As an independent field of ancient Russian applied art, glassmaking began to form in the first half of the 11th century. The monumental mosaics of Kyiv churches - the Church of the Tithes and St. Sophia of Kyiv, amazed the imagination with their luminosity and bright and pure polychromy.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion, tragic for Ancient Russia, in the 13th century mercilessly interrupted its development. During this short period of time, ancient Russian glassmaking, according to the fair observation of Yu.L. Shchapova, "repeated the path of glass production in general."

Glass, first of all, is the creation of human genius; its application is unusually wide, the color palette and techniques of its manufacture are infinitely diverse. Ceramics, metal, textiles, known since ancient times, first of all served the vital needs of man, and only then did their original and introduced qualities become aestheticized. The history of glass developed in a different order. In ancient civilizations, it did not appear as an essential item, but initially declared itself in the system of artistic values, and only in the process of development gradually became a utilitarian, everyday material. This is clearly demonstrated by the history of ancient Russian glassmaking.

The first glass workshops that arose in Kyiv in the 11th century specialized mainly in the production of jewelry - beads, rings, bracelets. Especially popular in the era of Kievan Rus were bracelets made of colored glass, which were made by the workshops of Novgorod, Polotsk, Lyubech, Turov, Smolensk, Ryazan, Kostroma, Pinsk, Izyaslavl until the end of the 13th century, and in a number of cities until the middle of the 14th century. century. The manufacture of dishes with the help of a blown tube, as well as the manufacture of window glass, took place only in Kyiv, where the most qualified craftsmen were concentrated. However, their successes were very modest. Almost three centuries of the Golden Horde yoke caused irreparable damage ancient Russian culture. And if other types of artistic craft gradually continued to develop, then fragile glass was for a long time deleted from the everyday life of the Russians.

The dramatic fate of Russian glass production was no exception. The history of world glassmaking shows that a stable situation in society and a sufficiently high level of culture are necessary for its full-blooded development. In the era of historical cataclysms and barbarism, glassmaking is one of the most vulnerable areas of the craft, the demand for glass falls sharply, which leads to the decay of established centers. So in many European countries, where in the era of the Roman Empire, workshops for the manufacture of blown glass were formed and successfully functioned for several centuries, this art was forgotten for several centuries. European culture between the 6th and 11th centuries practically did without glass. Even in Italy, glassmaking was revived only in the 13th century, largely thanks to Syrian craftsmen. In the rest of Europe, the revival of glassmaking began in the XIII-XIV centuries, which was associated primarily with the construction of Gothic cathedrals, which required stained glass windows. A similar pattern can be established in the history of our domestic glassmaking.

Due to the differences in historical conditions in which the individual principalities of the defeated Kievan Rus found themselves, the once unified ancient Russian people, which had a common territory, language, spiritual and material culture, became the basis for the formation of three branches of the Eastern Slavs - Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Thus, the origins of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian cultures turn out to be common, and their subsequent development has a certain independence, due to the specific, historically established destinies of each of the peoples.

In the Western Russian lands, which came under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then the Commonwealth, the formation of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples took place. Here glassmaking revived in the 16th century.

The first mention of the presence of glassmakers in Belarus dates back to 1524. Glassmaking here developed from the very beginning within the framework of patrimonial manufactories that belonged to the grand ducal court or large magnates, for example, the Radziwills. Often, Polish craftsmen were invited here to establish glass production, in particular, from Krakow.

In Ukraine, the first information about glass production dates back to 1555. According to the existing tradition, it is believed that Ukrainian glassmaking has developed as a craft since its inception. The initiative to create glass guts belonged to the masters-gutniks, who rented land and forests from magnates and monasteries for these purposes, paying for them either in money or in products. As a rule, no more than 8-9 people worked in these gutas, many of them worked for less than a year.

In the 17th century, the territory of Belarus and Ukraine was abundantly covered with a network of glass industries, which provided dishes and window glass not only to the local market, but also exported their products to Moscow Russia. In the 17th century from Livonia and Little Russia annually delivered to Moscow from eighty to ninety thousand window circles.

The history of Russian glassmaking itself begins in the 17th century, when specific conditions arise for this. Muscovite Russia, which withstood the bloody struggle with the Golden Horde and defeated it, immediately had to solve the problems of state building, the unification of the principalities into a centralized state, to fight for the return of the original Russian lands, and at the beginning of the 17th century to survive the Time of Troubles and the Polish-Swedish intervention.

The seventeenth century was a time of accumulation of the forces of the emerging Russian nation, its culture. The intensity of the political and economic life of the state led to the elimination of the national isolation of Russian culture, which until the 17th century developed in conditions of noticeable isolation. Contacts with Belarus and Ukraine played an important role in this process: it was largely thanks to these contacts that Muscovite Rus was introduced to the achievements of European culture. The contribution of Ukrainian and Belarusian craftsmen to the process of formation of the Russian glass industry turned out to be significant. However, the initiative to build the first glass factory on the territory of the Moscow state did not belong to them, but to the Swede Julius Koyet. In this regard, the history of Russian glassmaking is not an exception, but rather confirms the general rule. Many European centers of glassmaking arose due to impulses from outside.

