January van Eyck oil paints.
Biography of Jan van Eyck
Jan van Eyck is the younger brother of the artist and his teacher Hubert van Eyck (1370-1426). Jan van Eyck's exact date of birth is unknown. Born in the Northern Netherlands in Maaseik.
He studied with his elder brother Hubert, with whom he worked until 1426.
He began his activity in The Hague at the court of the Dutch counts, first mentioned between 1422 and 1426 as "Master Jan" in the rank of chamber junker to Count Johann III.
From 1425 he was an artist and courtier of the Duke of Burgundy, Philip III the Good, who highly valued him as an artist and generously paid for his work.
In 1427-1428. as part of the ducal embassy, Jan van Eyck went to Spain, then to Portugal.
In 1427 he visited Tournai, where he was received with honor by the local guild of artists.
Probably met with Robert Campin, or saw his work.
He worked in Lille and Ghent, in 1431 he bought a house in Bruges and lived there until his death.
Eyck's work
Eyck's style, based on the implicit power of realism, served as an important approach in late medieval art.
The outstanding achievements of this realistic movement, such as the frescoes of Tommaso da Modena in Treviso, the work of Robert Campin, influenced the style of Jan van Eyck.
Experimenting with realism, Jan van Eyck achieved astounding precision, unusually pleasing differences between the quality of materials and natural light. This suggests that his careful delineation of the details of daily life was done with the intention of displaying the splendor of God's creations.
Some writers falsely credit Jan van Eyck with the discovery of oil painting techniques. Undoubtedly, he played a key role in perfecting this technique, achieving with its help an unprecedented richness and saturation of color.
Jan van Eyck developed the technique of oil painting. He gradually achieved pedantic accuracy in depicting the natural world.
Many followers unsuccessfully copied his style. The distinguishing quality of Jan van Eyck's work was the difficult imitation of his work.
His influence on the next generation of artists, in northern and southern Europe, cannot be overestimated. The whole evolution of the Flemish painters of the 15th century bore the direct imprint of his style.
Among the works of van Eyck that have survived, the greatest is the "Ghent Altarpiece" - in the Cathedral of Saint-Bavon in Ghent, Belgium. This masterpiece was created by two brothers, Jan and Hubert, and completed in 1432. Exterior panels show the day of the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel visited the Virgin Mary, as well as images of St. John the Baptist, John the Evangelist. The interior of the altar consists of the "Adoration of the Lamb", revealing a magnificent landscape, as well as paintings above showing God the Father near the Virgin, John the Baptist, angels playing music, Adam and Eve.
Throughout his life, Jan van Yayk created many magnificent portraits, which are famous for their crystal-clear objectivity and graphic accuracy.
Portrait of Jan de Leeuw 
Annunciation 
Ghent altarpiece
Among his paintings: a portrait of an unknown man (1432), a portrait of a man in a red turban (1436), a portrait of Jan de Lieuw (1436) in Vienna, a portrait of his wife Margaret van Eyck (1439) in Bruges.
The wedding painting "Giovanni Arnolfini and his Bride" (1434, National Gallery of London) along with the figures shows an excellent interior.
In the biography of van Eyck, the artist's special interest has always fallen on the depiction of materials, as well as the special quality of substances. His unsurpassed technical talent was especially well manifested in two religious works - "Our Lady of Chancellor Rolin" (1436) in the Louvre, "Our Lady of Canon van der Pale" (1436) in Bruges.
The National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. exhibits the painting "Proclamation", which is attributed to van Eyck's hand.
Some of Jan van Eyck's unfinished paintings are believed to have been finished by Petrus Christus.
In the history of art, "Portrait of the Arnolfini" is one of the first paintings signed by the artist himself. “Jan van Eyck was here. 1434". Since up to the 15th century it was not customary to sign your paintings.
Painting by Jan van Eyck, master from Bruges, Flemish painter of the era early revival, - in which the hint is hidden. The painting is called "Portrait of the Cheta Arnolfini".
The picture simply shines with a huge amount of detail, which is quite interesting, because it was painted only in 1434. And a hint about how the author managed to make such a big step forward in the realism of the image is the mirror. And also a candlestick - incredibly complex and realistic.
Jan van Eyck and his older brother Hubert van Eyck were the founders of the Dutch Renaissance. Almost nothing is known about Hubert. Jan was his student, served as a court painter in The Hague at the court of John of Bavaria in 1422 - 1425. After that he worked at the court of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, traveled to Portugal and Spain on his diplomatic missions.
Since 1430, he settled in the city of Bruges, where he came to grips with creative activity. There is a controversial opinion that van Eyck's work began with work on the miniatures of the Turin-Milan Book of Hours Chegodaev A.D. General History of Arts, Volume 3, 1962. P. 586 ..
