of exploitation, the specific labor of the peasantry and natural features [see. details: pp. 505-510]. From the middle of the nineteenth century science became interested in epics. Only since then can one judge the performance of epics. The author delicately approaches the definition of the role of the performer in the singing of the epic. By examining the degree and nature of the singer's talent, one can establish the role of individual singers and the role of the entire people in the creation of the epic [see. details: pp. 510-516]. Much attention is paid to the poetic language of epics: its richness, expressiveness, accuracy of descriptions, rhythm. The epics reflected the affectionate attitude of the people towards the defenders-heroes, hatred of the invaders, admiration for the beauty of their native land, ideas about so many things that are relevant to the people [see. details: pp. 516-540]. Generally speaking, the dying of the epic by V.Ya. Propp connects with the historically logical transition to new forms of folk art [see. details: pp. 540-545].

Soviet time. The expeditions of Soviet scientists showed not only the existence of the epic in its last stronghold, the Russian North, but also the gradual cessation of the epic tradition [see. details: pp. 546-548]. Nevertheless, we can talk about a new epic epic. The author discusses this problem on the example of the famous singer M.S. Kryukova. Her talent was discovered in 1934. In Soviet times, she was actually the only performer who consciously devoted herself not only to preserving the existing heritage, but also to creating songs with a qualitatively new content. Kryukova creates new topics herself on the material of old epics and fairy tales, draws from fiction, popular science literature and the media. She overcame the isolation of the old epic, but the life of her contemporaries did not become the subject of chanting. The new content did not fit well into the old forms, often influencing the transmitted information. The epic form of the epic has outlived its own, it has become part of the heritage of national culture. The epic continues to exist in a different form, its best achievements have an impact on the heroic poetry and literature of the tradition [see. details: pp. 549-557].

II-4. ANALYSIS OF BYLIN

All considered by V.Ya. Propp divided the epics into thematic groups based on both the era, the ideals of which it reflects, and the main theme. Within the group, they are arranged in conditionally chronological order, starting with those that contain the most ancient elements or layers.

Epics of the period of Kievan Rus and feudal fragmentation. Before proceeding to the Kyiv cycle, the author examines the surviving ancient heroes [see: part 2, ch. II], whose images were formed so long before the formation of the state that it was difficult to attract them to the new ideology. Among them, he places Volkh (or Volga Vseslavlavich or Svyatoslavovich) and Svyatogor, who bear not only primitive views, but also artistic techniques rejected by the new time. In the stories about the Volkh, the oldest totemic and magical ideas have been preserved. Behind his foreign campaign for the defense of Kyiv, a glorified predatory raid is visible, initially in search of hunting grounds, and later with the aim of stealing livestock. The combination of old and new, fantastic and pseudo-historical, however, did not help the epic song about him to survive and it belongs to the rarest in the Russian epic. Subsequently, the image of Volga is used as a purely negative one and is opposed to Mikula Selyaninovich [see. details: pp. 70-76].

Unlike the Volkh, the image of Svyatogor is very popular, although it has also been noticeably erased. Its main features - enormous strength and size - characteristic of the primitive epic, are not as important in modern times as the way in which this force is used. He cannot accomplish a feat, the strength of Svyatogor is a burden, and not only to him. Both epic stories associated with him - about Mikula's handbag and about the prepared coffin - are connected with the death of the hero. Death Svyatogor bears in itself. The time of chthonic world ordering has passed, hard work of development is needed and fate sends him, if not death, then eternal sleep [see. details: pp. 76-87].

The matchmaking of the hero is presented in the Russian epic in various versions [see: part 2, ch. III]. In such epics, the glorification of matchmaking itself and the rejection of such glorification by the state collide. It is interesting that the woman in them, if not a hero, is almost always a sorceress or a creature of evil spirits. By the death of the latter, the people maintain healthy family foundations. In the bylina about Sadko that has come down to us, the main motive is the conflict between a man from the bottom and social leaders who do not accept him. The song is a Novgorod creation, it is full of vivid life realities, but at the same time it is fabulously fantastic. Its unique feature is its versatility. In the first part, the sea king, the elemental master, helps the poor harpman Sadko to get rich, to move to higher social strata. The second one is completely realistic. Sadko is trying to establish himself on an equal footing among the higher merchants, comes into conflict with her, but it is clear that he is in conflict with the great Novgorod and the city remains the winner. In the most archaic third part, the hero overcomes the temptation of marriage with a sea princess for the sake of his native Novgorod. The real world triumphs over the mythical [see. details: pp. 87-111].

