Exercise:

Compare the works of Doryphoros and Apoxyomenes. Try to identify the difference in the embodiment of the image of an athlete in the works of Polykleitos and Lysippus.

Teacher (after discussion)

The famous "Apoxiomen" Lysippus different from "Dorifor" Polykleitos a more dynamic pose (it seems that he will now change the pose), elongated proportions. These are two canons from different eras. Lysippus violates the old, Polycletic canon of the human figure in order to create his own, new, much lighter one. In this new canon, the head is no longer 1/7, but only 1/8 of the total height.

Doryfor is impersonal, it is not a portrait of a specific person, but an image of a certain human type, an idealized image of a person. Heroes of Lysippus become very similar to ordinary people. Even the image of an athlete, always fanned in Greece with a halo of glory, is losing its former heroism. "Apoxiomen" Lysippus is not a fighter who is honored and worshiped by the city. Yes, and his gesture is everyday - after classes on the palestra, he cleans off the sand adhering to his body with a scraper. In the features of the athlete, fatigue from extreme exertion is visible. Finally, Apoxyomenos is an individuality (a rebellious crest on the top of his head, a scraper not in his right, but in his left hand).

The portrait of the king created by Lysippus (“Head Alexander the Great”) bears the features of a hero, a “second Achilles”, and at the same time - a real, unlike anyone else, who is not alien to anxiety and doubt, concern, fatigue. Lysippus strove for the psychological accuracy of the portrait.

The greatest Greek sculptors depicted people as they should be. Lysippus said that before him, sculptors portrayed people as they are, and he is as they seem. And in fact, his figures are not perceived by us as created “for show”, they do not pose for us, but exist on their own, as the artist’s eye grabbed them in all the complexity of the most diverse movements. The innovation of Lysippus lies in the fact that he discovered in the art of sculpture huge realistic possibilities that had not yet been used before him.

From conditional (uniform in features and facial expressions) kuros and kors to archaic period through the classical beauty of the ideal impassive heroes in the classical period (Phidias, Myron, Polykleitos) to the interest in conveying the inner world of a person in late classic(Scopas, Lysippus).

Architecture was the leading art form in the Middle Ages. Its formation is associated with monumental construction, which began in Western Europe at the time of the formation of states and the revival of economic activity. In the field of architecture, the Western European Middle Ages developed two significant styles - Romanesque and Gothic. It was in them that the worldview of the era was most fully expressed.

Roman style European Middle Ages begins in the 10th century, when, after numerous internecine wars and the "great migration of peoples," a period of some calm ensued. By this time from a vast empire Charlemagne separate European states are already taking shape, which have not yet had time to acquire cultural independence and originality, and the culture of each of them was only a variation on a common European theme.

However, the fragmentation of the land was still significant. And therefore, many castles, monasteries and city buildings were more like fortresses. Easily burning wood quickly replaced them with stone. They now tried to make the walls of buildings as thick as possible, door and window openings as narrow as possible. Moreover, they did not put glass in them, and therefore, in order to keep warm, they tried to place them as high as possible. Thick walls, firstly, contributed to the defense, and secondly, helped to restrain the expansion of the stone ceiling, which replaced the wooden one in castles and basilicas.

The Romanesque style in the period of the developed Middle Ages was replaced by the Gothic. German Gothic gave the world wonderful, extraordinarily beautiful buildings, many of which were UNESCO to the list of world cultural heritage humanity.

The revival had an impact on all kinds of art and cultural activities. During this period, in Germany, along with fachwerk, the style Renaissance, beautiful examples of which adorn many cities and towns, and the best of them are also proclaimed by UNESCO as a cultural heritage of mankind. As a variation of this style with inherent national characteristics interesting Weser Renaissance.

ROMAN STYLE

Romanesque architecture was based on the achievements of the previous period, in particular the Carolingian Renaissance, and was strongly influenced by the traditions of ancient, Byzantine or Arabic art, distinguished by a wide variety of forms.

This is the historical style of the mature Middle Ages, characterized by common types of buildings, their constructive techniques and expressive means.

Many castles, monasteries and urban structures of this style were more like fortresses. Easily burning wood quickly replaced them with stone. The very type of feudal castle was finally formed in this era.

The shape of the Romanesque temple, its layout met the needs of the cult. The temple accommodated a lot of people of different social status: laity and clergy, ordinary people and nobility. It was also designed for numerous pilgrims. Pilgrimage to the places where the relics and relics of saints were kept was typical of this era. All this necessitated an increase in the size of the temple, the creation of additional premises and the delimitation inner space to zones.

Peculiarities Romanesque architecture due to the use of vaulted ceilings, which, with the development of construction technology, replace flat ones. The simplest semi-circular and later cross vaults, known to the Romans, were also erected. The severity of the stone vault (its thickness in some cases reached two meters), its downward pressure on the supports and the lateral expansion required thickening of the walls, replacing the columns with heavy massive pillars. The desire of the architects from the very beginning was aimed at relieving the pressure of the vault, raising the central nave above the side ones and lighting it with windows.

The interior space in the Romanesque cathedral is strictly closed and surrounded on all sides by an inert stone mass. The interior is influenced by the grandiosity of the space, the elongated and high middle nave, the abundance of smooth wall surfaces with slit-like windows, heavy arches, massive columns, which give rise to the impression of calm grandeur and immobility.

In Romanesque architecture, traditional Roman forms are used: semicircular arches, pillars, columns. But Romanesque columns do not have stable order types. The proportions and shapes of the capitals are varied, their decor has no analogy in the history of architecture. In the early period, capitals, similar in shape to a truncated pyramid, were usually covered with ornaments with stylized motifs of plants and fantastic animals. In the era of style maturity, a sculptural capital is often used.

The most important points on the symbolic path of the believer in the temple were the beginning of the path - the portal and the goal of this path - the throne. The shape of the medieval portal is already symbolic in itself. The square of the door, covered with a semicircular tympanum, symbolized the earth blocked by the sky. not without reason latin word"arcus" is translated as "arch, arc, bow, vault, bend, rainbow". The meaning of the arch as a rainbow was especially to the liking of the medieval authors. After all, according to medieval concepts, a rainbow is a bridge between earth and sky.

The entrance portal symbolized Strength and Power, the transition from worldly life to sacred life. He symbolized and Christ, after all, Christ himself said: "I am the door: whoever enters by Me will be saved, and will go in and out, and find pasture."

Had a symbolic meaning and the size of the door. They were already made at the expense of decreasing arches, relying on the gospel: "Enter through the narrow gate, because the gate is wide and the path leading to destruction is wide, and many go through it; because the gate is narrow and the path leading to life is narrow, and few find them ".

Rose - a round window on the facade above the portal appeared already in Romanesque times and often symbolized the sun, Christ or the Virgin Mary, about whom it was said that she was a "rose without thorns".

Sculptures become a peculiar and typical decoration of the Romanesque temple. The main feature of Romanesque sculpture appeared very early - it is not attached to the wall, does not fit to it from the outside, but forms one whole with the wall, as if extracted from it. The country where the art of medieval sculpture flourished to the fullest was Germany. German medieval cathedrals are literally filled with sculptures. It was in the German lands in the XIII-XVI centuries that a free-floating huge crucifix was hung above the altar itself. However, more often between the altar and the temple they arranged a low altar wall - lettner, decorating it with multi-figure sculptural compositions of the crucifix with the upcoming ones - the Mother of God, John the Baptist, archangels.