The work that marked the beginning of the Renaissance in the Netherlands - the Ghent altar in the Cathedral of St. Bavo - was completed in 1432. In its upper tier, the scene of the Annunciation is depicted, in the lower - the figures of John the Baptist and John the Evangelist. On either side of them are portraits of the donor Joss Wade, a Gents burgher, and his wife. The colors of the outer side of the altar are quite restrained, especially in the images of the Johns, while its inner part is filled with light and bright colors. Here, in the upper row, God the Father is depicted on the throne, to the left and to the right of him are the Mother of God and John the Baptist, bowed in prayer; further on both sides are musical angels, and Adam and Eve complete the row. On the lower tier in the middle there is a scene of worship of the sacrificial lamb, symbolizing the sacrifice of Christ for humanity, to the left of which are the Old Testament righteous, and to the right - the apostles. Next come the popes and bishops, the monks and the laity complete the row.
On weekdays, being closed, the altar looks strict and restrained. On holidays, the doors of the altar were opened, and the parishioners could see scenes full of cheerful colors, made in the technique of oil painting. The action of the central composition takes place on a green meadow surrounded by groves, which is an image of paradise on earth.
Other altar compositions by Jan van Eyck are more restrained, chamber, but they also have a harmonious combination of Renaissance love of life and medieval religious rigor.
One of the most famous paintings van Eyck are the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin (c. 1435) and the Madonna of Canon van der Pale (1436). In both of these paintings there is a kind of mystical realism. In the first work in the background we see a sprawling landscape big city with a river and endless fields, and in the center of the composition is Nicholas Rolin, bowing in prayer before the Mother of God. The space of the second, on the contrary, is concentrated within the framework of a small cramped church. Here, to the right of the Madonna, Georg van der Pale is depicted. In both compositions, the images of donors testify to the highlighting of the portrait in independent genre. It is believed that one of the founders of this genre was Jan van Eyck, who later became one of the first major masters of portraiture of the Northern Renaissance.
One of famous portraits van Eyck is "Timofey", also known as " male portrait» (1432). It depicts a man with an expressionless, but at the same time irresolvably mysterious look. This note is typical for other portrait works of the artist, for example, "The Man in the Red Turban" (1433), and the portrait of his wife Margarita van Eyck (1439).
Epochal in the artist's work was the "Portrait of the Arnolfini couple" (1434), depicting a married couple at the time of marriage. Merchant Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife Giovanna are depicted in everyday life - at home. But the picture is filled with symbols and the smallest details that indicate the exclusivity of the moment.
For example, two pairs of shoes are depicted on the floor - this small detail refers us to the Old Testament: “And God said: do not come here; take off your shoes from off your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (“Exodus”, 3:5) Pentateuch of Moses. Torah; Old Testament, Bible .. The artist shows that in this moment Holy ground for spouses is the floor of their room, since the sacrament of marriage takes place in it. The concentration of postures, facial expressions and joined hands also indicate the solemnity of the occasion.
The work of Jan van Eyck introduced many new trends in the development visual arts the Netherlands and other European countries. It is still subordinate to medieval religiosity, but already carries an interest in the material, everyday side of everyday life. human life, emphasizes the importance of man in the world.
The Northern Renaissance is closely related to the Italian, but has a number of characteristic differences, and each country has its own. So, culturology and art criticism distinguish German, Dutch, French, Spanish, English, Renaissance and others.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of a man in a red turban", 1433. National Gallery, London. There is an assumption
that this is a "Self-portrait" of the artist ..
The portrait of a man in a red turban is provided with explanations. Above on the frame is the master's favorite saying: "How I managed", and below the inscription: "Johann de Eyck made me in the year of the Lord 1433, October 21." The canvas depicts a middle-aged man with a penetrating look and sharp features. The person depicted could not be identified. However, it is quite obvious that the artist knew the person being portrayed well and therefore is so accurate in his psychological characterization. It is quite possible that this is van Eyck.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of Margaret van Eyck, the Artist's Wife", 1439. London National Gallery. The Latin inscription on the frame states on behalf of the person being portrayed: “My husband Jan graduated on June 17, 1439. My age is 33 years old. As best I can." Looking down from the portrait is a woman with a strikingly characteristic and intelligent face. It has nothing of those feminine images that we admire in the paintings of van Eyck. It can even be said that in the features of her ugly face one can see an almost masculinely strong intellectual beginning. The portrait is fraught with a considerable intensity of spiritual life. Creating a bust portrait, van Eyck violated the correct proportional relationship of the figure, which seems small in relation to the head of the model. But in doing so, he concentrated all his attention on her face.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of a Man (Timothy)", 1432. London, National Gallery. It is the first surviving example of a secular portrait of the Early Renaissance. On the "stone parapet" the artist depicts three "carved" inscriptions. The one in French - "Leal souvenir" - roughly translates as "a devotional reminder (souvenir)". The inscription suggests that the portrait is posthumous and made as a memento. Despite the explanatory inscription, it remains only to speculate who exactly is depicted here. However, the intrigue hidden in this work does not detract from its artistic merits.
National Gallery, London.
Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife are depicted in their home in Bruges. The portrait is one of the most complex works school of painting of the Northern Renaissance.