This was the case with the famous Venetian glass, which, despite the fact that during the era of the Roman Empire in Italy, vast experience in glass making was accumulated, at the initial stage it was strongly influenced by the East. Venetian craftsmen, in turn, contributed to the development of artistic glassmaking in the Netherlands, Spain, France, where the art of glass “in the Venetian spirit” flourished in the 17th century. This revealed one of the features of glass as a field of material culture and applied art - its international character.

Almost the entire history of European glassmaking in the late Middle Ages and the New Age developed in the same direction. At each chronological period, one or another national art school, the principles of which were followed by the masters of other countries. In the XV-XVII centuries, unconditional superiority belonged to thin and fragile Venetian glass; at the end of the XVII century, Bohemian engraved glass took over this baton. From the end of the 18th century, all European glassmaking was influenced by English cut crystal, and in the 1900s the French school took over.

Russian glassmaking also had its own history, which from the moment of its inception was oriented towards European culture, but at the same time became a prominent area of ​​Russian national art.

In the 17th century, the intensive development of crafts led to the emergence of the first manufactories. The growth of commodity production contributed to the revival of trade, linking previously isolated economic regions into a system of a single all-Russian market. The reunification of Russia with Ukraine and Belarus was an event of great political significance. It contributed to the expansion of ties between Muscovite Rus and the countries of Europe.

In the Russian life of the 17th century, the need for a new hygienic and beautiful material was already felt. The first who took up the production of glass in Russia was a cannon maker, a Swede, Julius Koyet, who arrived in Moscow on March 2, 1630. In 1632, he invited for cooperation an experienced "glass" master Paul Kunkel, who had previously "started" a glass factory in Sweden. He helped to choose a place for the future plant, and in 1634 Koyet received a charter to “establish” a glass factory in the village of Dukhanino, Dmitrovsky district (not far from Moscow). The production developed in difficult financial conditions, changed quite a few owners, and was finally closed in 1760, when the craftsmen "by their own petition" and the decision of the Manufactory-Collegium were assigned to Akim Maltsov's Gusevsky plant.

The fate of another private glass factory built by the Swede Ivan (Johann) von Sveden in the Ivanovo volost of the Kashirsky district was unsuccessful. In 1666, he brought from overseas, among other specialists, "crystal and Vinitsa glassware craftsmen." But in 1668, the owner died without completing the construction of the "Vinitsa glassware factory", although in 1697 its buildings still existed.

An outstanding role in the history of Russian artistic glassmaking was played by the plant, founded in 1668 on the initiative of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Izmailovo near Moscow (now the territory of Moscow). It was here that Russian artistic glass was born, and the school of Russian glassmaking was created. In this complex process, along with Russian and Ukrainian masters, foreign specialists also took part. Many of them have lived in Russia almost all their lives and found a second home here. The plant was built in 1668 by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, was under the control of the Secret Order, then the order of the Great Court, and in 1710 was transferred to the Aptekarsky Order and soon after that was closed. This enterprise produced “amusing and figured glass about the use of the great sovereign”, “crystal” (i.e., very clear colorless glass) dishes with engraving and gilding, simple products made of colorless and green glass, and after 1710 - apothecary utensils .

Information about another Russian glass factory of the 17th century, located in the village of Voskresensky, Chernogolovskaya volost, is extremely scarce. Neither the dates of its existence nor the nature of production are known. Data about him refer only to 1687, when he was already operating and his products were sold at the Moscow Gostiny Dvor. Among the products of the plant were glasses, brothers, lamps. Apparently, it was a kind of branch of the Izmailovsky plant, since their products are listed in one inventory of the village of Izmailovo.

Thus, at the end of the 17th century, there were three glass factories near Moscow, which, despite their modest size, could not provide the whole country with glass.

In 1691, the construction of another state-owned glass factory was undertaken. Its device was entrusted to the “trading man of the living room of a hundred” Yakov Romanov, who built the premises for the plant at the Tainitsky Gates in Moscow. But this attempt ended in complete failure, since Romanov was unable to find craftsmen and establish production.

After that, the Moscow administration started the construction of a new mirror factory, Vorobyevsky, inviting "commissar" Brockhausen from Berlin for this purpose. He arrived in Moscow in 1705, along with six French "mirror" masters hired by him, and possibly brought some of the equipment with him. In 1706, the plant was already operating, albeit with interruptions. Visiting craftsmen, apparently, did not immediately adapt to local raw materials. The dimensions of the mirrors, which are quite significant for the 18th century, are unusual: some of them reached four arshins in length and two in width; many were in glass frames. The end of the activity of this plant was very instructive. In 1710, it was leased to Willim Leid under the patronage of A.D. Menshikov. In 1712, Leid received a large order for the execution of “large, medium and smaller hands of bells and 330 carafins” for a total of 126 rubles. However, the order was partially fulfilled, and during the investigation it turned out that the factory's tools were hidden in the German Quarter in the yard of the teacher Andrey Martynov. These tools and the materials remaining at the plant were sent to St. Petersburg on 10 carts, accompanied by dragoons.