Another multi-linked and in some places even more archaic epic is the song about Mikhailo Potyk. According to the plot, it is one of the most difficult, and for me, one of the most interesting. Marya the white swan, having appeared to Potyk, who had left Kyiv, proposes herself as a wife and easily enters into marriage with him, setting the condition: upon the death of one of the spouses, both will be buried. Soon Mikhailo lies down with her in the grave, but finds a way to revive her and return himself. The deception allows Marya to make several more attempts to kill him, moreover, when she has already cheated on him. An unholy marriage to someone else’s is condemned by everyone, but nevertheless, it is thanks to human and higher help that Potyk remains alive after all the ups and downs. Fighting for his wife, he does not accomplish a feat, but comes to a shameful fall. Fascinated by magical passion, Mikhailo alone is unable to understand the infernal nature of the chosen one. For the Russian epic, the motive of marriage ceases to be heroic, a struggle is waged against it [see. details: pp. 111-128]. Personally, in this epic, in the image of Marya, I see the development of the concept of evil spirits, merged with the opposition of Russian to foreign, and not just an enemy. She chooses Potyk as her husband to use him as a chance to revive, but when Marya later tries to get rid of Mikhailo, he does not die. The time for people like her is over. The evil spirit has an influence on a person, but cannot build his fate as she pleases.

Ivan Godinovich deliberately looks for a foreign bride. She, at the first opportunity, prefers to betray the Kyiv hero in order to return to the pagan world. The people do not allow the Russian hero to die at the hands of strangers, give him the opportunity to take revenge, thus destroying the hostile evil spirits, but at the same time mock him [see. details: pp. 128-136].

The dramatic and highly artistic epic about the Danube and Nastasya is not without reason considered one of the best in the Russian epic. In this song, the source of all evil is the proud hero who has strayed from Kyiv, and not his alien wife, and in his shame he is not worthy of the people's pity. The Danube, who was previously in the service of a foreign king, goes to him for his daughter, a bride for Prince Vladimir, whom she takes by force. On the way back, he encounters a warrior in battle, defeats her, but at the last moment he recognizes in the hero another daughter of his former master, with whom he had been in close relations for a long time. A double wedding, according to the laws of the epic, is overshadowed by a conflict. The Danube boasting of his strength (a real hero is modest) leads to a shooting contest between him and Nastasya, who indicated to him the acceptable degree of politeness and the real price of the hero. Angered by failures, the Danube kills his wife, knowing that she is pregnant, and when, having spread her womb, he sees a wonderful baby, the future great hero, he throws himself on a spear next to the corpse [see. details: pp. 136-156].

The epic song about Kozarin has a semi-ballad character and only on the basis of saving a woman can it be attributed to epics about matchmaking. Noble in character and rejected by his own family, the hero saves from the hands of the Tatars, who play the role of kidnappers here, and not conquerors, a girl who turns out to be his sister. Having returned her to the family, he again goes to the open field. The Russian hero does not seek approval for exploits, but accomplishes them because he cannot do otherwise [see. details: pp. 156-169].

The idyllic epic of a completely ballad character about Nightingale Budimirovich also belongs to the field of the epic. After a gradual decrease in the alienation of the bride from a representative of evil spirits to a Russian sorceress (see the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka below), a song about the happy marriage of the hero naturally appeared. The happy epic, closely associated with ritual wedding poetry, completes a major step in the Russian epic, giving way to the development of other forms of heroic songs [see. details: pp. 169-181].

A group of epics about the struggle of a hero with monsters (see: part 2, ch. IV) combines the names of favorite folk heroes. The appearance of the enemy changed depending on the real historical struggle of the Russian people. The most common epic in the Russian epic about Dobrynya and the Serpent confronts the most cultured and diplomatic hero with a vivid artistic embodiment of the natural elements. The first battle with the Serpent at the Puchay River lies outside the Kyiv cycle and cannot be brought to an end, so that, freeing Zabava Putyatishna on the orders of her uncle Vladimir, the hero could, after fighting the Serpent for the second time, lead many Russian people out of his lair . The ancient motif of kidnapping helps to turn the feat accomplished on the orders of the prince into a feat to protect Russia. Dobrynya's rejection of the hand of Zabava and the peculiarities of some versions of the song draw attention to the hidden antagonism of heroes, folk heroes, and the upper strata [see. details: pp. 181-208]. This conflict is emphasized in the Russian epic repeatedly, and the author, in view of the prevailing ideological attitudes, pays great attention to social confrontation.

The song about Alyosha and Tugarin is very close to the epic about Dobrynya's snake fighting. However, here a cheerful, witty and sometimes not very strong hero, with the help of ingenuity, cracks down on an awkward, rude and ill-mannered opponent, in which fantastic features are partially replaced by those close to reality. The enemy has brazenly settled down in the chambers of Vladimir, he behaves defiantly and freely keeps with Princess Evpraksia, demonstrating their close relationship. However, no one protests (the heroes are absent at this time). Alyosha, who came modestly, finds this. He mocks Tugarin's dishonorable behavior, challenges him to a fight and destroys the shame of the Russian prince's groveling before the invaders [see. details: pp. 208-227].

The central figure of the Russian heroic epic is Ilya Muromets. In it, the people combined selfless love for the Motherland, the highest moral qualities and maturity respectfully distinguishing the hero. In the epic about Idolishche, most likely derived from the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, an almost anthropomorphic monster, bearing some Tatar features, surrounds Kyiv with troops, and itself goes to the prince's palace, where it also behaves outrageously. Having learned about this from the "passable Kalika", Ilya hurries to the rescue. Having come in the clothes of beggars persecuted by the new owner of the city, he kills the enemy without unnecessary preludes. In another existing version, when Idolishche settles in Constantinople and forbids Orthodoxy there, a later church influence is clearly felt. The people who keep this bylina themselves mock the kalika-messenger and the pilgrimage image of Elijah [see. details: pp. 227-239].