Seaport Bruges at that time it was a major trading center in Northern Europe. From Russia and Scandinavia timber and furs were brought into it, from the East through Genoa and - silk, carpets and spices, from and Portugal- lemons, figs and oranges. Philip III the Good, from 1419 to 1467 former duke Burgundy, wrote: "Bruges is the most famous city in the world, famous for its goods and merchants living in it."
Arnolfini were a large merchant and banking family, which at that time had a branch in Bruges. The married couple depicted on van Eyck's canvas is rich. This is especially noticeable in clothing. She is in a dress trimmed with ermine fur, with a long train, which someone had to carry when walking. It was possible to move around in such a dress only with the appropriate skill, which was possible only in aristocratic circles. He is in a mantle, trimmed, maybe even lined, with mink or sable, with a slit on the sides, which allowed him to move freely and act. The fact that this man does not belong to the aristocracy is evident from his wooden shoes. Gentlemen, in order not to get dirty in the street dirt, they rode on horseback or in a stretcher.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. This foreign merchant lived in Bruges in aristocratic luxury, he had oriental carpets, a chandelier, a mirror, the upper part of the window of his house was glazed, and expensive oranges lay on his table.
However, the room is urban narrow. The bed dominates the setting, as it usually does in city apartments. During the day, the curtain on it rose, and guests were received in the room, sitting on the bed. At night the curtain was drawn down and a closed space appeared, a room within a room.
The woman carefully puts her right hand in the man's left hand. This contact looks very ceremonial, the artist depicted it almost in the center of the picture, thus giving it special meaning. Both stand very solemnly in their everyday surroundings, the train of the woman's dress is neatly straightened, and the man raised his right hand for an oath. The joining of hands and the words of the oath were at the time van Eyck clear evidence of the ongoing marriage ceremony.
The arrangement of the figures suggests predetermined roles in marriage - the woman stands near the bed, in the back of the room, thus symbolizing the role of the keeper of the hearth, while the man stands near the open window, symbolizing belonging to outside world. Giovanni looks directly at the observer, and his wife humbly bowed her head in his direction.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
The hands of the groom, like those of the bride, are white and well-groomed. His narrow shoulders indicate that he did not have to achieve a high position in society by physical force.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
The bride in the picture is dressed in a luxurious festive dress. White wedding dress came into fashion only with mid-nineteenth century.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
It is possible that a marriage contract was necessary in the case of Arnolfini, since it is obvious that we are talking about a "marriage of the left hand." The groom holds the hand of his bride with his left hand, and not with his right, as custom requires. Such marriages were concluded between spouses of unequal social status in society and were practiced until the middle of the 19th century. Usually it was a woman who came from the lower class. She had to give up all inheritance rights for herself and her future children, and in return received a certain amount after the death of her husband. As a rule, the marriage contract was issued the next morning after the wedding, hence the name of the marriage - morganatic from the word morgen (German morgen - morning)
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
Of particular importance for the canvas is the artist's signature, it stands not as usual - at the bottom, but in a clearly visible place between the chandelier and the mirror. Also, the wording itself is unusual. Instead of - "Jan van Eyck did" (lat. Johannes de eyck fecit), that is, he painted this portrait, it stands - "Jan van Eyck was here" (lat. Johannes de eyck fuit hic 1434). This formulation, as it were, puts a stamp on the picture, turning it into a document. The painter signs his work not as an author, but as a witness. Perhaps he depicted himself in the mirror as a figure in a turban and a blue robe, crossing the threshold of the room.
In the history of art "Portrait of the Arnolfini" -
one of the first paintings signed by the artist himself.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
The chandelier hanging over the heads of the bride and groom is made of metal - typical of Flanders at that time. Only the candle above the man burns in it, and the candle above the woman is extinguished. Some researchers explain this fact by the fact that the portrait of Arnolfini's wife is posthumous, and she died in childbirth. Another version of the symbolism: in the Middle Ages, during the wedding processions, one large burning candle rushed ahead, or the candle was solemnly betrayed by the groom to the bride. The flame of a burning candle meant the all-seeing - the witness of the marriage union. For this reason, the presence of witnesses was not necessary.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
On the axis of symmetry of the picture is a mirror that hangs on the back wall of the room. Ten medallions depicting suffering Christ adorn its frame. The mirror in the urban interior was an unusual phenomenon in van Eyck's time, polished metal was usually used instead. Flat mirrors were affordable only for the highest aristocracy and were considered precious. Convex mirrors were more available. In French, they were called "sorceresses" because they mystically increased the viewing angle of the observer.
In the mirror depicted in the painting, one can see the ceiling beams, a second window, and two figures of people entering the room. The location of the miniatures is especially interesting, since from the side of the man "" are associated with living people, and from the side of the woman - with the dead.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
For van Eyck's contemporaries, sandals and wooden shoes contained an indication of Old Testament: “And God said, Come not hither; put off thy sandals from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground." When the bride and groom performed the ceremony of marriage, for them the simple floor of the room was “holy ground”.