From 1706 to 1718, 9 small enterprises were built in the Trubchevsky, Sevsky and Karachevsky counties (now the Bryansk region). Produced here "slo simple with bubbles" and "white and simple slo".

The 18th century is a time of active development of Russian glassmaking. New production centers are being formed, which retained their leading position throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

I. Petersburg

At the beginning of the XVIII century, the formation of the St. Petersburg center of glassmaking begins, with which the magnificent flowering of the Russian school of engraved glass is associated.

Yamburg and Zhabinsky plants.

Initially, factories were opened in the city of Yamburg and in the village of Zhabine, Yamburg district. It was possible to find a message that in 1705 master Sheper, together with master Kifater, examined “pleasant places to blow glass near the village of Syabino, 12 versts below Yamburkh”. They recognized the place as very suitable, and the master Kifater composed a project for the plant. For the first time, as operating factories, they were mentioned in 1717 as the property of A.D. Menshikov, who believed that they should be given to “eager people”. Both plants were owned by Menshikov, since among the huge land grants in Ingermanland, he was given the city of Yamburg and its environs. After the disgrace of A.D. Menshikov's enterprises went to the state treasury. The Yamburg plant was larger than the Zhabinsky plant and more perfect in terms of production organization. He produced mirror and window glass, as well as "crystal dishes" with polishing and engraving, which accounted for almost a third of all production. Since 1713, foreign craftsman Johann Mennart was engaged in engraving of dishes, who left his craft in 1723 due to eye disease. He was replaced by Russian engravers - apprentices Dementy Voilokov and Vasily Pivovarov, who eventually became outstanding masters. The Yamburg factories mainly served the palace economy, supplying window panes, mirrors and "crystal" dishes for the royal residences under construction. Some of the products were sold at the factories themselves and in the palace shop. At the end of 1730, the demand for mirrors and glass declined. This is explained by the fact that Emperor Peter II temporarily transferred the royal residence to Moscow (1727-1730). In 1730, the factories were leased to the English merchant Willim Elmsel, who in 1733-1735 transferred equipment and craftsmen to his own factories in St. Petersburg and on the Lava River.

Petersburg glass factory

The history of the St. Petersburg State Factory, which was the leader of Russian glassmaking throughout the 18th century, began somewhat unusually. For the first time about its existence on the Fontanka River, almost in the center of St. Petersburg, they learned in 1738, when its founder V. Elmzel died. It also turned out that the tools and craftsmen of the Yamburg factory were transferred here. Judging by the inventories, it was not a glass factory proper, but rather a workshop where they only cut, polished and engraved glass products, but they also blown glass at the Lavinsky factories. After both plants were transferred to the treasury, Petersburg gradually becomes a plant in the full sense of the word. Dishes were blown on it, mirror glasses were poured and they were immediately polished and engraved. Part of the production was carried out by order of the royal court, the other went on sale. They traded glass in a shop on Nevsky Prospekt, as well as directly at the factory.

In 1774, the plant itself was transferred to the village of Nazya, Shlisselburg district, and a workshop was left in St. Petersburg for “polishing dishes and cutting coats of arms and monograms on it.” But even in 1780 this decision was not implemented. Thus, the history of the St. Petersburg plant shows that the common practice in Europe of separating the production of tableware and its cold processing, despite its obvious benefits, did not take shape in Russia.

Quite a lot of products of the Petersburg factory have been preserved. Basically, these are carved goblets, glasses, glasses, shtofs, teapots. They clearly testify to the flourishing of the engraving art at that time. The carvers of the plant could engrave on glass not only coats of arms and monograms. They did an excellent job with complex rocaille ornaments, architectural landscapes, portraits and allegorical compositions, gallant and pastoral scenes. Each of the engravers had their favorite themes and characteristic methods of work. From all this, a unique image of the art glass of the St. Petersburg plant is formed. The presence of foreign carvers at the factory was inevitably reflected in the nature of the carved decor, in many respects close to Bohemian, Silesian and partly Saxon. This "clash" of different schools also gave the glass of the St. Petersburg factory its originality.

In 1777, by decree of Catherine II, the state-owned factories in the village of Nazia (former Petersburg) were given “for particular maintenance to the illustrious prince” G.A. Potemkin, who turned out to be a generous and attentive host. The prince transferred the plant to the lands of the monastery of St. Alexander Nevsky in the village of Ozerki, which is four miles from St. Petersburg. After the death of G.A. Potemkin in 1792, the plant was again taken over by the treasury and became known as the Imperial. It has always remained the largest and most equipped glass production in Russia, a true "trendsetter of glass fashion".

Plant M.V. Lomonosov in the village. Ust-Rudice

Among Russian glass manufacturers, the great scientist M.V. Lomonosov occupies an outstanding place, who in 1753 built his own factory in the village of Ust-Ruditsa, Koporsky district, St. Petersburg province. The plant was intended for the production of smalts for the mosaic workshop of the Academy of Sciences, as well as beads and glass beads. In this undertaking, the great representative of the Enlightenment strove not so much for commercial success as for the realization of his goals. scientific achievements"for the benefit of the Fatherland". At his plant, M.V. Lomonosov also tried to produce various dishes. After the death of M.V. Lomonosov in 1765, the plant passed to his daughter Elena Mikhailovna Konstantinova, and in 1768 it ceased to exist.