A large place in the Romanesque, and then in the Gothic cathedral is occupied by statues of real historical figures. These are either donors - donors, keepers of the temple, or kings and princes buried in the cathedral.

In Germany, the Bamberg Horseman became the symbol of the 12th century - equestrian statue knight placed in the Cathedral of St. Peter in Bamberg. Even in the altar of the cathedral, statues of earthly rulers are placed. So behind the lettner of the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul in Naumburg there is a whole gallery with 12 statues of margraves - Naumburg rulers. Interesting coloring has survived on many sculptures.

Here, the originality of Western Christian sculpture was especially clearly revealed in comparison with Eastern Christian icon painting. Sculpture is much more naturalistic than an icon. Here proportions are more correct, poses are more natural, robes are designed in more detail. Sculpture often conveys not detachment and immersion in the spiritual world, but quite earthly experiences. In this case, gestures play an especially important role, which the icon is almost devoid of. In German sculpture, gestures convey almost all emotional shades. Yes, and the plots are often chosen quite earthly. For example, in the decoration of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Bamberg, the disputing apostles are depicted - they discuss difficult to understand passages from old testament. All of them are very different, with their own individual traits, and their movements are active and effective.

The Romanesque temple was very different inside and out. If the outer appearance of the temple was rather gloomy, fortified, then inside it should have reminded of the kingdom of God. Paintings covered almost all the walls. Even sculptures were painted. The trunks of the columns, and those were painted. Only the murals of the portal (tympanum and supporting columns) poured out onto the outer walls of the temple. The capitals of the columns were painted especially whimsically and variously. Here are scenes from Holy Scripture, Lives of saints, characters of secular literary works.

The external view of the Romanesque cathedral is severe, simple and clear. It influences the constructive logic and very clearly conveys the internal structure of the building. This is a single, closed volume, having a pyramidal shape on the eastern side. The central nave rises above the side ones, the walls of the bypass - above the chapels, above them - the main apse. The center of the composition is formed by the tower of the middle cross, crowned with a spire. Sometimes the western facade, apse and transepts are closed by bell towers. They give unbreakable stability to the entire structure. The walls with a massive plinth bring the appearance of the cathedral closer to a fortress.

The city's cathedral of the 13th century is not only a place of worship. Both on the square in front of the cathedral and in the cathedral itself disputes take place, lectures are given, theatrical performances are played out. Therefore, the cathedral now had to accommodate almost all of the greatly increased population of the city.

GOTHICK STYLE

By the end of the XII century. Romanesque art is replaced by Gothic. The term was first used by Renaissance historians to characterize all medieval art.

Gothic era(late XII - XV centuries) - this is the period when urban culture begins to play an increasingly important role in medieval culture. In all areas of the life of medieval society, the importance of the secular, rational principle increases. The church is gradually losing its dominant position in the spiritual sphere.

One of the features of the development of architecture in Germany is the conscious preservation of Romanesque traditions in Gothic. In the future, the hallmarks of Germanic Gothic, especially in the southwest, were the use of a frame system in the construction of distant churches and centric structures, as well as the creation of a single-tower facade.

During the Gothic period great development achieved civil architecture. German cities first entered the historical arena in the 11th century. Over the next two centuries, they achieved independence and a cultural upsurge that continued until the 16th century.

Just like in other countries. West of the feudal era, the medieval city of Germany was a fortified city. There were many towers on the fortress walls. City walls with towers and drawbridges have survived in many cities, such as Nuremberg, Dinkelsbühl. And in Rothenburg ob der Tauber, you can climb the fortress wall, walk along it and go down to the dungeons and casemates.

The civil urban architecture of Germany is most perfectly expressed in public buildings - in town halls and guest yards.

The dynamic upward aspiration of all forms of the cathedral reflected Christian the idea of ​​the aspiration of the soul of the righteous to heaven, where it is promised eternal bliss. The main feature of the Gothic cathedral is a stable frame system, in which the cross-rib lancet vaults, lancet arches, which largely determine the internal and appearance cathedral. The entire weight of the bulk of the cathedral lay on its frame. This made it possible to make thin walls in which huge windows were cut out. The most characteristic motif of Gothic architecture was the lancet arch, which, as it were, pulled the building to heaven.

The construction of Gothic temples was carried out not only by the church, but also by cities. Moreover, the largest buildings, and above all cathedrals, were built at the expense of the townspeople. The purpose of the Gothic temple was not only a cult, it also served as the center of public life in the city. University lectures were read in it, mysteries were played out. All sorts of secular and church ceremonies were also held on the cathedral square, gathering crowds of citizens. Cathedrals were built "by the whole world", often their construction lasted for decades, and sometimes for several centuries.

The development of sculpture, which played a leading role in the visual arts of this period, is inextricably linked with Gothic architecture. Gothic sculpture is more subordinate to architecture and has more independent significance than Romanesque. In numerous niches on the facades of the cathedrals were placed figures personifying the dogmas Christian faith. Lively poses, light bends give them mobility, dynamism, in contrast to the Romanesque ones. The images of the saints themselves became more diverse, concrete, and individual. The most significant figures were attached to the columns in the openings on the sides of the entrance to the cathedral.

The characteristic features of Gothic sculpture can be reduced to the following: interest in the phenomena of the real world; figures embodying the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church become more realistic; the role of secular plots is enhanced; appears and begins to play a dominant role round plastic. A perfect example is the sculpture of the Cologne Cathedral.

The Gothic style changed the face of the medieval city and contributed to the development of secular construction. The cities are starting to build town halls with open galleries.

Castles of aristocrats are increasingly reminiscent of palaces. Wealthy citizens build houses with pointed gable roofs, narrow windows, lancet doorways, and corner turrets.

In the Gothic era, arts and crafts flourished. Gothic transformed household items, furniture, various items of church use.

The Gothic Cathedral in Cologne is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Height 157 meters, was the tallest building in the world from 1880 to 1884.

Cologne, one of the richest and politically powerful cities of the then German Empire, considered it necessary, following the example of France, to have its own cathedral - and its scale should have eclipsed all other temples. The Amiens Cathedral in France was taken as a model.

In 1248, when the Archbishop of Cologne Konrad von Hochstaden laid the foundation stone for the Cologne Cathedral, one of the longest chapters in the history of European building began. The choir with a bypass, arranged entirely according to the type adopted in France, but not very common in Germany, was completed in 1332.

The Cologne Cathedral is characterized by the extraordinary height of the middle ship, one above the side ones with a ratio of 5: 2, triforia cut through by windows and often located large upper windows that fill the entire wall. Construction continued during the 14th and 15th centuries, but slowly, and later completely stopped.

It was resumed only in the 19th century, after the original drawings were found in 1814. From 1841 to 1880 the construction was completed. The façade of the cathedral, with two towers reaching 160 m in height, is thus a product of the 19th century. and bears the imprint of dryness and schematism.