In the 15th century, the presence of a priest and witnesses was not yet necessary in order to be legally married. It could be done anywhere, like here in the bedroom, for example. Usually the next day, the couple went to church together, which was proof that they had become husband and wife. The witnesses that we see in the mirror were needed, which was common for well-to-do people, to certify a written marriage contract.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
The dog was considered a sign of prosperity, as well as a symbol of fidelity. On the graves of that time, a lion, a symbol of courage and strength, is often found at the feet of men and a dog at the feet of women. Only from a woman, obviously, was expected marital fidelity.
Jan van Eyck - "Portrait of the Arnolfinis", 1434. National Gallery, London.
Oranges on the windowsill and on a stool near the window, oranges hanging outside the window, can be considered as a sign of fertility. Or maybe they have another meaning - to symbolize the purity and innocence that existed in the Garden of Eden before the fall of man. At the same time, other interpreters say, oranges simply indicate the prosperity of the spouses. And everything is here.
Jan van Eyck. Portrait of Baudouin de Lanoy. 1435. State Museum, Berlin.
The person in the portraits of Jan van Eyck is both the bearer of the contemplative principle and at the same time the object of contemplation. He doesn't act, doesn't show certain feelings; it is shown to the viewer as part of the universe. Therefore, the face is conveyed with still-life detail (as an object of contemplation), and a long, motionless look has an almost unnatural animation for this face.
Here we are studying the person being portrayed,
Luckily he didn't...
Jan van Eyck. Portrait of Jan de Leeuw. 1436. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
And yet, the inherent significance of the image is combined in them with a certain prosaism of interpretation. The faces depicted by the artist become more specific, more characteristic. Portrait Yana de Leeuw, despite its very small size, it seems monumental: to such an extent, the model emphasizes the solidity of the appearance and the harsh directness of the inner world.
Jan de Leeuw does not look at the world, but at us.
Not us - he is immersed in contemplation
our spiritual virtues...
Jan van Eyck. Portrait of a Jeweler (Man with a Ring). Around 1430. Romanian National Museum, Bucharest.
Another portrait of a man in a contemplative state, rendered by an artist with incomprehensible skill. And yet, such portraits could not exist for a long time: they exhausted themselves with their uniqueness, requiring the inclusion of action in the portrait ...
Every person, even very far from art, has heard such a name at least once in his life: Jan van Eyck. His paintings can be called perfect in technique and color selection, in plot and realism. They would easily decorate the best collections, and people who are versed in painting claim that the artist’s canvases have hidden meaning and filled with mystery to unravel.
A bit about the genius of the brush
The outstanding artist lived and worked in the era of the Early Jan van Eyck, whose paintings can be studied for hours, was born in the Netherlands (now the town of Maaseik is located in Belgium) at the end of the fourteenth century. It was then that he laid the foundation for a new trend in art nova painting, and he was taught the basics by his brother Hubert, well-known in the circles of art lovers. Jan's good education can be judged by the inscriptions that he left on his works. These were words in their native Flemish, French, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. And the artist paid great attention to the smallest details, which gives the right to judge van Eyck's powers of observation and sharp mind.
Recognition in life
It is known for certain that Jan van Eyck, whose paintings delight people in the twenty-first century, was also popular with his contemporaries. In 1422, he worked at the court of John of Bavaria in The Hague, where he painted the count's chambers. True, not a single work has survived. Then the master moved to Flanders and entered the service of the Duke of Burgundy, who worked for sixteen years.
Philip the Good often gave the artist secret assignments, which speaks of the duke's great confidence in the painter. And he generously endowed the artist with gifts and solid cash payments. On behalf of the same Philip, Jan took part in a diplomatic mission in Portugal, the purpose of which was between the widowed duke and Princess Isabella. In parallel with his work at the court, Jan van Eyck carried out orders from churches and monasteries.
Innovative artist
What else is Jan van Eyck famous for (we will list paintings with names in our article)? The fact that he is considered by many to be the inventor of oil paints and the popularizer of oil painting techniques in the Old World. In fact, the master only improved such coloring compositions, making them quick-drying and giving them the ability to be applied in several layers (including transparent ones). Therefore, it seemed that his canvases seemed to glow from within.
Most famous works
Many Jan van Eyck painted paintings. "Madonna in the Church" is one of early work, it is made in the technique of alternately applying layers on a sanded white gypsum primer, varnished. Therefore, it has an amazing effect of inner glow. A small canvas depicts the Mother of God with the baby Jesus in the church. On the foreground there is a feminine silhouette of the Madonna, on whose head an expensive crown flaunts. Yang drew in great detail the folds on the crowns, the interior of the temple, the play of light and shadow. This masterpiece is currently kept in Rome.
Jan van Eyck painted pictures that may seem strange. This is what the painting “Portrait of the Arnolfini” (1434) is considered to be. At first glance, this is an ordinary picture depicting a man and a woman at the time of their marriage. However, the signature of the painter in a prominent place, scenes from the life of Christ on the mirror, only one candle over the newlyweds, and so on, does not look quite standard. The picture contains a large number different characters: oranges denote wealth, a dog - fidelity, a candle - the all-seeing eye and the light of Christ. Today this work is kept in the London National Gallery.