II. Moscow, Oryol and Vladimir provinces

During the 18th century, the construction of private glass factories was actively going on in Russia. In just over a century, more than eighty were built. In the first half of the century, private enterprise developed mainly in the vicinity of Moscow. Here at that time there were at least six glass enterprises.

Maltsov's factories

A large glass enterprise in the vicinity of Moscow was the Pokrovsky factory in the Mozhaisk district on the wastelands of Shiryaeva and Kudinova, founded by a resident of Gzhatskaya Pristan Nazar Druzhinin and "Kaluga townsman" Sergei Aksenov in 1723. In 1724, the founders of this plant took Vasily Maltsov as a companion of the “city of Rylsk living hundred”. From this modest enterprise begins the history of the "crystal kings of Russia" - the Maltsov family, which for almost two centuries was the monopoly of the Russian glass industry. By the end of the 18th century, the Maltsov "glass empire" consisted of 15 enterprises, of which the largest - Gusevsky and Dyatkovsky, are widely known to this day.

III. Smolensk province

Nemchinov factories.

Merchants briefly became rivals of the Maltsovs in the middle of the 18th century. The Mosalska Nemchinovs. The first information about their activities in the field of glassmaking dates back to 1748, when the brothers Peter and Emelyan Nemchinov built a “crystal and glass” factory in the Drogobuzh district of the Smolensk province.

In the 1750-1760s, the Nemchinov family owned at least 4 glass factories at the junction of the Smolensk and Kaluga provinces. Unfortunately, information about their activities is rather scarce, since information about them is gleaned mainly from court cases in which this unfriendly family is mired. Information about the Nemchinov factories in the Smolensk province is cut off in 1777.

IV Penza province

Bakhmetiev factories

Among the private factories in Russia, the Nikolsko-Pestrovsky plant in the Penza province, better known as Bakhmetevsky, has earned well-deserved fame. It was built by a retired second-major, and later a "salt office prosecutor" Alexei Ivanovich Bakhmetyev in 1764. During the peasant war of 1773-1774, the plant was ruined. In 1779 A.I. Bakhmetyev died, leaving the plant to his wife Agafoklea Ivanovna and son Nikolai Alekseevich. They restored the plant, significantly expanding it, and built two more new ones nearby: Zausovsky and Teplostansky, which produced sheet glass. Nikolsko-Pestrovsky, on the other hand, specialized in the production of art glass. Colorless and colored glass with graceful gold and silver painting was recognized in St. Petersburg at the royal court and court orders began to be addressed to Bakhmetiev.

V. Kaluga Governorate

Orlov's plant

General-in-chief Count Fyodor Grigoryevich Orlov turned out to be a successful businessman. The first mention of his factory dates back to 1793. The plant was first located in the village of Bogorodskoye, Mosalsky district, Kaluga province, and then, obviously, after the fire of 1798, it moved to the village of Milyatino. In addition to simple green glass, wine glasses, glasses, decanters of colorless glass with polishing, engraving and painting were made here. He produced a factory and products from colored glass.

During the period of the second half of the XVII - XVIII centuries. more than 80 glass enterprises were built on the territory of Russia. Some of them worked little, others were destined for a long life and they exist to this day. The vast majority of factories specialized in the production of window glass and "ordinary" tableware. Only small number from them they produced art products from colorless and colored glass, decorated with engraving, polishing and painting.

By the end of the 18th century, the geography of Russian glassmaking was finally determined. The outskirts of Moscow were the focus of glass factories only on early stage- in the 17th - early 18th centuries. The main areas of glassmaking are Vladimir, Oryol, St. Petersburg, Penza and Smolensk provinces.

The production of art glass has long been the prerogative of the state. Suffice it to recall the Izmailovsky, Vorobyevsky, Yamburgsky, Petersburg (Imperial) plants. Private enterprises, on the other hand, were initially limited to the manufacture of window glass, containers, and pharmaceutical utensils. But already in the second quarter of the century, an energetic entrepreneur of the merchant rank appeared on the scene, who knew how to organize production and knew the needs of the huge Russian market. In his activities, he focused mainly on the tastes of the middle strata of the townspeople - nobles, officials, merchants, which determined the artistic appearance of the products of merchant factories. The most successful entrepreneurs of the merchant rank in the 18th century were the Maltsovs.

The Russian nobility played a significant role in the development of glassmaking. Among the owners of glass factories are the Golitsyns, Yusupovs, Orlovs. The main spring of their entrepreneurship was not so much commercial profit as the prestige of the occupation, as well as the desire to satisfy the needs of their household in artistic and simple glass. Their factories often worked at a loss, as they sought to produce highly artistic products, the demand for which was not very great.

Over a century and a half, the capacity of Russian glass factories and their technical equipment have increased significantly, various mechanisms have appeared, set in motion by "water machines".