Stories about the healing of Ilya Muromets and the conquest of the Nightingale the Robber are often combined into an epic song about Ilya's first trip. In the first narrative, references to a peasant origin, Ilya's long illness from youth to adulthood, and the heroic power bestowed on him by wonderful wanderers are unchanged. The archaic plot here acquires realistic features. The people bring their beloved hero closer not only to a conceivable ideal, but also to themselves, to reality. In the second, Ilya, who is going to serve the Motherland in Kyiv, destroys the hostile army near Chernigov, captures the Nightingale the Robber, who blocked the straight path with his outpost, and destroys his unclean brood. Along the way, he bridges the swamps and clears an abandoned road from the forest. His main merit in paving the way to Kyiv. Fragmented Russia begins to unite. Already at the first meeting, the conflict between Ilya and Vladimir is visible, which will only increase in the future. The prince and the boyars are made ridiculous when they try to give orders to the proud, but more than Vladimir, Nightingale, who understands the role of Muromets [see. details: pp. 239-260].

A fairy tale is a more ancient genre than an epic; it retains much of prehistoric antiquity. The epic becomes more complex and discards or transforms what does not meet the increasing requirements. However, there is a group of epics that are very close to a fairy tale. They are not typical for the heroic epic, they are often personal and entertaining in nature, but nevertheless, due to the presence of heroic motives, V.Ya. Propp also explores them [see: part 2, ch. IV]. One of the most interesting stories is the battle of Ilya Muromets with his son. The temporary marriage of Ilya with the “woodpile” he defeated and the abandonment of his pregnant wife are the most archaic. At the same time, their son is teased by peers and he goes to avenge the dishonor of his mother. Muromets faces his son as a border trespasser, recognizes him and introduces him into the circle of heroes. But when he again tries to kill his father at night, Ilya does not hesitate to doubly kill the traitor [see. details: pp. 263-266].

In the epic about the three trips of Ilya, the hero from the crossroads of three roads follows in directions where, according to the road stone, death, marriage and wealth await him. The calm choice of the first road by him and the destruction of the danger lurking there are close to the heroic epic, while the rest of the adventures are of a fabulous and ecclesiastical nature [see. details: pp. 260-270].

I like the song about Dobrynya and Marinka. And so, having high moral qualities, the hero appears morally completely pure, and the sorceress harming him - a seductive enchantress. Marinka, trying to seduce the hero, causes only disgust in his chaste soul. Then the evil sorceress bewitches him, and when he, exhausted by witchcraft, comes to her against his will, turns him into a tour. Dobrynya's mother, who herself is sometimes a pure sorceress, contributes to the salvation of her son, and he, having agreed to a symbolic marriage with Marinka, brutally cracks down on the enemy as a husband [see. details: pp. 270-279].

The epic about the departure of Dobrynya and the failed marriage of Alyosha is one of the most common in the Russian epic. Due to Dobrynya's long absence, his wife is about to marry Alyosha, who brought the news of her husband's death, when Dobrynya returns unharmed and Alyosha is left in an uncomfortable position. The intriguing conflict of two characters very different in temperament, united by the defense of the Motherland, cannot acquire the gloomy bloody denouement characteristic of the epic. The ancient plot takes on a comic coloring in the finale, the heroes reconcile, and the woman says goodbye. This song gave many scientists the opportunity to try to portray Alyosha Popovich in a negative and immoral way, as a deceiver of honest women, although the only thing that can be accused of him here is false news. Generally speaking, in the epic Alyosha appears temperamental and mischievous, but not immoral in any way. Prince Vladimir, on the other hand, who in some cases forced Dobrynya's wife into marriage, is sharply condemned [see. details: pp. 279-288].

Epics about the reflection of the Tatars. The heavy yoke of the Mongol conquerors, which hindered the development of Russia, at the same time contributed to a new stage in the development of the Russian epic, the emergence of a number of patriotic epics that glorified the military overthrow of oppression. The songs were filled with new ideological content, acquired new artistic features and broke with the old traditions. The only content of the epics for a long time was the theme of the struggle for independence, honor and freedom of the Motherland [see: part 3]. In the song about Ilya's rebellion against Vladimir, we see as if a contradiction in the main idea of ​​the Russian epic, serving Kyiv, however, here the social difference between a hero from the people and a rich prince finally results in a clash. Muromets, uninvited to the feast, comes there without permission. The prince does not recognize him, once again demonstrating how little he appreciates all the merits of the hero. Insulted, Ilya defiantly leaves and arranges his feast for all the poor. On the slander of the boyars, Vladimir puts him here in the cellar to starve to death. Sometimes, this instruction is carried out, in other cases, Vladimir is forced to reconcile with the hero and arrange a feast especially for him, or Ilya and all the heroes leave Kyiv. In any case, the prince will be put to shame in the future, while the hero will triumph. This epic demonstrates how an insurmountable abyss opened between the people and the class power before the invasion of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 291-303].