What other paintings did Jan van Eyck create? You can see photos of some of them in the article:
- The Ghent Altarpiece, written in 1432 with his brother.
- "Timothy" (1432).
- "Our Lady of Chancellor Rolin" (1436).
- "Portrait of a Man with a Carnation" (1435).
- "Saint Barbara" (1437) and others.
In total, the painter created about a hundred works on religious themes and countless portraits. His paintings attract the eye with their inner radiance, as well as the subtle craftsmanship that the great Jan van Eyck owned. No wonder he is considered one of the true genius of the brush.
The main characteristics of the work of Jan van Eyck. "Ghent Altarpiece". The reform of painting technique carried out by van Eyck. The evolution of the altar painting and portrait in the work of van Eyck. The problem of "hidden symbolism"(Eyck, van), the surname of two famous Flemish painters of the late 14th - early 15th century, the brothers Hubert (Hubert van Eyck, ca. 1370? -1426) and Jan (Jan van Eyck, ca. 1390-1441). They are the founders of the new realistic tradition of Flemish painting of the 15th century.
According to legend, the brothers were born in the town of Maaseik (or Maastricht) near Limburg. Very little is known about Hubert. In the 1420s, he worked in Genoa, where he died in 1426. The first evidence of the life of Jan van Eyck dates back to 1422. As an artist and diplomat, in 1422-1425 he served at the court of the Dutch count John of Bavaria in The Hague, and then ( from 1425) - Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy; on behalf of the latter he visited Spain (1427) and Portugal (1428-1429). He worked in Lille, and from 1430 until the end of his life - in Bruges.
Ghent altarpiece. The most famous work van Eyck brothers and one of the most significant works in the history of European painting - Ghent altarpiece- Located in the Cathedral of St. Bavo in Ghent. Its size is 3.6 × 4.5 m. The altar survived the fire, dismantling, moving, restoration, loss of one of the parts and theft of another. On the frame of the altar there is an inscription: "Hubert van Eyck, the greatest sculptor who has ever lived on earth, began this work, and his brother Jan, second in art, completed by order of Jos Weid." Among the letters of the inscription is a chronogram written in red paint, in which the date 1432 is encrypted. Researchers argued for a long time about the participation of two brothers in the creation of the altar complex, until in 1979 it was established that Hubert had made the carved framing of the altar (not preserved). The words of the inscription, which were usually understood as "the greatest artist", should be read "the greatest sculptor". Thus, Yang is the main creator of this work.
Currently, the altarpiece is a folding polyptych consisting of twenty paintings. When the altar is closed, on its front side in the lower part there are images of John the Baptist and John the Evangelist, made in the technique of grisaille and imitating statues, and on either side of them are the figures of kneeling customers, Jos Wade and his wife. Above them in the center is the scene of the Annunciation. On the smaller boards of the figured completion of the altar, prophets and sibyls with scrolls are depicted, announcing the coming salvation. When opened, the altar impresses with an unprecedented richness of color and detail. In the lower tier, a large composition is presented on five boards against the backdrop of the landscape. Worship the Lamb: prophets, forefathers, apostles, martyrs and saints flock to the altar, on which stands the Lamb, symbolizing Christ. On the sides of the central composition, the image of processions continues on four boards: righteous judges (a modern copy of the board stolen in 1934) and knights go from left to right, hermits and pilgrims go from right to left. The upper tier of the altar consists of seven boards with figures larger in scale than those in the lower zone. In the center is depicted Christ on the throne, in royal robes; on either side of it are the Mother of God and John the Baptist, angels playing music, on the two extreme boards are naked Adam and Eve.
The meaning of the iconographic program of the altar remains unclear. The different scales of the images and the ratio of the compositions along the vertical make it possible to assume that the original shape of the altar was different. It has been hypothesized that the altar in its present form combines fragments of two different altars. Probably, these parts were part of a much larger ensemble, which had a stone superstructure, which has not been preserved.
Despite the fact that there is still debate about the role of Hubert and Jan in the creation of the altar, it has a unity of style. In this work, the world is shown in all its diversity, which the painting of the late Middle Ages did not know. Flowers, grass and shrubs are depicted with the accuracy of a botanical atlas, and Gothic buildings stand against the sky with correctly rendered atmospheric effects. The desire of the van Eycks to accurately convey the features of the texture of objects is best manifested in the almost physical tangibility with which precious stones, embroideries and luxurious fabrics are written. The ideal of this art is authenticity: the images of Adam and Eve are painted very carefully, without any attempts to give grace to their figures and elegance of postures, which was characteristic of Italian art, often resorting to idealization techniques. Important role the use of oil as a binding material for paints played a role in the addition of the realistic manner of painting by the van Eyck brothers. Although the brothers were not the inventors of the oil painting technique, it was they who first discovered the full extent of the freedom and flexibility that it provides the artist.