Relatively quickly in Russia, the problem of creating a cadre of domestic specialists was solved. In the 17th century, almost all craftsmen were foreigners or immigrants from Ukraine. But already in the first quarter of the 18th century, Russian masters began to play a more prominent role. Thanks to their efforts, domestic glassmaking by the end of the 18th century became a flourishing industry, and its products became the pride of Russian arts and crafts.

GLASS IN THE “IZMAILOV MANNER”

Within the walls of the Izmailovsky plant, built "for the everyday life of the great sovereign", the birth of Russian art glass took place. Alexei Mikhailovich, who showed big interest to European culture, in his palace village of Izmailovo started all sorts of new items. The idea of ​​building a glassworks came to him in the 1650s. In 1656, he ordered his agent Gebdon "to take to Moscow from Vinitsa the ashes of the lutchi, in which all kinds of glass vessels were made on a crystal color, as well as the best glass craftsmen." However, only ten years later, in 1668, the construction of this enterprise began. The plant was supposed to produce dishes for the royal court, and therefore its organizers attracted the best foreign craftsmen here. The Germans Ivan Martynov and the Russians Boris Ivanov and Grigory Vasiliev took part in the construction of the plant itself. Then Christian Kunkel, Ivan Yakovlev and Mark Ivanov arrived here. It is difficult for us to judge the specialization of these masters, as well as the correct transcription of their names. It is known, for example, that in 1667 the German Ivan Martynov made vials and sold them at the auction near the Resurrection Monastery in New Jerusalem.

In 1670, these masters were replaced by others, with their appearance the second stage in the development of Izmailovo glass began.

The newly arrived masters were called "Vinitsa", but, obviously, not by nationality, but by the style of work. Jan Artsipuhor, Indrik Lerin, Peter Balthus and Lovis Moyet were apparently from the Baltic region, where glassmaking "in the Venetian spirit" flourished in the 17th century. They firmly linked their fate with the Izmailovsky plant. Peter Balthus, for example, is mentioned in documents from 1688 when he was sent to Holland to buy materials. Indrik Lerin, who arrived at a young age, worked at the plant for more than forty years. The constancy of the composition of the masters to a large extent contributed to the fact that the traditions established at the plant turned out to be very stable and for a long time predetermined the style of Russian art glass. The visiting craftsmen brought their recipes for glass melting, as well as methods for processing it, and adapted them to local raw materials and national tastes, and as a result, they created a Russian version of glass "in the Venetian spirit", which was made in European countries. For changing Venetian school Bohemian glassmaking came to Europe in the 17th century, represented by engraved glass. Izmailovsky plant also paid tribute to this method of ornamentation.

The products of the institution, as the documents show, were extremely diverse. Production specialized in the manufacture of luxury goods, serving mainly the palace economy and only to a small extent - the domestic market. The list of his products is very extensive, in many respects he repeats the names of traditional ceramic and metal Russian dishes. They made here "sulei with screws", vials of various sizes for the Pharmaceutical Order. For palace use, “jugs large and small, staves, mugs, brothers, cups, goblets with and without roofs, glasses, pans, lamps, candlesticks, inkwells, tubs, apples, canes, glasses large and small, tall flasks, dishes , plates, saucers, buckets, flycatchers. These items were made of green glass (“Cherkasy matter”; the name comes from the Ukrainian city of Cherkasy, from which the main flow of green plain glass imports to Russian lands came), and from colorless (“Caesar matter”; the term denotes high technical and aesthetic qualities this glass). Such a rich assortment was obviously due to the desire to replace glassware with household utensils that were previously made in ceramics and metal.

In addition, in the inventories of the plant, there are also things that are not quite ordinary, such as “a glass of a sazhen”, “glasses are triple, long, amusing goblets with colored burrs, glass bottles and striped piping, glasses are flat, smooth, scaly, twisted, large-scale, checkered bottles , a chandelier of figured work”, “apples with figures”. These are works not so much of a utilitarian as of a decorative nature, which, with their novelty of forms and unusual size, should have aroused surprise and admiration of the king and courtiers, who were eager for all sorts of curiosities.

It is known that in the barn, where the tools and supplies “for the figure business” were stored, there were: “200 vials for glass birds and 7 pipes, with which the figures are made, a pood of glass drawn with gold and enamel and with paints, white, yellow, azure enamel , beads yellow, green 2 pounds. In addition to the case of gear: 2 tin lamps in which oil burns, two scissors, 4 tongs.

From the point of view of glassmaking technology, an interesting picture is revealed not only of the extreme breadth of the assortment, but also of the variety of design techniques that the Izmailovo masters owned. In addition to the actual thorny technique, when the product was entirely made at the glass furnace, the craftsmen of the Izmailovsky plant owned many other techniques.

Most notable:

1) The mention of striped, scaly and large-flake, checkered products of colorless glass, which are opposed to smooth ones. Of course, we are talking about products with a textured surface, made by the so-called quiet-blown method, which was known in ancient times, was used by Venetian craftsmen of the 16th – 17th centuries, and German craftsmen of the 17th century especially fell in love with it. a feature of this method is that the object is blown into a relief shape without rotation.