The Cologne Cathedral is characterized to a high degree by the exceptional abundance of sophisticated architectural decoration typical of late Gothic, covering all the details of the structure with a restlessly fluctuating, running, weaving pattern into magnificent stone lace. The walls, vaults and floor of the Cologne Cathedral are lined with gray Rhenish stone mined in quarries near Bonn.

Slender 44-meter columns, like the trunks of an ancient forest, support high vaults laid in the shape of stars. The feeling of the vastness of the space is also created by the height difference: the central nave is more than twice as high as the side ones, the nave and the choir are located at different levels.

Behind the high altar rises a golden sarcophagus adorned with precious stones. This is the cancer of the Three Kings, the Three Wise Men, who were the first to see the light of the Star of Bethlehem and hurried to bring gifts to the baby Christ. This scene is depicted on the famous Adoration of the Magi altarpiece by Stefan Lochner (1440), housed in the Chapel of the Virgin Mary.

The huge main hall of the cathedral is surrounded by many chapels, in one of which the founder of the Cologne Cathedral, Bishop Konrad von Hochstaden, is buried. The cathedral houses many significant works of medieval art. These are carved Gothic benches in the choir, and frescoes above the benches, and the main altar.

High in the upper rows of windows shine magnificent stained-glass windows - the windows of the Three Kings - and in the gallery of the choir, in the side chapel, there are the so-called Bible windows. Stained glass opened up new possibilities for the medieval artist. Christianity gave light a divine and mystical meaning. The light pouring from the sky symbolized coming from God light. The play of light penetrating through the stained-glass window took the laity away from everything concrete, earthly, led to the intangible, luminous.

The stained-glass window, as it were, muffled the physicality, expressiveness, and concreteness of the images of Gothic plastic. The luminosity of the inner space of the cathedral, as it were, deprived the matter of impenetrability, spiritualized it. Two steep spiral staircases - 509 steps each - lead to the bell towers, arranged in the middle tiers of the towers framing the facade. From here, from a height of about 100 meters, a magnificent panorama of Cologne and its surroundings opens up.

The largest bell of the Cologne Cathedral and the largest "operating" bell in the world is "Peter" - its weight is 24 tons. It was cast relatively recently - in 1923, from the metal of cannons captured from the French in 1871. It is followed by the ancient bell "Pretiosa" ("Exquisite"), which got its name because of the amazing purity of the tone. Cast in 1448, it weighs 11 tons, and at one time was the largest in Europe. Two more bells echo their famous counterparts. The huge towers of the Cologne Cathedral are visible from almost anywhere in the city, but the cathedral makes a particularly stunning impression - thanks to the greenish reflections of illumination on a dark stone - in the evening.

Introduction

The Middle Ages (Middle Ages) is a historical period that separated antiquity (i.e. Greco-Roman antiquity) from its "revival" in the XV-XVI centuries. The political map of the Middle Ages represented the states of the Visigoths, Lombards, Franks, Ostrogoths, etc.

For a long time, the attitude towards the Middle Ages was exclusively negative: its art was considered rude for its inconsistency with the norms of an ideal classical form, its culture was considered primitive. The dominance at that time of the religious worldview was perceived as a "reactionary" dominance of the Church.

Western European culture is a close connection with religion; it is closeness to folk art; symbolism; paintings and sculptures decorating medieval temples, as well as architecture.

The art of the Western European Middle Ages is divided into three stages: pre-Romanesque (VI-X centuries), Romanesque (XI-XII centuries) and Gothic (XIII-XV centuries). In this test, we will focus on the Romanesque and Gothic styles, namely architecture.

In the Gothic era, many cathedrals were built - high, with elongated windows, decorated with stained-glass windows. Such was the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris (Notre Dame Cathedral) in France. And not only was it, it is still active and it is the spiritual heart of Paris. More details about this wonderful cathedral will be discussed in the fourth paragraph.

“One of my main goals is to inspire the nation with love for our architecture,” wrote V. Hugo in the preface to the novel of the same name “Notre Dame de Paris”. Who else from the writers was inspired by this beautiful paris cathedral, we learn in the fifth paragraph.

Romanesque and Gothic styles in architecture

As mentioned above, the Romanesque and Gothic styles belong to the Middle Ages. The Romanesque style refers to the art of Western and Central Europe in the 10th-12th centuries. (in a number of countries until the 13th century), when the dominance of feudal-religious ideology was most complete. The name of the style comes from the Latin name of the city of Rome (Roma), since the style originates in areas that were part of the Roman Empire in the past. Romanesque architecture is a development of the previous one, the origins of which lie in Christian antiquity, and, consequently, Roman architecture.

At the beginning of the XI century. first of all, in the areas adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, the first Romanesque buildings appear. These most ancient monuments have a characteristic masonry of the largest rough-hewn stones. The facades of buildings were often decorated with flat reliefs and "false" deaf arcades. The main role in the Romanesque style was assigned to severe, fortified architecture, massive stone structures were usually erected on elevated places and dominated the area. The appearance of Romanesque buildings was distinguished by monolithic integrity and solemn strength, the building consisted of simple, clearly identified volumes, emphasized by uniform divisions; the power and thickness of the walls were enhanced by narrow window openings, stepped portals and imposing towers. The same features of massiveness are characteristic of temple structures, which were covered with wall paintings - frescoes from the inside, and brightly painted reliefs from the outside. The painting and sculpture of the Romanesque type is characterized by a flat two-dimensional image, generalization of forms, violation of proportions in the image of figures, lack of portrait resemblance to the original, intense spiritual expressiveness. The images are rigorous, often extremely naive.

The knight's castle, the monastic ensemble, the church are the main types of Romanesque buildings that have come down to our time. Typical examples of Romanesque architecture are: Notre Dame Cathedral in Poitiers, cathedrals in Toulouse, Orsinval, Velez, Arne (France), cathedrals in Oxford, Winchester, Norich (England), in Stanager (Norway), in Luid (Sweden), the church of the monastery Maria Lach (Germany). There are monuments of the Romanesque style in Austria, the Scandinavian countries, Poland, Hungary and other countries.

By the end of the XII century. Roman style is replaced by Gothic (from the Italian word gotico - Gothic, after the name of the Germanic tribe is ready).

The Gothic style differs from its predecessor; this is a style that has created a completely different system of forms, organization of space and volumetric composition. The Gothic era coincided with the formation and development of urban centers during the Classical Middle Ages. The first temple buildings of the Gothic style, which became a model for later structures, are characterized by slender columns carried upwards, assembled as if in bunches and opening on a stone vault. The general plan of the Gothic temple is based on the shape of the Latin cross (Fig. 1). From the outside and from the inside, the cathedrals were decorated with statues, reliefs, stained-glass windows, and paintings that emphasized the most characteristic feature of the Gothic - aspiration upwards. Such were the Gothic cathedrals in Paris, Chartres, Bourges, Beauvais, Amiens, Reims (France).

The cathedrals of England were somewhat different, for which they were characterized by a large length and a peculiar intersection of the lancet arches of the vaults. Most bright examples Gothic style of England are Westminster Abbey in London, cathedrals in Salisbury, York, Canterbury, etc.