In almost all epics about the reflection of the Tatars, the appearance of the Tatars near Kyiv and their dispersal by Russian troops is sung. A circle of songs about Ilya Muromets and Tsar Kalin, organically connected with one another, V.Ya. Propp considers in totality [see: part 3, ch. II, item 2]. This allows you to get a picture of the invasion painted by the people step by step and find out the deep folk aspirations in each song. The poetic chant, which opens one of the epics of the cycle under consideration, tells of a sign that foreshadows death for Kyiv. Since this is the only case of a meeting of faith in signs in the epic, Kyiv does not perish at all, but is saved, and there is a separate antiquity with a similar plot on a completely religious theme, the author with every reason sees here a motif unreasonably attached to the military epic [see. details: pp. 306-310]. The appearance of the Tatars is described with a high degree of historicity: huge enemy hordes, a clear organization of the troops, an absolute command, the siege tactics of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 310-314]. The Tatar ambassador, who arrived in Kyiv with the khan's label, always behaves defiantly, emphasizing the ultimatum terms of surrender and contempt for the Russians [see. details: pp. 314-316]. Also historical are many cruel demands and threats of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 316-318]. Vladimir, in the face of impending danger, does nothing to actively defend the city. He prays, thinks about the surrender of the city, about the acceptance of the Tatar conditions [see. details: pp. 318-321]. There are no heroes in Kyiv at this time. Sometimes they went away on business, but more often they are in the prince's disgrace, which he regrets [see. details: pp. 321-322]. The main defender of the city, Ilya Muromets, sentenced to starvation in the cellar, was secretly supplied with food through the efforts of Princess Evpraksia, and now Vladimir is trying to persuade him to defend not the authorities, but the Fatherland. The hero agrees, often after reprisals against the boyars who are guilty of slander [see. details: pp. 322-326]. Soberly assessing the strength of the enemy [see. details: pp. 326-327], Ilya himself goes to the camp to Kalinin, where he asks for a delay and receives it [see. details: pp. 327-328]. By entrusting someone with the fortification of the city [see. details: pp. 328-329], Muromets undertakes to look for heroes. He finds them at Samson's Headquarters, a new camp where warriors have been idle since their disgrace. Oddly enough for the epic, the heroes refuse to go. But this desire arises because of the proximity to the people, and not the princely-boyar Russia. They will strike at the decisive moment [cf. details: pp. 329-331]. In the deserted Kyiv, a young hero Yermak (not a historical person, but a character of the same name introduced into the epic for merit) appears to Vladimir and asks for permission to fight the enemies. Having failed to fulfill the princely orders, Yermak goes to the heroic headquarters. Muromets sends him to count the enemy force, but the hot Yermak rushes into battle and dies. This exceptional in the Russian epic case of the death of a hero is a consequence of a violation of the order of Ilya [see. details: pp. 332-334]. Combat is always described briefly. If there is no heroic support, then Muromets rushes into battle alone. If it is, he sensibly directs the distribution of forces [see. details: pp. 334-337]. Sometimes Ilya is captured by cunning and brought to Kalin, who is trying to lure the hero to his side [see. details: pp. 337-338]. The hostile proposal leads Muromets into such a rage that he breaks his chains and, waving the first Tatar that comes across and calling Samson and other heroes with a spoken arrow, finally finishes off the Tatars. Leaving, the enemy takes an oath never to return [see. details: pp. 338-339]. Along with the final defeat of the enemy, there is another ending to this song, called the epic about the Kama (Mamaev) battle, or about the time since when the knights were transferred to Russia. In one version of it, two brothers who did not participate in the battle begin to boast and the Tatars come to life, and it is not possible to chop the living dead, their number only increases. Prayer destroys the unearthly power, while the heroes disperse to the monasteries. This song has a religious and church orientation, it is due to sermons about humility. In another version, proud of their victory, the heroes themselves challenge the "heavenly powers." They fearlessly destroy the revived power. The character of this epic, on the contrary, is atheistic, and it expresses the thoughts of the people [see. details: pp. 339-344]. In addition to this song, many later ones based on it also tell about the struggle against the Tatars, for example, the epic about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyga. Before the impending invasion, Vladimir goes to a tavern to ask for help from the only remaining hero Vasily, who has been drinking for years and skipped absolutely everything. Having drunkenly, he kills Batu's close associates with spoken arrows, who sends a demand to extradite the guilty one. In one case, the hero himself goes to the enemy camp and, having deceived the Tatar army into the wilderness, destroys it. In another, the advice of the boyars immediately betrays Vasily. Now he really concludes an agreement with the enemy in order to lead him against the city's rich, sparing Prince Vladimir after all. The Tatars plunder the city, not respecting the treaty, and Vasily personally expels them. One way or another, the enemy is exterminated, and the rebellious aspirations of the peasants are looking for ways to get rid of the hostile, albeit relying on the people of the top [see. details: pp. 344-355].