2) Description of "supplies for figure business", where "a pood of drawn glass" is listed. Most likely, these are pre-fabricated elongated glass tubes (a variant of the so-called “glass rod”), from which figures were then made with the help of a “tin lamp”, that is, here there is a possession of the so-called glass blowing, or lamp technology.

It means that

3) Information about the fact that glass items were decorated with gilding: about purchases of sheet gold, as well as a mention of a “gilded candlestick”. Also indicative is the story preserved in the Palace Discharges about how the retinue of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who visited the plant in 1675, managed to steal “6 cups of gilded glassware and a pood of glass drawn with gold and enamel”. Comparing this information, it can be argued that the Izmaylovo glass was gilded during the blowing process, when a sheet of gold was placed on a hot “bullet”, and then the product continued to be blown, as a result of which the gold sheet was torn, and the product became, as it were, sprinkled with golden specks. This technique was especially widely used by the Venetian masters.

In addition to the "hot" methods of decorating Izmailovo glass, "cold working" techniques were also known.

4) There were engravers at the factory. Already in 1673, the “carving master” Anz (Hans) Friedrich worked here. But he failed to significantly change the nature of the plant's products. So, in the plant's receipt book for 1677, out of 9246 items, only "two carved and fifteen faceted glasses" were listed.

More noticeable was the activity of another master, Matthias Ulman, who arrived at the factory at the end of 1680 and worked in Izmailovo for over twenty years.

5) Dmitry Stepanov, a “gold painter”, also worked at the plant, who painted apothecary dishes, which indicates that, in addition to engraving, Izmaylovo products were decorated with gilding.

Thus, the Izmailovsky plant in the 17th century was a rather complex production, the masters of which mastered almost all the glassmaking techniques known at that time: blown, lamp, gilding, engraving, polishing.

Contemporaries highly valued Izmailovo glass, it was not only a measure of good quality, but had its own style. The epithet "Izmaylovsky" for the Muscovite inhabitants of the end of the 17th century was very expressive and did not require explanation. Izmailovo style was then followed by some glass factories of the 18th century.

When describing the Izmailovsky plant, various products of the “figure business” are especially often mentioned. Of particular note are 7 unusual vessels from the collection of the State Historical Museum, one from the collection of the State Hermitage Museum and one from the MMC Kuskovo. In addition to the Hermitage, this whole group is united by the presence of "surprises" provided by the design features of most objects, and the good quality of thin transparent glass with small streaks.

All these items can be divided into two groups.

One of them consists of 5 goblets and kumgan from the State Historical Museum collection. The shapes of the goblets are almost identical - the body rests on a soft baluster-like leg, resembling a thistle flower in outline. At the same time, the body of one of them has a striped texture, while in other cases the lower part of the body is weighed down with an additional set of glass. But the main “highlight” of these goblets is a rod placed inside the body, on which a hollow tube ending in a figurine of an animal is movably mounted. This figurine resembles a deer or a ram, but with a magnificent peacock tail. The head of a similar creature ends with the spout of a kumgan with a scaly glass texture from the same group. It is difficult to use such cups. When you start drinking, drawing in air through the hole in the head of the fabulous beast (the only possible way), the wine flows through a vertical tube from the glass into the body. And if at the same time the volume of the figure is approximately equal to the volume of the glass, and the head of the animal is higher than the body, then the drinker has to lift all the liquid up the tube in one breath, and then, without taking a breath, drink everything. Only people with excellent lungs can afford such exercises.

Similar vessels are known in the collections of foreign museums (Cologne, The Hague, Prague, Liege, Vienna, London, Corning). For the first time, the idea of ​​such “joke” vessels originated with Venetian craftsmen, and then in the 18th century it spread widely in Germany and the Netherlands among the then popular “a la façone de Venice” glass. In most cases known to us, the pipe was crowned with a figurine of a deer. In the GIM collection, this figurine is more like a ram with curved horns. The interpretation of the animal is very close to that which can be seen in the Russian ceramic hand washers of the 16th-17th centuries. In the museums of Europe, only about ten such vessels scattered across different countries have so far been found, while in Moscow there are five of them at once, which indicates the local, and therefore Izmailovo, origin of this entire collection of crackers.

The figurines are made with the help of a lamp burner, that is, using the technique owned by the masters of the factory.

The goblet with a deer figurine from the GE collection is made of yellowish-green glass and is significantly inferior in plastic to the Izmailovsky ones, most likely it was made at the Yamburg or Zhabinsky factories near St. Petersburg, where glass was also made “in the Izmailovsky manner”.

Another group of “crashers” has a system of siphon tubes inside and spouts in the lower part of the body (4 items are known 2 from the State Historical Museum, 1 from the Kuskovo Mining and Metallurgical Complex and 1 in the Lem-Kul collection, now the Museum of Private Collections of the Pushkin Museum named after A.S. Pushkin). One of them, with a figurine of a bird on crossed tubes, is engraved with the monogram “PP” and the Russian inscription “this pokal at ...”, which leaves no doubt about its domestic origin. A similar device, obviously, had another goblet from the State Historical Museum, decorated more elegantly and magnificently. Under the bowl there is an “apple” hidden under lace moldings, and the lid is crowned with a figurine of a cockerel with a purple comb.