The transition from Romanesque to Gothic in Germany was slower than in France and England. This explains the presence of a large number of buildings of the eclectic style. The lack of building stone, especially in the northern regions of Germany, gave rise to brick Gothic, which spread quite quickly throughout Europe. The first brick Gothic church was the church in Lübeck (XIII century).

In the XIV century. a new technique arises - flaming gothic, which was characterized by the decoration of the building with stone lace, that is, the finest stone carving. The masterpieces of the flaming Gothic include the cathedrals in the cities of Amber, Amiens, Alason, Conche, Corby (France).

Target: to acquaint classmates with the features of medieval culture on the example of Romanesque and Gothic styles in art.

In the Middle Ages, new styles and trends in architecture began to appear and develop very actively.

Romanesque style (from lat. romanus - Roman)- an artistic style that dominated Western Europe (and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe) in the 11th-12th centuries (in a number of places - in the 13th century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art. Most fully expressed in architecture.

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to severe fortress architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building has always harmoniously blended into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-in-depth portals. Such walls carried a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral:

The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space

Enlargement of the choir or the eastern altar of the temple

Increasing the height of the temple

Replacing the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat along the beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).

Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns

The main motive of the interior - semicircular arches

The rational simplicity of the design, composed of individual square cells - grass.

Romanesque sculpture entered its heyday from 1100, obeying, like Romanesque painting, architectural motifs. It was mainly used in the external decoration of cathedrals. The reliefs were most often located on the western facade, where they were located around the portals or placed on the surface of the facade, on archivolts and capitals. The figures in the middle of the tympanum had to be larger than the corner ones. In friezes, they acquired squat proportions, on bearing pillars and columns - elongated. Depicting religious subjects, Romanesque artists did not seek to create the illusion of the real world. Their main task was to create a symbolic image of the universe in all its grandeur. Also, Romanesque sculpture carried the task of reminding believers of God, the sculptural decoration amazes with an abundance of fantastic creatures, and is distinguished by the expression and echoes of pagan ideas. Romanesque sculpture conveyed excitement, confusion of images, tragic feelings, detachment from everything earthly.

Particular attention was paid to the sculptural decoration of the western facade and the entrance to the temple. Above the main perspective portal, there was usually a tympanum with a relief depicting the scene of the Last Judgment; in addition to the tympanum, reliefs on the facade were decorated with archivolts, columns, portals, which depicted apostles, prophets and Old Testament kings.

Existing examples of Romanesque painting include decorations on architectural monuments, such as columns with abstract ornaments, as well as wall decorations with images of hanging fabrics. Picturesque compositions, in particular narrative scenes based on biblical stories and from the life of saints, were also depicted on the wide surfaces of the walls. In these compositions, which predominantly follow Byzantine painting and mosaics, the figures are stylized and flat, so that they are perceived more as symbols than as realistic representations. Mosaic, just like painting, was largely a Byzantine technique and was widely used in the architectural design of Italian Romanesque churches, especially in the Cathedral of St. Mark (Venice) and in the Sicilian churches in Cefalu and Montreal.

Gothic- a period in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe from the 12th to the 15th-16th centuries. Gothic came to replace the Romanesque style, gradually replacing it. The term "Gothic" is most often applied to a well-known style of architectural structures that can be briefly described as "eerily majestic". But Gothic covers almost all works of fine art of this period: sculpture, painting, book miniature, stained glass, fresco and many others.

Gothic originated in the middle of the 12th century in northern France, in the 13th century it spread to the territory of modern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Spain, and England. Gothic penetrated into Italy later, with great difficulty and a strong transformation, which led to the emergence of "Italian Gothic". At the end of the 14th century, Europe was engulfed by the so-called international Gothic. Gothic penetrated into the countries of Eastern Europe later and stayed there a little longer - until the 16th century.

For buildings and works of art containing characteristic Gothic elements, but created in the eclectic period (mid-19th century) and later, the term "neo-Gothic" is used.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the term "Gothic novel" began to denote the literary genre of the Romantic era - the literature of secrets and horrors (the action of such works often unfolded in "Gothic" castles or monasteries). In the 1980s, the term "gothic" began to be used to refer to the musical genre that arose at that time ("gothic rock"), and then the subculture that formed around it ("gothic subculture").

The word comes from Italian. gotico - unusual, barbaric - (Goten - barbarians; this style has nothing to do with the historical Goths), and was first used as a swear word. For the first time, the concept in the modern sense was applied by Giorgio Vasari in order to separate the Renaissance from the Middle Ages. Gothic completed the development of European medieval art, arising on the basis of the achievements of Romanesque culture, and during the Renaissance (Renaissance), the art of the Middle Ages was considered "barbaric". Gothic art was cult in purpose and religious in subject matter. It appealed to the highest divine powers, eternity, the Christian worldview. Early, mature and late Gothic stand out.

The Gothic style mainly manifested itself in the architecture of temples, cathedrals, churches, monasteries. It developed on the basis of Romanesque, more precisely, Burgundian architecture. In contrast to the Romanesque style, with its round arches, massive walls and small windows, the Gothic style is characterized by pointed arches, narrow and high towers and columns, a richly decorated facade with carved details (wimpergi, tympanums, archivolts) and multi-colored stained-glass lancet windows. . All style elements emphasize the vertical.

The church of the monastery of Saint-Denis, designed by the abbot Suger, is considered the first Gothic architectural structure. During its construction, many supports and internal walls were removed, and the church acquired a more graceful appearance compared to the Romanesque "fortresses of God." In most cases, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris was taken as a model.

From Ile-de-France (France), the Gothic architectural style spread to Western, Central and Southern Europe - to Germany, England, etc. In Italy, it did not dominate for long and, as a "barbarian style", quickly gave way to the Renaissance; and since he came here from Germany, he is still called "stile tedesco" - German style.

In Gothic architecture, 3 stages of development are distinguished: early, mature (high gothic) and late (flaming gothic, variants of which were also the styles of manueline (in Portugal) and isabelino (in Castile).

With the advent of the Renaissance north and west of the Alps at the beginning of the 16th century, the Gothic style lost its significance.

Almost all the architecture of Gothic cathedrals is due to one major invention of the time - a new frame structure, which makes these cathedrals easily recognizable.