Portrait of the Arnolfini couple. Jan van Eyck emphasized the reality of objects in his works. Being a testament and a sign of the grace of Divine creation, not a single detail can be considered too small and insignificant for the image. An outstanding work by Jan van Eyck, filled with such symbolically significant details, - Wedding portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Chenami(1434, London, National Gallery). The couple are shown standing in the bedroom. They hold each other's hands at the moment of solemn oath in the presence of two witnesses, whose reflections are visible in the mirror hanging on the wall. One of the witnesses is the artist himself, as evidenced by the inscription above the mirror: "Johannes de Eyck fuit hic" ("Jan van Eyck was here"). The composition is interesting because the figures of the spouses are surrounded by many objects that have a symbolic meaning. Thus, apples are scattered on the windowsill and chest, symbolizing heavenly bliss. The crystal rosary lying on the table embodies piety, slippers on the floor - marital fidelity, a brush - purity, a lit candle in a candelabra - a symbol of the deity guarding the sacrament of the rite. And even a small dog at the feet of a married couple makes the viewer think of fidelity.
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A realist who loved "secret meanings"
Carefully writing out the smallest details in his paintings and achieving their absolute similarity with objects-"models", Jan van Eyck introduced European painting with the principle of realistic reflection of reality, unknown to her before.
Jan van Eyck was not deprived of fame - and the glory of all-European. Around 1455, that is, shortly after the death of the artist, the Book of famous people"in which its author, Bartolomeo Facio, named van Eyck" the greatest artist of our time". A century later, another Italian, Giorgio Vasari, in his "Lives of the Most Famous Painters" credited van Eyck as the inventor of oil painting. Vasari described in detail the artist's experiments with various types oil paints and summed up: “After a short time, this great invention spread not only in Flanders, but also reached Italy, as well as many other parts of the world, showing artists all the virtues of oil painting and inspiring them to create new beautiful pictures".
It has now been proven that it was not Jan van Eyck who invented oil paints. Their true inventor is not known to us, but it is quite obvious that he lived before van Eyck. In any case, already Robert Campin (c. 1378-1444) painted with such colors. But not as great as van Eyck did, that is, the merits of the latter in the further development of this then innovative technique are undeniable. He taught painters how to skillfully imitate reality, thus laying the foundation for realistic art in Europe.
Before van Eyck, "mobile" paintings, unlike frescoes, were usually painted with tempera - a coloring pigment diluted on an egg. Replacing the egg with oil allowed artists to more accurately mix paints, achieving the tone they needed. However, oil paint, in comparison with tempera, has its drawbacks. In particular, it dries much longer. This circumstance had great importance for the masters of that time, brought up in a different artistic "coordinate system". Even in the teachings of the 21st century, it was said that "after the painter has applied the pigment, he cannot apply a new layer of paint until the first one is completely dry."
Jan van Eyck, who knew this prohibition well, turned out to be resourceful. He invented the technique of applying thin layers of oil paint. As a result, the paint dried quickly enough, allowing the artist to work "in several layers". And it was a real revolution, which led to the fact that now it was possible to create the finest shades of tone. At the same time, the lower layers of paint partially shone through the upper ones - this effect is known as the "glaze" effect. The image acquired a depth that the previous ART did not know. What kind of oil did van Eyck use? Here, too, he followed, in general, his predecessors, often resorting to linseed oil. But he didn't walk blindly. The artist has found a way to better refine his original material and make it completely transparent.
But, of course, no technical innovations would have earned the artist fame if they were not backed up by what is given from God. Skill, a sharp eye, a firm hand, artistic intuition - all these are synonymous with a genius talent. Van Eyck's paintings amaze even the modern viewer, spoiled by miracles. modern technology. Literally everything, from a barely noticeable crease on the chin to landscape details, the artist painted with unique precision and subtlety.
Erwin Panofsky in his book "Netherlands art of the 15th century." (1953) noted: "Jan van Eyck's eye can be likened to both a microscope and a telescope." And further: "The transparent beauty of van Eyck's paintings is mesmerizing. It gives the impression that you are looking at a skillfully cut gem."
But van Eyck was not exclusively a "photographer" of reality. Then there would be no need to talk about art at all (which, by definition, is the "transformation" of reality). His works carry, among other things, the deepest, not always accessible to us, symbolic meaning. Van Eyck's skillful hand and his ability to think were admired at the time by Albrecht Dürer, who called the "Ghent Altarpiece" "a colossal and unusually clever work of a talented painter."
We know van Eyck's work in only two genres - a religious painting and a portrait. But it is known that he was not limited to this. The memoirs of contemporaries have been preserved, which speak of his paintings with images of bathers. From the same sources it is known that van Eyck was engaged in the gilding of statues, which was very popular at that time. Unfortunately, all this is lost.
Having spent almost his entire life next to the Duke of Burgundy, the artist most likely participated in the preparation of the holidays (costumes, scenery, script), and perhaps even decorated the dishes served at the main table. Great importance was attached to such things in those days, and each bishop sought to impress his guests with the luxury and decoration of his receptions. This work was not shunned by many prominent artists who are contemporaries (plus or minus a century) of van Eyck. Among them we will find Leonardo da Vinci, who arranged magnificent court holidays for the Milanese Duke Lodovico Sforza and the French King Francis I. Some idea of the decorative works of Leonardo is given by the surviving drawings of the master. Unfortunately, we are forced to repeat what has been said more than once about such activities of van Eyck - all this is irretrievably lost.