You can’t get drunk from these cups, without knowing the secret, you will certainly spill yourself! The device is complicated - under the upper bowl there is a hollow "apple" - a reservoir isolated from the bowl itself. The tank has two exits: a spout with a hole goes to the side, and a glass tube goes up, which rises above the body, and then goes down and ends with a hole at the very bottom. When wine is poured into a goblet, it fills only the body and part of the pipe. Wine cannot get into the lower “apple” tank, since the tube rises above the body. How to drink from such a cup? It is almost impossible to do this in the usual way - glass pipes, a bird sitting on top of them and the drinker's own nose interfere. Two more are soldered to the bend of the main tube at the top, which further complicates the task. It remains to try to drink the contents from the side spout. In this case, the wine rises up the tube, reaches the bend on which the bird sits, then falls by gravity into the tank, and from there into the mouth. The liquid with such a "siphon" device of the vessel will be pumped independently, i.e. the wine will flow until the goblet is empty, and this is completely independent of your desire. Therefore, the entire goblet will have to be emptied without taking a breath. Not everyone will figure out how to stop the flow of wine pouring from the vessel, although you just need to blow hard into the nipple of the glass.

A variation of these "tricksters" is a goblet from the Kuskovo Mining and Metallurgical Complex, the tubes of which are woven into a rope and, rising above the bowl, are crowned with a bird figure, while three spouts are located below. The secret of drinking here is the same as described above, but near one of the spouts there is a small, almost imperceptible hole, from which it is also easy to pour over.

The simplest in design in this group is the goblet from the Lemkuley collection. The curved tube inside the bowl does not rise above the top rim, so once you fill the goblet to the top, the liquid will begin to flow out of the lower spouts through the siphon tube, and will continue to flow until the goblet is empty. Apparently, at first the guest was served an incomplete goblet, and if he was dissatisfied and demanded to add wine, then the entire contents of the vessel fell on the clothes of the greedy guest.

All considered "amusing cups" of the Izmailovsky factory represent the Russian version of glass in the "Venetian spirit". Here the main aesthetic value is the rich plasticity of thin transparent glass, its fragility and weightlessness, unreality. This style has become widespread in all European countries, where glassmakers who fled from the famous island of Murano stood at the origins of glassmaking. However, in each country, the glass that imitated the Venetian had its own specifics, due to the characteristics of local raw materials, as well as the tastes of customers. In the case of Izmailovo glass, it should be taken into account that its plastic was created by a German or rather Flemish master, who was formed in his homeland under the influence of the "Vinitsa". The executor of these vessels, of course, could only be the "figurative master" Indrik Lerin, who worked at the plant for forty years. Judging by his salary of one hundred and forty-nine rubles, he was, most likely, if not the main, then the most valued specialist here. Having lived a long life in Moscow, having married a Russian woman, Indrik Lerin, like many other foreigners, deeply perceived the Russian national culture and his works became an integral part of it.

Izmailovo glass had a great influence on the development of Russian artistic glassmaking. The Izmailovo traditions were followed by the masters of the Yamburg and Zhabinsky factories, where, after the closing of the factory, part of its mestars moved. In particular, the “compilers of matter”, Kirila Kalinin and Yegor Konerev, who supervised the whole thick “Caesar matter”, worked there. Therefore, here they made “glasses in the Izmailovsky manner”, “goblets with puffy buttons”, “umbilical bowls”, “jugs intertwined with vines”.

Another part of the Izmailovo masters dispersed to private glass factories in the Moscow region, and some even founded their own production, such as, for example, Sofron Gavrilov and Demid Loginov, the “village of Izmailovo glass-makers”, who built a factory in 1723 in the village of Yamkino, Bogorodsk district.

Undoubtedly, the Izmailovo traditions proved to be the most tenacious precisely in private enterprises, where gore equipment prevailed and whose products became an integral part of folk culture.

List of used literature

Asharina N.A. Russian glass XVII - early XX century. M., 1998

Dolgikh E.V. Russian glass of the 18th century. Collection of the State Museum of Ceramics and Kuskovo Estate of the 18th century. M., 1985

Kalinin A.T. Russian and foreign vessels with secrets. M., 2004

State Historical and Cultural Museum-Reserve "Moscow Kremlin". Collection directory. art glass XVI - XVIII centuries. M., 2006. Author - I.V. Gorbatov

Decorative and applied art of St. Petersburg for 300 years. SPb., 2004

Russian Glass of the 17th – 20th centuries. Corning, 1990

Some general remarks regarding the creation of replicas from the works of the Iz-mailovsky glass factory.

1. In our opinion, the most interesting for reproduction are the products of Izmailov, made in the “Venetian spirit”, namely, all cracker cups and kumgan from the collection of the State Historical Museum (see illustrations and descriptions below). These products are not only interesting in terms of design, but also have a unique, intriguing aesthetic expressiveness for today's viewer.