Characteristic features of the Romanesque and Gothic styles:

Romanesque period
Predominant and fashionable colors: brown, red, green, white;
Lines: cooper, semi-circular, straight, horizontal and vertical;
Shape: rectangular, cylindrical;
Characteristic elements of the interior: a semi-circular frieze, a repeating geometric or floral pattern; halls with open ceiling beams and supports in the center;
Structures: stone, massive, thick-walled; wooden plastered with a visible skeleton;
Windows: rectangular, small, in stone houses - arched;
Doors: plank, rectangular with massive hinges, a lock and a deadbolt

Gothic
Predominant and fashionable colors: yellow, red, blue;
Gothic style lines: lancet, forming a vault of two intersecting arcs, repeating ribbed lines;
Shape: rectangular in terms of the building; lancet arches turning into pillars;
Characteristic elements of the interior: Fan vault with supports or coffered ceiling and wooden wall panels; leafy complex ornament; halls are high, narrow and long, or wide with supports in the center;
Gothic style constructions: frame, openwork, stone; elongated upward, lancet arches; underlined skeleton structures;
Windows: elongated upwards often with multicolored stained-glass windows; on the top of the building there are sometimes round decorative windows;
Doors: lancet ribbed arches of doorways; oak paneled doors

Based on this, it is worth noting that with all the variety of artistic means and stylistic features, the art of the Middle Ages has common characteristics:

Religious character (the Christian church is the only thing that united the disparate kingdoms of Western Europe throughout medieval history);

Synthesis of various types of art, where the leading place was given to architecture;

The focus of the artistic language on conventionality, symbolism and low realism, associated with the worldview of the era in which faith, spirituality, heavenly beauty were stable priorities;

Emotional beginning, psychologism, designed to convey the intensity of religious feelings, the drama of individual plots;

Nationality, because in the Middle Ages the people were the creator and spectator: the hands of craftsmen created works of art, erected temples in which numerous parishioners prayed. Used by the church for ideological purposes, cult art had to be accessible and understandable to all believers;

And personality (according to the teachings of the church, the hand of the master is directed by the will of God, whose instrument was the architect, stone cutter, painter, jeweler, stained glass artist, etc., the names of the masters who left the world masterpieces of medieval art are practically unknown).

In this way, The Middle Ages in Western Europe is a time of intense spiritual life, complex and difficult searches for worldview structures that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of the previous millennia. In this era, people were able to enter a new path of cultural development, different from what they knew in previous times. Trying to reconcile faith and reason, building a picture of the world based on the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban lifestyle, a new economy, and prepared people's minds for the use of mechanical devices and technology.

The emergence of the Romanesque style in architecture is due to feudal fragmentation in Western Europe, which led to frequent internecine wars between feudal princes, seeking to take away precious pieces of land from each other. Therefore, it was important to create structures that could withstand the pressure of the invaders and fulfill their main function - defense. So the Romanesque style in architecture became the main pan-European style of monumental construction.

The main features of the Romanesque style in architecture

Since the main goal of that period was the construction of strong castles, functional and capable of withstanding a military attack, the artistic and aesthetic value of architecture was not given much importance. Romanesque castles were built like real fortresses, so the architecture was heavy and monumental. Features of the Romanesque style in architecture also lie in large sizes, rigor, simplicity of shapes and lines, straightness of angles, dominance of horizontals over verticals.

Roman style sometimes called the "semicircular arch style" because one of the main distinguishing features structures in this style were ceilings, decorated in the form of arched vaults, which were supported by the same rows of pillars.

The walls of early Romanesque buildings were thick, with small windows that did little to decorate. However, the more the Romanesque style developed, the more often the walls in moderate quantities could be covered with mosaics, stone carvings or sculptural plastics. Characteristic of Romanesque castles was the presence of round towers with tent-shaped tops. The entrance to the building - especially for temples - was often designed as a portal.

It is almost impossible to find other public buildings built in the Romanesque style, except for cathedrals and monasteries. And the main type of residential building in the Romanesque era was a feudal castle called a donjon, which was a tower house located in the center of the fortress. The first floor of such a tower was reserved for premises intended for household purposes, the second - for front rooms, the third - for the master's bedrooms. On the fourth and, as a rule, the last floor there were rooms for servants and guards of the castle.

The ideal place for such a fortress was some hard-to-reach terrain, for example, a mountain slope. The fortress was surrounded by a series of high, jagged stone walls and a deep moat with water. Access inside by the residents themselves was provided by a drawbridge.

Romanesque style in European architecture

The very name of the style appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, when art historians thought that the Romanesque style resembled architecture in appearance. ancient rome("Roma" in Italian. "Rome").

Best of all, the Romanesque style has come down to our times in the form of temples and cathedrals. Castles and palaces began to fall into decay with the beginning of the Renaissance. Some of them were put in order, rebuilt and again turned into castles, many of which have survived to this day as terrible castles, shrouded in various legends, while the rest turned into ruins.

France

In the architecture of France, the Romanesque style began to appear towards the end of the 10th century. The most popular type of buildings in this style were three-aisled basilicas - elongated, rectangular temples with three longitudinal aisles-naves, which often resembled a cross in the image on the plan. The type of pilgrimage cathedral with a bypass gallery and radial chapels has also become widespread - for example, the Saint-Sernin church in the city of Toulouse in southern France.

The Burgundian architectural school took the principle of monumentality as the basis of the Romanesque style, and the Poitou school took sculptural decoration. The abbey temple of Cluny III and Notre Dame in Poitiers are, respectively, the main representatives of these schools among French architectural monuments.

Germany

Early Roman style in German architecture is characterized by the Saxon school. Its characteristic type of church is a cathedral with a pair of symmetrical choirs on the west and east sides. An example is the church of St. Michael in Hildesheim.

The late Romanesque style is characterized by the erection of imperial palaces - for example, the imperial palace in Goslar. The house-tower, bergfried, similar to the donjons, is also spreading in France.

Italy

The regions in Italy where the Romanesque architectural style took root most of all were Lombardy and Tuscany - they became the main centers of this architecture. The church of San Michele in Pavia, the campanile in Parma, the cathedral in Modena are still considered one of the most interesting architectural ensembles Italian Middle Ages.

Romanesque architecture of this period in Italy can be called proto-Renaissance - it was distinguished from French and German Romanesque by the use of antique elements and colored marble.

The cathedral ensemble in Pisa is made in the Romanesque style, in particular, the well-known landmark of Italy - the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

England

Even though in the 11th century England was conquered by the Normans, who imposed the French language and culture on the island, and, accordingly, French architectural principles, the Romanesque style in the medieval architecture of England manifested itself somewhat differently than in France.

English cathedral architecture had more elongated, extended forms, so the towers were larger and taller. During that period, the famous castle, the Tower of London, was erected.

Romanesque and Gothic styles in architecture: what is the difference?

Following the Romanesque, the post of the dominant style in European medieval architecture was occupied by Gothic. While the Romanesque style arose in different regions by the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century and reigned until the 12th century, and somewhere longer, the Gothic style appeared in the 12th century and retained its influence until the 14th century. In England, many Romanesque cathedrals, due to the early arrival of the Gothic, were remodeled to a new style, so their original appearance is unknown to art historians.

Although the basis of the Gothic style was precisely Roman style, in particular, the Burgundian school, they still have a number of significant differences that absolutely do not allow them to be confused. Most clearly, these main differences can be seen in the example of cathedral architecture.

• The arches and pinnacles in the Gothic style are pointed, in contrast to the round Romanesque pinnacles.
• The main feature of the Romanesque style is massiveness, monumentality, while refinement is inherent in Gothic.
• The windows in the Romanesque style are small, in the form of loopholes, the Gothic style implies impressive window sizes and a large amount of light.

• Horizontal lines in the Romanesque style predominate over vertical ones, such buildings look squat. In the Gothic style, the opposite is true - the verticals dominate the horizontals, which is why the buildings have very high ceilings, seem to be directed upwards, stretched to the sky.
• The Burgundian school is characterized by a minimum of decorative elements in architecture. The Gothic style is characterized by richly decorated facades, bright stained glass windows, carvings and patterns.