The epic about Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich shows us the liberation struggle in other forms, when the invasion ended in a long yoke. Vladimir sends tribute to Batu. For her delivery, unworthy of a hero, the faithful servant Vasily is taken, he is accompanied by Dobrynya, who is the main character. When Batu tests the heroes in order to execute them as a failure, Dobrynya turns out to be more skillful than the Tatars. Entering into a rage during the struggle, he cracks down on the Tatar army. The people believe in victory even under the strongest oppression [see. details: pp. 355-368].

The epic of the era of the formation of a centralized Russian state. In the epic about Volga and Mikul, the main character is a farmer, which is unusual for a Russian epic, although the peasantry is the keeper of the songs. On the way to the cities granted to him by the prince, the warrior Volga meets the plowman Mikula and invites him with him. It soon becomes clear that the oratay (plowman, yell - plow, plowshare - plow) surpasses the hero in everything: in the wealth of clothes, in strength, in prowess, even his inconspicuous filly turns out to be better than the magnificent Volgin horse. Mikula is proud of his class and his work. Such a song could take shape only when the peasantry realized its significance. In the face of Mikula, it exalts itself [cf. details: pp. 374-387].

In this historical period, Kyiv and Vladimir are losing their significance as symbols of united Russia. The image of the former Red Sun, the main representative of the feudal and social elite, is finally debunked, and social injustice is depicted in the epic as a moral evil, which helped the people educate themselves accordingly [see: part 4, ch. III]. The hidden opposition of the hero and the prince in the epic about Sukhman ends in the suicide of the hero, offended by the despotic behavior of Vladimir. The knight goes hunting for a swan for the princely table. Such an assignment for a hero is a voluntary exile or disgrace if the prince sends him. The hunt is unsuccessful, just as peaceful relations between antagonists are impossible. On the way back near the Dnieper, Sukhman encounters the advancing Tatars and destroys the entire army. In battle, he receives a wound, which prepares the tragic denouement of the song, which he lays with a poppy leaf. The story of the hero about his feat is not taken seriously by Vladimir, and the hero will be punished. When the truth is revealed, Sukhman proudly rejects attempts at reconciliation and, pulling out the leaves from the wound, bleeds, showing what is best for him [see. details: pp. 387-397].

In the song about Danilo Lovchanin, the prince is presented as a direct scoundrel and criminal. Vladimir is looking for a wife for himself, and for the people - a sovereign. Mishata Putyatin tells him to take possession of Danilo Lovchanin's wife Vasilisa, and send him on a deadly mission. The warrior copes with the task, but on the way back he encounters an army sent from Kyiv to kill him. Although Danilo beats the entire Russian army with tears, he still dies from the treacherous hand of Mishata. Without delay, the prince sends matchmakers to Vasilisa. The faithful woman, anxiously letting her husband go, asks first to take her to the body of Danila and kills herself over his corpse. As in the previous epic, the victory of the enemy is temporary, the future belongs to the heroes [see. details: pp. 397-407].

Although with the new tactics of wars that took shape after the overthrow of the yoke, the military epic gave way to the historical song, nevertheless, its fading went on gradually. At the heart of the last epic of military content, the epic about the arrival of Lithuanians, was originally the motif of the abduction of a woman, characteristic of the epic, but it was subsequently supplanted by patriotic ideas. The nephews of the Lithuanian king, the Liviki brothers, invade Russia with predatory and devastating goals. They also kidnap the sister of Prince Roman Dmitrievich. The prince pursues them with his army and defeats the foreign army. Although the song is full of archaic details, nevertheless, the epic is no longer talking about ideal heroes, but about living people [see. details: pp. 407-418].

At this time, later epics about matchmaking still appear [see: part 4, ch. IV], but the struggle for the bride in them has the character of a social struggle. The song about Alyosha Popovich and Elena Petrovichna moved me very much. The Petrovich brothers, nicknamed Zbrodovichi, boast at the feast that they keep their sister Elena in seclusion. Alyosha teases them, hinting that he sees Elena and she has long belonged to him. The brothers' anger turns to their sister, whom they sentence to public execution. In their face, the very system that allowed such oppression is condemned. At the last moment, Alyosha appears and takes the girl away, often right to the church. Here the hero fights not with mythical, but with human monsters [see. details: pp. 418-426].

In the epic about Khoten Bludovich, rich in various details, the bride and groom are separated solely by class differences. At the feast, the poor Fornication widow woo from the wealthy Clockwork widow, sometimes even a relative of Vladimir, her daughter China for her heroic son Khoten, who often does not know about it. The watch widow only brutally insults the entire Fornication family. Khoten in response destroys the court of the Sentinels, threatens to repeat the matchmaking with the same tough temper as her mother China and challenges her brothers to battle. After the hero deals with the sons of the Clockwork Widow and with the army sent against him, the proud mother of China herself offers her daughter. Khoten refuses, but at the request of the Prodigal Widow, satisfied with the humiliation of her rival, she agrees, and the song ends with a merry wedding [see p. details: pp. 426-441].