In general, too much has to be said about him in the supposed genre. He almost certainly had a workshop with a large number of assistants and apprentices, but we can name only one of them. van Eyck's closest follower in Bruges was Petrus Christus. The first mention of him dates back to 1444 - from that time until his death, which overtook this master in 1475 or 1476, Christus remained the largest local artist. Many painters of the 15th century did not imitate van Eyck's style very successfully - and not only his compatriots. Among the foreigners who were inspired by his genius, we note the Spaniard Louis Dalmau, who visited the Netherlands in the 1430s and later painted an altar image in Barcelona in the obvious "intonation" of van Eyck. But the influence of the artist does not end with the 15th century. In fact, it continues to this day.
Difficult "realism"
It is no coincidence that the Northern Renaissance is separated in the history of art from the classical Renaissance, which is associated in our minds, first of all, with Italian painting. With a keen interest in man, characteristic of both phenomena, the origins and meaning of this interest, new for that time, differ significantly. The work of Jan van Eyck perfectly illustrates this difference. Yes, he opens the "realistic" era in the art of Northern Europe. But this is a very difficult "realism". It serves not to exalt man (as was the case in Italy) or to “scourage” vices (as happened later), but to glorify Divine Providence, thanks to which this beautiful world. This feeling of "beauty" caused van Eyck's compositional rigor, his brilliant colors, the feeling of incredible depth of space, his high curiosity, manifested in admiring the smallest details. In striving for a "new understanding", van Eyck, who apparently did not know the ancient heritage, did not study human anatomy, did not immerse himself in the theoretical problems of perspective, breaks the medieval pictorial system, relying only on his own artistic intuition. And this desire pays off handsomely. It pays off with great painting.
Oil painting
Or oil painting. Its beginning is not actually known, but was attributed to the Dutch painters, the Van Eyck brothers (1366-1440); in any case, they were the converters of their contemporary painting technique. In former times, techniques were not described in such detail as they are now, and many artists kept their techniques secret and, moreover, obligated their students. As far as is known, before the Van Eycks, easel paintings were generally painted on egg white and yolk, gum, fig juice, and after the Van Eycks, oil gradually came into use. In appearance, the painting of that time and even later (XVI century) was very thin and smooth, even fused like enamel. Accordingly, the paintings were prepared carefully and the boards were covered with a delicate, thin ground. In Flanders, oak boards were usually used for painting, in Italy, most often - boards were made of poplar. Van Eyck and his followers painted on boards covered with chalk, and this was retained not only among the Flanders, but also among many German and Italian artists of several subsequent generations. Van der Weyden, Memling, Otto Venius and his student Rubens (1577-1640), Dürer, Holbein, Antonello from Messina (the first to introduce his compatriots to the Van Eyck technique), both Bellini generally adhered to the Flemish methods of painting. Wooden boards on which Rubens wrote, having up to 3 1/2 ars. heights and a slightly smaller width, still preserved to our time; in Antwerp there was a factory for making very large glued boards. The Italians also wrote on wood, but they primed it not with chalk on glue, but with gypsum, which, when mixed with water, hardens and becomes insoluble in water. Titian (1477-1566) in the first period of his artistic activity he wrote subtly, but even then he applied visible strokes. In general, during his long life, he changed and improved the technique of his painting, but almost constantly after dense underpainting he painted with transparent glazing paints. The primed canvas came into use little by little, but although in Rubens' time painting was done on canvas, he himself painted on boards willingly, if the size of the painting allowed it. Veronese (1528-1588) painted on canvas primed with plaster. Rubens painted many paintings in Italy using techniques that he had developed under the influence of Italian masters, namely, he painted over the picture with dense (case) paints and then glazed them in shadows, but this method was temporary, from which he, upon returning to his fatherland, refused, and began to write smoothly as before. A study of his sketches and completed paintings shows that he thinly outlined the figures, first drawn on the ground with an ordinary pencil; the continuity and indistinctness of the lines drawn with a brush show that his paints were not erased in oil alone, but had more viscosity and stuck better to smooth surface than pure oils. This result could be achieved by adding resins to the oil. In particular, this assumption is permissible in relation to some works of Italian. painting; restorers of paintings certify that the fracture of the thick paint layer of some vintage paintings has glassy properties. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), in his treatise on painting, mentions the use of resin (in the form of varnish) to cover one fragile green paint, which he fixed with varnish and thereby gave it strength no less than the rest of the colors of the picture. The monk Theophilus, in a work dating back to the 12th century, speaks of the preparation of oil varnish from some kind of resin, which he called in Latin "fornis". Armenini (writer of the middle of the 16th century) says that Correggio and Parmeggiano used light and delicate varnish. But all such information does not show to what extent varnishes were used as impurities in paints, and not to cover finished paintings. Mérimée, who studied ancient painting techniques, believes that Fra Bartolomeo (14 6 9-1517) mixed copal varnish with his paints. The famous Vandyk knew how to use paints that directly easily spoiled each other; it is believed that he worked with such inconsistent paints on egg white, on varnish, which was used to cover the underpainting, and again covered the protein paints