This video will help you learn more about Romanesque and Gothic styles:

For Western Europe 5th c. was typical luxury in architecture and sculpture, a departure from the realistic image towards stylization and formalism. The plastic arts are increasingly moving away from the realistic orientation inherent in antiquity, acquiring an abstract and symbolic character.

The architecture of the buildings resembled Byzantine buildings. Feudal castles and church cathedrals were continuously built.

Church building especially increased about 1000 in connection with the expected, according to the teachings of the church, the end of the world. Since then it has been widely used stone.

The weight of the stone vaults could only be supported by thick, powerful walls with few and narrow windows. This style is called romanesque. Example:

Notre Dame in Poitiers, cathedrals in Toulouse, Arles, Velez (France), cathedrals in Oxford, Winchester, Noritch (England), in Lund (Sweden).

For Romanesque sculptures characterized by a complete rejection of realism in the interpretation of nature and the human body.

Exclusively ecclesiastical in content was and Wall art- planar, denying the three-dimensionality of figures and perspective. Painting reflected class-hierarchical ideas about the world: the saints were depicted larger in size than the king, and the king - larger than his vassals and servants.

To 12th c. appears in France Gothic. gothic cathedral- tall and slender columns, assembled as if in bundles and intersecting at a great height, huge windows, decorated with bright multi-colored stained-glass windows. Characteristic trait - rising buildings. Ex: Westminster Abbey in London.

At 14. - "flaming gothic"- the buildings were decorated with the finest stone carving - stone lace. At the same time, in England, a transition is planned to "perpendicular style" in Gothic- stone walls turn at this time into narrow piers between windows.

Roman style

The Romanesque style (from _la. romanus - Roman) developed in Western European art of the 10th-12th centuries. He expressed himself most fully in architecture.

The term "Romanesque style" appeared in the 19th century, when the connection between the architecture of the 11th-12th centuries was established. with ancient Roman architecture (in particular, the use of semicircular arches, vaults). In general, the term is arbitrary and reflects only one, not the main, side of art. However, it has come into common use. The main type of art of the Romanesque style is architecture, mainly church (stone temple, monastic complexes).

Style characteristic

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and concise exterior decoration - the building has always carefully blended into the surrounding nature and therefore looked especially solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive smooth walls with narrow window openings and stepped recessed portals.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

In contrast to the eastern centric type, a type of temple called the basilica developed in the West. The most important feature of Romanesque architecture is the presence of a stone vault. Other characteristic features include thick walls, cut through with small windows, designed to receive a thrust from the dome, if any, the predominance of horizontal articulations over vertical ones, mainly circular and semicircular arches.

Notable Romanesque buildings

* Kaiser Cathedrals in Speyer, Worms and Mainz in Germany

* Liebmurg Cathedral in Germany

* Pisa Cathedral and part of the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy

* Maria Laach Abbey in Germany

see also

* Henry Hobson Richardson - revived the Romanesque style in the 19th century

The specifics of Russian architecture.

It starts with the adoption of Christianity.

Kyiv architectural style- monumentality, many heads. Mosaic and frescoes (Cathedral of Kyiv Sophia).

Novgorod style- stricter than Kiev in decoration, more powerful and more severe in construction. There are no bright mosaics in the interior, but only frescoes, but not as dynamic as in Kyiv, and an excess of decorations of pagan antiquity with a clearly visible pattern of yazelkovy writing (St. Sophia Cathedral).

It is based on Byzantine architecture: a cross-domed building, which is superimposed with a tent, stepped tiering, towering top, height, vertical aspiration and asymmetry.

In ancient times, temples were built in the form of a ship and a cross, and later - in the form of a star or a circle. Near the bell-flax.

Until the 17th century the temple was white with golden domes. After penetration into Russia, baroque - colored. ("Naryzhkin baroque").

Temple structure: divided into naves (longitudinal), extensions-semi-circles (apses) is divided into 3 parts: a vestibule, a middle part and an altar (in the east). The entrance to the altar is closed and separated from the middle part by an iconostasis (a partition decorated with icons in several tiers), in the middle of which there are the Royal Doors, along the edges - the northern and southern gates.

Inside: columns, mosaics, biblical scenes on the walls and ceiling, faces of saints, angels, crosses, icons, carved candlesticks.

Exterior finish: domes (odd number -1,3,5,7,9,13 ..- each has its own meaning), there are crosses on them. Decorations: belts, brows, two-story niches, arched belts, false pilasters , an odd number of domes.

Russian classicism

The works of Russian classicism constitute not only the most important chapter in the history of Russian and European architecture, but also our living artistic heritage. This heritage continues to live not as a museum value, but also as an essential element of the modern city. It is almost impossible to apply the name of architectural monuments to buildings and ensembles created in the 18th and early 19th centuries - they so firmly preserve their creative freshness, free from signs of old age.

The construction of a new capital for the 18th century was not only a huge political, military and national economic enterprise, but also a great nationwide cause, in the same sense in which in the 16th century the national affair of the Russian people was the creation and strengthening of Moscow.

Classicism as a system of international artistic culture

Without visible struggle and controversy, public tastes have changed in Russia. For five - seven years, Russian baroque as the dominant style was replaced by classicism; the end of the 1750s was still the heyday of the first, the middle of the 1760s was already the beginning of the wide distribution of the second. Baroque left before reaching the stage of decline, without wasting its artistic potential.

Classicism was accepted as a system of international artistic culture, within which a national version of the style developed. The era of cultural loneliness of Russian architecture, stretched for centuries, is over.

Among the reasons that accelerated the establishment of classicism in Russia, in addition to the enthusiasm of the educated layer of the Russian nobility for rational educational utopias, there were also practical reasons related to the expansion of the range of tasks of architecture. The development of industry and the growth of cities again, as in the time of Peter the Great, brought to the fore the problems of urban planning and the multiplying types of buildings needed for the increasingly complex urban life. But for shopping arcades or public places, the genre of major-festive architecture is inappropriate, beyond which the Baroque was unable to go; the splendor of the palace cannot be extended to the whole city. The artistic language of classicism was, unlike the baroque, universal. It could also be used in the construction of the most imposing palace buildings and for “philistine” dwellings, up to modest wooden houses on the outskirts.

Changes in the circle of architectural forms affected, first of all, the decor. The relation of the building to the urban space was rethought in a new way. However, classicism did not offer any fundamentally new schemes. The few variants of simple plans already used by the Russian Baroque continued to serve various functions.

It was important that along with the new style, new methods of creativity were finally approved. The harmonization of a work of architecture, its parts and the whole was no longer carried out with “size-1 and base” and not on scaffolding (where Rastrelli's employees sculpted or cut decorative elements from wood on the spot), at work on a design drawing. Thus, the division of labor, which replaced the former "artel", was finally sealed up. The idea and development of the form that bears the image became the work of one architect, acting as the author (although this was not soon accustomed to outside the profession, which is why so many questions remain related to the authorship of works of early classicism, including the largest ones, such as Pashkov house and palace of Razumovsky in Moscow or the Engineering Castle in St. Petersburg).