The pinnacle of epic songs about the social struggle can be considered epics about the rebellion of Vasily Buslaevich against Novgorod and his death [see: part 4, ch. VI]. I do not quite agree with V.Ya. Propp, who believes that Vasily, for all his actions, is not an ushkuin. In my opinion, the hero is exactly like that, although, of course, this does not affect the meaning of his image in any way. From childhood, Vasily bullied the children of wealthy parents, and the heroic strength already allowed him to cripple them. Growing up, Vasily recruits a squad, as it was more reasonable during the fierce internal political struggle of Novgorod at that time. His select detachment consists of people of the lower strata, handicraft labor. When a fight breaks out at the brotherhood (a feast arranged in clubbing on church holidays) and the whole squad is drawn into it, Vasily calls the whole of Novgorod to battle. The mother locks the hero and tries to stop the conflict, begging her son's opponents to cancel the bloodshed, to which they do not agree. While Vasily resorts to battle, his squad manages to suffer greatly. Having let her go, he alone defends himself, destroys the houses of the rich and defeats the old pilgrim, symbolizing the old system. The idea of ​​"lord of the great Novgorod" has long collapsed in the minds of the people. Only the mother stops the dispersed hero [see. details: pp. 441-464].

Having not completed the conflict, Vasily does not reconcile, but translates it into new forms. He asks his mother for a blessing for a trip to Jerusalem for repentance, but in fact, although he performs external religious rites on the spot, he is full of a challenge to otherworldly forces. He neglects the prophecy of the skull he kicked, sneers at the misfortune predicted for bathing naked in the Jordan, and when he finds a stone that does not recommend jumping over it, he begins to have fun, violating the ban. His death was caused by the untimeliness of the struggle. The tragedy is in the awareness of the destruction of the old way of life, but the impossibility for the time being to carry it out [see. details: pp. 464-475].

Despite the sharply satirical nature of the epic About Duke Stepanovich and his competition with Churila, it is free from buffoon influence, its action is prompted by ridicule of the prosperous boyar class. Incredibly rich dandy Duke arrives in Kyiv to show himself. After Dobrynya, sent by Vladimir for verification, confirms the enormous state of the boastful schap (dandy, dude), Duke's rivalry with the main dude of Kyiv Churila begins in the beauty of clothes, in which Duke wins, but always has mercy on his opponent. Like all the heroes of the epic, Duke Stepanovich is endowed with the highest quality things, however, unlike the heroes, for whom quality was a sign of idealization and greatness, in Duke we see unnecessary pomp and foppish demonstrativeness. Chainmail and arrows made of expensive materials serve not for military affairs, but for panache. Duke's sophistication gives him a reason to scold the lack of sophistication and simplicity, wealth allows him to be proud and show off. To Kyiv, he complacently opposes his country and his own economy [see. details: pp. 475-504].

III. Conclusion

The main content of the songs of V.Ya. Propp defines the struggle for the highest ideals of the people and the victory in the name of their implementation. Epics are saturated with patriotism and educational spirit. The people put their aspirations into the epic, the content of the songs tunes it to a high moral level. The epic reflects the development and self-awareness of the people. The scientist rejects the theory of the foreign origin of epics, emphasizes the connection of the epic with Russian history, with Russian reality and life. Descriptions and realities of epic songs are historical. The people understand the epic as part of their history. Epics are a sign of a harmonious inner life and the liberation aspirations of the people, the struggle for the opportunity to live independently and be happy.

Acquaintance with the monograph by V.Ya. Propp "Russian Heroic Epic" gave me great pleasure. I was able to get acquainted with the development of the epic from ancient times to the present day, meeting valuable and very detailed explanations. Epic stories were painted for me with a high meaning, allowing me to feel pride in the patriotism and morality of my people. It is a pity that the author did not consider in detail the mythological basis of the epic, probably due to attacks on the scientist’s previous works, but the data he cited are very interesting in themselves, and are also necessary if you want to understand the creative aspirations and ideological views of the Russian people.

Bibliography

1) V.Ya. Propp "Russian Heroic Epos" (Collected Works of V.Ya. Propp). Commentary article by N.A. Krichnina. Compilation, scientific edition, name index S.P. Bushkevich. - M., 1999. - 640 pages.

2) Propp V.Ya. "On the historicism of the Russian epic" // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. Page. 98-111.

3) Propp V.Ya. "Poetics of folklore" (article "On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study"). Page 185-208. - M., 1998.

4) Putilov B.N. “Rereading and rethinking Propp” // Living Antiquity. 1995. No. 3. Pp. 2-7.



1. General definition of epic

<...>The epic is not defined by any single feature that immediately establishes its essence. It has a number of features, and only a combination of them gives a correct and complete idea of ​​what an epic is. The most important, decisive feature of the epic is the heroic nature of its content. The epic shows who the people consider a hero and for what merits. The definition, study of the character, the inner content of heroism is the main task of science in relation to the epic. This content will be revealed to us gradually, but for now it will suffice to point out that the content of the epic is always struggle and victory. In the name of what the struggle is being fought, this must be determined by science. We will see that in different historical epochs the content of the struggle was different. But there is one thing that unites the nature of the struggle at all stages of the development of the epic: the struggle is not for narrow, petty goals, not for personal fate, not for the private well-being of the hero, but for the highest ideals of the people in this era. This struggle is always very difficult, it requires the exertion of all the forces of the hero, it requires the ability to sacrifice oneself, but in the epic it always leads to victory. The struggle is not personal, but nationwide and nationwide, and in later historical epochs it has a pronounced class character. However, this main and decisive feature is still not enough to attribute this or that work to the field of the epic.