with mastic varnish; Cape (1606-67) is said to have used copal lacquer. The remarkable English painter Joshua Reynold made many experiments concerning painting techniques; but, unfortunately, he did not leave a description of the technique of various paintings that he painted before 700. Many of them were completely damaged, but some survived; it is not known how the technique of some differed from that of others. The artists Scheldrake, Mulready, Linnel and Webster used amber and copal lacquer in their paints: the preservation of their works, especially of the last two artists, proves the excellent qualities of such lacquers. Brilliant examples of preserved paintings from the 15th and 16th centuries, a rarity similar cases in subsequent centuries, finally, the almost universal damage to the paintings of the past century forced artists and learned technicians to seek rational rules for the technique of M. painting. It is generally accepted that the deterioration of paintings can occur from three main causes: from a bad primer on the canvas, a bad choice of paint substances and from the oil itself. For a picture canvas, hemp material is used, which is covered with glue or M. primer. For the first primer, cover the canvas with a very thin glue and, when dry, rub it with a pumice stone and then prime it with chalk on glue water or starch with pipe clay and dry again. After that, priming is repeated until a smooth, slightly granular surface is obtained. This soil initially absorbs a lot of oil. Oil priming also begins by sizing the canvas: a thin and even layer of M. paint is applied to the dried canvas with a wide spatula, the base of which is white lead with a possibly low oil content. The paint dries slowly, and therefore the second, also a thin layer, can be applied only after a long time after applying the first. Much more attention is now being paid to the choice of colors than 5-20 years ago (see Paints for Painting); properties of oils used for painting are subjected to new practical research. They try to reduce the amount of drying oil in paints, replacing some of it with essential, easily evaporating oils and kerosene (see Paints). In this regard, opinions are divided and there is no one generally accepted technique. The process of using M. paints for painting usually consists in the fact that after choosing a canvas stretched over a frame, they usually make a drawing on the canvas with a pencil or charcoal and apply paint with a brush and spatula, which they can do in one day, it serves as an underpainting. If the colors do not have time to thicken until the next day, they continue to develop what has been written; otherwise, they paint over places that have not yet been covered with paints the day before. It should be taken as a rule that the underpainting should be well dried before proceeding to the final writing out with the imposition of new colors and glazes, since by observing this, the tones of the underpainting can be preserved from damage; however, this rule is observed by few artists. Paints again applied to the underpainting, especially those that are not dry enough, usually wither, that is, they get a matte look, while the real tones of the colors are not visible and their harmony with the surrounding brilliant tones is disturbed. This almost inevitable circumstance is one of the most unpleasant in M. painting. Often it is necessary, in order to successfully continue the picture, to restore the tone of withered places, for which they rub these places with various compositions, in a variety of paints supplied by manufacturers for painting: these are the essence of various so-called. lipsticks, oils and varnishes. Of these, one Frenchman deserves the greatest confidence. spirit varnish of a complex composition, which is kept secret (Vernis à tableau et à retoucher les tableaux, No. 3, Soehn ée frè res); it is diluted with an equal amount of alcohol and covered with a brush moistened in it withered places, if they have dried even only superficially. After two hours, and even better in a day, you can write on this place, retouch the picture, only the rigidity felt when working with a brush on this surface is somewhat unpleasant. Some compositions (pommade, Malbutter) containing copai balm and wax (but without any lead salts) are also harmless for retouching and are used to cover sagging just before continuing to write. Roberson's real medium does not contain lead salts, but its composition is unknown. Some artists introduce the drug Durozier (Gluten elemi), consisting of wax, elemi resin and volatile oil, into the paints placed on the palette. This imparts a more or less significant dullness to the painting, while the withering is less noticeable. Pictures painted with matte paints have good and bad sides (see the corresponding article), a brilliant picture is not conveniently viewed from all points, but has physical advantages in terms of the strength of tones. A completely dry picture is covered with varnish, both to destroy sagging and to protect paints from atmospheric oxygen and other gases contained in the air of living quarters. M. painting in general is more or less changeable, but as long as it is still fresh, or if it has been successfully preserved, it represents the power of tones, which is achievable only in special cases in other types of painting. The very process of painting is pleasant in feeling and convenient in the sense that it allows for all sorts of changes and amendments to what is written. Sometimes the pictures are written immediately (a la prima) or with only minor amendments. It has been noticed that such painting, under the same other circumstances, is the least changeable, but such a technique, common for sketches, is applied to sketches less often, and even more rarely to paintings. In our time, M. painting, despite its imperfections, must be recognized as dominant for easel paintings. Recently, however, there has been a proposal to return to egg painting. In Germany, many experiments are being made on painting with tempera paints (see Tempera), which, however, are not just glue, which was this painting in the past [Armand Poan (Point) describes a new, egg painting in the brochure "Peinture a l" oenf dite Ooline"; material at Lefrane in Paris. Material for Pereira's tempera at Müller in Stuttgart].