For architectural form, in all details predetermined by the project, the models were no longer so much buildings as their images, analogues of the design drawing. The norms of classicism were reduced to a strict system. All this together made it possible to fully and accurately master the style according to the drawings and texts of theoretical treatises, which was almost impossible for the baroque with its capricious individuality. Classicism therefore easily spread to the provinces. It became the style not only of monumental structures, but of the entire urban fabric. The latter turned out to be possible because classicism created a hierarchy of forms that made it possible to subordinate any structures to its norms, while expressing the place of everyone in the social structure.

There were few talented and skillful architects; they could not design all the buildings in many cities. General character and the level of architectural solutions was maintained through the use of exemplary projects carried out by the largest masters. They were engraved and sent to all cities of Russia.

Design became distinct from construction; this expanded the influence on the architecture of professional literature and bookishness in general. The role of the word in the formation of the architectural image has increased. Its connection with historical and literary images provided common understanding for well-read people (the enlightened layer of the nobility was united by a common circle of reading and book knowledge).

This made the style equally consistent with the intentions of the absolutist power and the ideas of its enlightened opposition, the tastes of the richest, most powerful nobles and the limited means of poor nobles.

Petersburg classicism was, first of all, the style of the official "state" culture. Its norms were based on the way of life of the imperial court and the great nobility, they were prescribed to state institutions. Here the influence of folk "out of style" culture on professional activity architects are not noticeable.

St. Petersburg strict classicism took shape as a completed version of the style in the 1780s. I.E. Starov (1745-1808) and Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817) were his typical masters. Their buildings were distinguished by the clarity of compositional technique, conciseness of volumes, perfect harmony of proportions within the limits of the classicist canon, and fine drawing of details. The images of the buildings they built are full of courageous strength and calm dignity.

The Tauride Palace (1783-1789) created by Starov is sternly solemn. Rejecting the enfilade baroque systems, the master, in accordance with the rationalistic logic of classicism, combined the premises into functional groups. The reception of the spatial organization of the whole, where the developed side wings, connected by transitions with a powerful central volume, form a deep front courtyard, comes from the Palladian villas. The location of the front halls highlights the deep axis of the composition, however, the giant Grand Gallery is elongated parallel to the facade, which removed the elementary simplicity of contrast.

The facades are freed from the shallow relief that divides the wall into panels and blades - the architect no longer follows the examples of French architecture of the middle of the century, as the St. Smooth white columns of resolutely protruding austere Doric porticoes, for the first time in Russian architecture, actually carry entablature. They stand out against the background of intensely colored smooth walls, cut through by openings without architraves. The contrast emphasizes the tectonics of the plastered brick wall. “Four times eighteen” columns in the double colonnades of the Great Gallery had Greco-Ionic capitals (later replaced by L. Russka with the usual Roman ones) - one of the first examples of turning to the Hellenic heritage for Russian classicism. Derzhavin wrote about the building of the Tauride Palace: “ancient elegant taste is its dignity; it is simple but majestic.” The palace became for contemporaries an ideal standard of a large building - St. Petersburg, Russian and at the same time European. His drawings were enthusiastically appreciated by Napoleon, who especially noted the Grand Gallery and the winter garden, as reported by Percier and Fontaine in the text of their published uvrazh "The Best Royal Palaces in the World".

The main stages in the development of classicism

So the Winter Palace, despite all the Rastrelli brilliance of its forms and the undeniably dominant importance of this building in the center of the capital, turned out to be architecturally subordinate to the General Staff building. Not because the classical (or “Empire”) forms of this latter are “stronger” than the baroque forms of the palace, but because Rossi built not only some new large building opposite the Winter Palace, but also created a new architectural whole, a new ensemble, a new architectural unity. In this new unity, organized according to the laws of Rossi, and not Rastrelli, the work of the latter seemed to be included in the new composition and, as a result, subordinate to the building of Rossi, and not vice versa, although one does not have to talk about any formal "superiority" of Rossi over Rastrelli, the General Staff over the Winter Palace. Thus, the Zakharovsky Admiralty began to "hold" in its monumental hands the entire spatial organism of the central St. Petersburg squares. So the relatively low building of the Stock Exchange attracted the nodal point of this center, which was previously located in a high-rise volume Peter and Paul Fortress. So, further, the monumental buildings of Quarenghi turned out to be included in the new ensembles and subordinated to them: the State Bank - in the orbit of the architectural influence of the Kazan Cathedral, the Horse Guards Manege - in the ensemble Senate Square created by Zakharov, Rossi and Montferrand; The Academy of Sciences, the Catherine Institute, the Maltese Chapel are also completely subordinated to the new architectural environment. This happened not because all these buildings erected outstanding masters of a large classical form, are less significant than something that was created earlier or later in their neighborhood, but because, by their architectural nature, they were not designed for an organizing role in the ensemble and for the ensemble in general. Comparison of the Stock Exchange, designed by Quarenghi, with the Stock Exchange, built by Thomon, clearly demonstrates the difference between these two architectural approaches to the problem of the city: in one case, a self-sufficient architectural composition a building that almost does not take into account its future environment, in the other - a building that composes the urban ensemble.

During the completion of the spatial composition of the main parts of St. Petersburg, during the first decades of the 19th century, the architectural searches of the entire 18th century were synthesized, as it were, synthesized and submitted to new forms, a new style, imperiously imposing its imprint on the entire appearance of the city. By this time, Petersburg acquires its "strict, slender appearance", in the words of Pushkin. And no matter how we evaluate the achievements of late St. Petersburg classicism in terms of quality and formality in comparison with the achievements of Rastrelli, or Quarenghi, or Rinaldi, we must recognize the importance of the most important urban planning stage in the development of St. Petersburg precisely in this final period.

Russian baroque

manifested itself in the redundancy of purely Russian architectural decorations: rows of zakomars and kokoshniks, columnar decorations, such as window openings, a combination of plaster with brickwork, gilding, and other decoration of domes. Then came the architecture of the so-called. "Naryshkin baroque" - clearly western orientation, with the use of lace stucco, faceted domes, columnar drums. The former striking difference between church architecture and secular architecture disappears. Of course, at this stage (the end of the 17th century) there are no direct analogues between the elements of Russian and Western Baroque: if the essence of Western Baroque is in the free flow of volumes, the smoothness of volute contours, then the "Naryshkin baroque" is a pile of multifaceted stands on a quadrifolia (four-petalled building in terms of ).

Western baroque was already brought under Peter by Italian and French masters.

In the first years of Peter's reign, the orientation towards the Protestant countries was reflected in the architecture of Domenico Trezzini, who sparingly used baroque forms, which gave a special charm to the appearance of the northern capital. Dry practicality changed the nature of Russian painting: the art department established in 1724 at the Academy of Sciences was called upon to subordinate art to the tasks of the scientific study of nature.

Further following the path of the sacralization of absolutism was reflected in the attraction of baroque and classicism masters to Russia. A frank desire to surpass Versailles in luxury was reflected in the creation of the French architect Leblon - Peterhof, Peter's country residence. The work of baroque masters no longer in demand in the West, especially the father and son Rastrelli, received full recognition in Russia. But the spirit of palace voluntarism was more in line with the Rococo style, to which the art of the 18th century gravitated.