Heroic content is possessed, for example, by The Tale of Igor's Campaign, chronicle stories about the Battle of Kulikovo, about the Tatar invasions of Moscow and others have it. Pushkin's Poltava, Tolstoy's War and Peace, and many of the works of modern Soviet literature devoted to the struggle and heroic deeds of the Soviet people have a heroic content. Therefore, the sign heroic content is decisive only in conjunction with other features of the epic. One of the main features of the Russian epic, which distinguishes it from other works of heroic content, is that it is composed of songs that are intended not for reading, but for musical performance. From novels, heroic poems, legendary tales, etc., the epic differs in a different genre affiliation and other forms of performance. The sign of musical song performance is so essential that works that are not sung can in no case be attributed to the epic. The musical performance of epics and their content cannot be separated, they have the most direct connection.

The musical performance testifies to a deep personal emotion, being affected by the events of the songs, expresses the state of inspiration, expresses the feelings of the people, excited by the characters and the narration of the song. To take away its tune from the epic, to perform it in the form of a prose story means to transfer it to a completely different plane of artistic creativity.<...>

Another important feature of the epic is the poetic form of the songs, which is closely connected with the melody. As we will see below, the poetic form was not created immediately, but arose from prose form and developed over the centuries.<...>

However, although the epic verse is one of the signs of the Russian heroic epic, it is not specific to it, it is not the exclusive property of epics alone. The epic verse became so firmly established in popular use that it began to be used among the people and more widely, began to be attached to works that cannot be attributed to the epic.

In pre-revolutionary science, the sign of versification was considered one of the most important: in the collections of epics everything was placed that was sung to the epic verse, regardless of the content of the songs. It is clear that such a principle of definition is unacceptable.

The epic verse is a phenomenon of a broader order than the heroic epic. The heroic epic always consists of songs of epic verse, but the converse statement will not always be correct: not every song in the form of an epic verse can be attributed to the epic. So, epic spiritual verses can have the form of an epic verse. Most collectors distinguished spiritual verses from epics, but nevertheless, in collections of epics, one can sometimes find such songs as, for example, a verse about the Pigeon Book, about Anika the Warrior, and others that are not related to epics. Spiritual verses cannot be attributed to the epic, since they call not for struggle, but for humility and humility.

We will also not classify ballad songs as epic, no matter how good and interesting they may be, and even if such songs were placed in collections of epics and performed in epic verse. So, in the song "Vasily and Sofyushka" it tells how two lovers, instead of going to church, see each other secretly. The evil mother brings them a potion and they die. Trees grow out of their graves, with their tops leaning towards each other. Before us is a typical ballad. There is no active struggle here, there is a touching death of two innocently persecuted people.<…>

Finally, there is one more area adjacent to the area of ​​heroic song, this is the area of ​​historical song. The question of the relationship of the epic to the historical song is more complicated than the question of its relationship to the spiritual verse and the ballad. The epic is very close to the historical song, but nevertheless there is a deep and fundamental difference between them, which will become quite clear only when we get acquainted with the epic in detail. The opinion of some scholars who argued that the epic originally arises as a historical song, which is forgotten and distorted over the centuries, gradually turning into an epic, should be completely abandoned. As we shall see, the epic is older than the historical song. Bylina and historical song express the consciousness of the people at different stages of its historical development in different forms. The epic draws an ideal reality and ideal heroes. In the epic, the vast historical experience of the people is summarized in artistic images of unusual power, and this generalization is one of the most significant features of the epic. Epos is always characterized by a certain majesty, monumentality, which in the best examples folk art combined with simplicity and naturalness. Heroic songs are usually based on fiction, in which only a researcher can discover their historical basis. In historical songs, the plot, the plot are drawn directly from reality. The events conveyed in the historical song are not fictitious (songs about the capture of Kazan and many others), only the details are fantastically processed.