During the Time of Troubles, Russia was in a state of ruin. Monumental architecture and painting did not develop, did not build new chambers, temples, did not write frescoes. Builders and painters left Moscow and other large cities. Separate easel icons (works by Stroganov masters) reflected the anxieties and torments of their time. Icon "Bogolyubskaya Mother of God" (n. 17th century), the image of Tsarevich Dmitry, Russian saints, monks, holy fools, crying out for the salvation of Russia. Stroganov school of icon painting (Prokopy Chirin and others): bitter pessimism, inferiority of images. The icons are presented in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, in the Novodevichy Convent. In addition, in Russian art of the 17th century. heroic, fighting motives appear. Rostov: an embroidered banner with the image of the Archangel Michael and Joshua in the Borisoglebsky Monastery. Icon "Archangel Michael the Voivode" (before 17th century). In the 17th century, after the expulsion of foreigners, ancient Russian architecture experienced a new upsurge. The Moscow Kremlin becomes a symbol of the greatness of Russia. Structures and walls are restored and receive additional decorative decoration. Spasskaya, Arsenalnaya corner, Moskvoretskaya corner, Troitskaya, Borovitskaya, Vodovzvodnaya corner and other towers are crowned with stone tents with state emblem. The decorative stone top of the Spasskaya Tower was built on in 1625. English architect Christopher Galofey and Russian architect Bazhen Ogurtsov. The tented Russian form is successfully combined with Gothic motifs. The hipped tops of other Kremlin towers were erected in the 17th century. Russian builders. The Moscow Kremlin becomes one of the most original creations of architecture. The upper parts organically merge with their bases. In the 17th century many buildings were erected in the Kremlin: clerk's chambers, churches, monastery courtyards, boyar houses and courtyards. An overabundance of large and small buildings made the Kremlin cramped. Having lost the harmony and clarity of architectural development, the Moscow Kremlin acquired in the 17th century. fabulous beauty of the ancient Russian baroque. In 1636 the Terem Palace is being built (architects Bazhen Ogurtsov and Trofim Sharutin). The 3-storey stone building on the basement had a tiered character. White-stone painted architraves, gilded roofs with burdocks, cornices made up the rich decoration of the buildings.

The towers of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery also received a new look in the Old Russian Baroque style. Prototypes of Russian churches of the 17th century. were the Moscow Kremlin buildings (Assumption Cathedral in 1479, it. architect Aristotle Fiorovanti). On the basis of Moscow architecture, an all-Russian architecture is being created, instilling the concept of the territorial and political integrity of Russia. Inexhaustible inventions and creative inventions are full of the best examples of church architecture of the 1st floor. 17th century: Kazan Cathedral on the Kremlin Square, Trinity Church in Nikitniki built by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky in Moscow. The vast building of the Patriarchal Court in the Kremlin (1655) with the Church of the Twelve Apostles, placed on the vaults of the exit gates, marked the beginning of the construction of bishops' houses and refectory chambers. The Great Cross Chamber of this structure was covered with a closed vault and did not have supporting pillars. In the 2nd floor 17th century stone architecture in Russia takes on a monumental scope and exceptional decorativeness. Tent temples are no longer being built. The architects develop the motifs of 5-domed and 9-domed churches: the splendor and splendor of the Trinity Church in Ostankino, the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (1679), the Intercession Cathedral in Izmailovo. All R. and 2nd floor. 17th century construction is underway in Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kostroma, and Rostov the Great.

Church of John Chrysostom, John the Baptist, Resurrection Cathedral in New Jerusalem near Moscow (2nd half of the 17th century). Pillars-bell towers, built on the model of Ivan the Great - in Savvino-Storozhevsky, New Jerusalem, Novodevichy and other monasteries. Old Russian architecture in bizarre forms, in elaborate decorations of buildings, is moving to the Baroque style. Church domes in the form of a military helmet take on forms close to an onion or a pear. Terracotta belts, tiles, round and keeled kokoshniks, pilasters, polychrome majolica. Old Russian baroque was related to Western European. New Jerusalem Monastery, Palace in Kolomenskoye (1681), Krutitsky Teremok in Moscow (1680).

Russian villages were built up with log huts covered with plank and thatch, with hearths without chimneys. In the 17th century there is an influence of stone architecture on wooden architecture, and earlier it was the other way around. Church in Kizhi (twenty-two heads), church in Vytegorsky poyust (seventeen heads). The motif of the traditional five domes comes from the architecture of the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals.

Reunion in the 17th century Ukraine with Russia caused a lively cultural ties between both peoples. A new trend in stone architecture, "Naryshkin baroque", successfully combines Russian and Ukrainian building techniques, as well as features of the Western European order system. The temple domes in the buildings of the "Naryshkin baroque" take the form of a royal gate or a crown. Belfry of the Novodevichy Convent, Church of the Intercession in Fili.

In the 2nd floor 17th century over-the-gate stone temples are being built - the upper floors of the holy gates of monasteries and kremlins. The gates of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, crowned with a temple, became known in Moscow as a result of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In the middle of the 17th century kremlins lose their defensive purpose and become decorative.

Simeon Polotsky - (in the world Samuil Emelyanovich Petrovsky-Sitnianovich) (1629-1680) Belarusian and Russian public and church figure, writer. He argued with the leaders of the split. Teacher of the royal children. He taught at the school of the Zaikonospassky Monastery. Co-author of the project of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. One of the founders of Russian syllabic versification and dramaturgy.

Epiphany Slavinetsky - (? - 1675) Russian and Ukrainian figure and scientist. He wrote sermons, spiritual songs, book epic songs of philosophical content, the first scientific works. Compiler of Greek-Slavic-Latin and philological dictionaries.

Sculpture perild classics

The archaic period, during which the system of architectural orders was created, laid the foundation for Greek plastic art and painting, determined the paths for the further evolution of Hellenic culture. The next, classical, period in the history of ancient Greece was the heyday of its civilization, and V-IV centuries. BC. - the time of the highest achievements. At this time, Athens came to the fore, which was largely due to the formation of democracy there. Ordinary citizens of the city get the opportunity to solve important issues of political life at the people's assembly. The idea of ​​realizing oneself as citizens of the policy, and not just its inhabitants, was reflected primarily in the work of Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus, whose tragedies contributed to the successful development of the Greek theater. In many ways, it was the latter, being publicly available, that brought up patriotism and citizenship. In art, the ideal of a man-hero, perfect physically and morally, was fully embodied. Most of the sculptures have come down to us in late Roman copies. Of the surviving Greek originals, there is the famous statue of the "Delphic Charioteer", created around 470 BC. The young man is depicted full-length in a long chiton, intercepted by a belt at the waist, with reins in his hands. The flowing folds of his clothes resemble the flutes of a Doric column, but his face with eyes made of colored stone acquires extraordinary liveliness, spirituality. This image, full of harmony, embodies the ideal of a perfect man, equal to the heroes of the epic.

During the period of the early classics, the masters of the 5th century. BC. successfully solve the problem of synthesis of architecture and sculpture. Both of them act as completely equal, complementary arts. The sculptural decoration of the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia (470-456 BC) is the best example of this.