The historical song is a product of a later era and other forms of awareness of reality than the epic. Historical songs cannot be classified as heroic epic; they are not epics, and not only because they are not sung in epic verse (although the songs about Grozny are still very close to epic verse), but because they have a different attitude to reality than in epics.<...>

The epic is characterized not only by the given signs, but by the totality of its multifaceted content, the world of artistic images, heroes created by him, the subject of his narrations. It is also determined by the whole system of its inherent poetic devices in his characteristic style.<…>

2. Some issues of methodology

Attempts at the historical study of folk poetry were made even before the revolution. We must be aware of these attempts in order to protect ourselves from the mistakes that have been made by bourgeois science. There were several directions in Russian academic science of the XIX-XX centuries. Representatives of the mythological school (Buslaev, Afanasiev, Orest Miller and others) believed that epic songs arose initially as myths about deities. This, in their opinion, was the connection of the epic with history. The songs were regarded as living monuments of the deep prehistoric past, and this limited their scientific value. But since nothing was known about the true myths of primitive peoples at that time, these myths were artificially reconstructed from the epics and fairy tales themselves. The reconstruction of the myth from the epic was the method of studying epics. As a result of such a reconstruction, for example, it turned out that Vladimir, nicknamed the red sun in the epic, was supposedly an ancient deity of the sun, that Ilya Muromets was supposedly a god of thunder, etc. The heroes of folk poetry invariably turned out to be faded deities of the wind, thunderstorm, sun, storm.<...>

Comparatives have been studying in a completely different direction. In their opinion, the epic is generally ahistorical. He's supposed to be absolutely fantastic. According to this doctrine, the epic does not develop. Songs are created in a certain place and at a certain time, and then the plots begin to wander from people to people, migrate; the history of these "wanderings", "borrowings" is supposedly the history of the epic. Studying the Russian epic, the comparativists erected it either to the epic of the Eastern, Asian peoples (Potanin), or to borrowings from Byzantium or from Western Europe(Veselovsky and his followers).<...>

The question of the relationship between the epic and history has not been resolved in the works of the so-called historical school, headed by Vsevolod Miller. The relationship between the epic and history, the supporters of this trend imagined extremely simple. The songs reflect, register the events of the era in which they were created. The epic is considered as a kind of oral historical chronicle, similar to a written chronicle - annals. But the chronicle is a more or less reliable chronicle, while the epic is an unreliable chronicle. Hence the method of this school, which boils down to checking the epic through the annals or other historical documents. At first glance, it may seem that there is a rational grain in this whole system. Comparing the epic with the annals, the historical school seemed to raise art to reality.<...>

And yet, the ideological premises and methods of this school, which does not deserve the name historical, are just as untenable as the principles of the mythological or comparative school. The point is not only that the artistic side of the epic was completely ignored. According to the teachings of Vsevolod Miller, heroic songs were originally composed to the glory of the princes who led military campaigns during the feudal strife. Thus, they were allegedly created not by the people, but by the ruling classes, by the military feudal elite. Having “descended” into the people, these “historical” songs, through consistent distortion in an ignorant peasant environment, turned into epics. So it's like an epic. In Soviet science, the methodological inconsistency of this direction was first pointed out by prof. A. P. Skaftymov.<...>

The historical study of the epic should consist in revealing the connection between the development of the epic and the course of development of Russian history and establishing the nature of this connection.<...>The popular idea always expresses the ideals of the era in which these ideas were created and were effective. The idea is the decisive criterion for assigning a song to a particular era. Artistic analysis inextricably linked with history.<...>

<...>Epics do not reflect single events of history, they express the age-old ideals of the people. What the old science imagined as a single act of creation, we imagine as a long process. Any epic refers not to one year and not to one decade, but to all those centuries during which it was created, lived, polished, improved or died out, up to our days. Therefore, every song bears the stamp of past centuries. Let's bring specific example: the epic about Duke Stepanovich in some of its parts contains elements of an extremely deep, still pagan antiquity (an outpost of snakes and monstrous birds ready to tear the alien to pieces). It further reflects Kievan Rus (Vladimir's courtyard). In describing the details of the buildings and the picture of the city, it reflects Muscovite Russia of the 16th-17th centuries. And, finally, in its main idea (ridiculing the wealthy boyars), it reflects the class struggle of the times of late feudalism. The strength, brightness of artistic satire, its orientation against the primordial enemies of the working masses provide this epic with relevance and popularity during subsequent centuries, when the class struggle, taking on new forms, flared up more and more. Thus, the epic, polished and improved over the centuries, contains deposits of all the centuries it has passed. The main idea expressed in it will be decisive for attribution to one or another era. So, in this case, the decisive historical sign of the epic will be the struggle against the boyars in the exact forms in which it took place in the 16th-17th centuries. Therefore, despite the presence of earlier and later elements in it, it can basically be attributed to the era of late feudalism.

It follows from this that the question of whether this or that epic arose in the XII, XIII or any other century, in essence, as indicated, may turn out to be incorrectly posed; if you study the epic by its individual terms, then you can get an arbitrary number of solutions, since individual terms can relate to different eras. This explains the discord in the attribution of epics to one or another century in bourgeois science. If, however, we study the epic not according to mechanically selected terms, but according to its plan, according to its idea, then it turns out that the epic always expresses the age-old ideals and aspirations of the people, relating not to one century, but to epochs that lasted several centuries, and to these epochs epics can be attributed with some degree of certainty and reliability.

This observation leads us to the question of the relationship between epic and history. In observing the historical development of the epic, we must have a clear idea of ​​how the epic relates to history. One of the axioms of the old historical school was that the epic passively reflects history. From our modern point of view, the people are not just a participating, but the leading force of history, and in their poetry they do not reproduce history as a dispassionate registrar, but express in it their historical will, their age-old aspirations and ideals.