Unfortunately, it will hardly be possible to perform them in a combination of glass blowing and glass blowing techniques, but even the reproduction of these objects in glass blowing technology (apparently the most accessible) can give very impressive results.

2. Very attractive from the point of view of reproduction are small cups and cups-korchiki, presented in the collection of GIKMZ "Moscow Kremlin", primarily because of the touching small size; in addition, they are plastic and "man-made".

3. One should not get too carried away with the reproduction of products with engraving, because, firstly, it did not play a decisive role in Izmailovo production, and secondly, it was performed with copper wheels. Modern engraving is done using diamond-coated wheels and diamonds, so it has a completely different texture, radically different from the texture of ancient engravings, and completely incompatible with the aesthetics of thin Izmailovo glass. Engravings should be as minimal and simple as possible.

4. Making colored glass replicas requires additional discussion. We mainly know Izmaylovo products made of colorless glass mass, quite pure and thin, sometimes combined with details made of manganese (violet glass). There is evidence that simple green glassware was made in Izmailovo, but in this case, its shade should be carefully selected so that it is as close as possible to green glassware. glass XVIII century (samples are widely represented in the collection of the State Historical Museum, and, as far as we know, are in the collection of the Kolomenskoye Museum-Reserve).

E.P. Smirnova,

Researcher at the Department of Ceramics and Glass of the State Historical Museum

AT State Historical Museum an exhibition dedicated to the work of Russian masters from a fragile material - glass, called "Russian glass of the late 18th - early 20th centuries". This exhibition took place thanks to many happy circumstances. In space exhibition hall The museum houses the collection of G.N. Oistrakh, which she collected for over 30 years. Now the collection has been bought by the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation and transferred to the funds of the Historical Museum. The high bar that was set during the creation of the collection made it possible to collect items in perfect condition, without chips, cracks, or abrasions of gold.
The entire hall of the exposition is filled with light reflections that run along the glass edges of the sets and vases. Different colors, different processing technologies turn this material into a variety of fascinating objects. And I can’t even believe that some of them were in use, and did not immediately go into collections.

A glass with a lid with an ornamental pattern and the monogram "SA" under the crown in the medallion. St. Petersburg.
Imperial glass factory. End of XVIII-XIX century. Glass "golden ruby" and colorless; faceting, gold painting.

Fragment. A glass with a lid with an ornamental pattern and the monogram "SA" under the crown in the medallion.
St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory. End of XVIII-XIX century.

In 1777, Catherine II presented the St. Petersburg State Plant to Potemkin for perpetual hereditary use. After the death of Grigory Alexandrovich, the factory in 1792 went to the treasury and was placed under general management with the Imperial Porcelain Factory. Since that time, the glass factory has also become known as the Imperial.

Mug with a portrait of Emperor Alexander I and the inscription "Liberator of Europe". St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory. 1810s. Colorless crystal, milky glass; cutting, grisaille painting, gilding.

Colored glass at the Imperial Glass Factory they began to brew thanks to the work of the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov. It was he who, on the instructions of the Chancellery from the buildings, taught the master of the St. Petersburg glass factory Ivan Konerev and the “architectural student” Pyotr Druzhinin the new glass technology. In 1753, Lomonosov received permission to set up his own glass factory, where he continued his experiments. Their result was the creation of a palette of colored and mosaic glass, consisting of 112 basic tones and more than 1000 shades.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the factory mastered the production of crystal. Crystal (from other Greek κρύσταλλος - ice) is a special type of glass containing at least 24% lead oxide. The addition of lead oxide increases the refractive index of glass and the dispersion of light in it (from a jewelry point of view - “play of color”, “fire”).

Mug with a lid with an acorn-shaped pommel. St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory. First third of the 19th century. Colorless crystal; diamond face, grinding, polishing; bronze; casting, gilding.

Fragment. Mug with a lid with an acorn-shaped pommel. St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory. First third of the 19th century.

The crystal products of the plant at that time reached such a pinnacle of craftsmanship that its works became diplomatic gifts and offerings to ruling persons. In the book "Glass" Kachalov reports that the Shah of Persia was presented with a pool and a bed made of crystal. And you can read this book in more detail.
The exposition presents products from such large sets as "Prigorodny Granny", "Bakhmetevsky", "Gothic" and some others. The green glass of the "Gothic" service fascinates and the eye will disappear into the mystical space of glass. And we will draw your attention to the "Cottage" service. These are items from the own glass service of the "Cottage" palace of the Alexandria dacha in Peterhof. The objects of the service are decorated with the coat of arms of the dacha, designed by the poet V.A. Zhukovsky. An emblem is placed in a blue shield: a wreath of white roses, through which a sword is threaded with the point up. The emblem is accompanied by the motto: "for the faith, the Tsar and the Fatherland."

Items from the private glass service of the "Cottage" palace of the Alexandria dacha in Peterhof. Imperial glass factory. 1827 - 1829 years. Colorless crystal with a blue overtone, diamond cut, gold and enamel painting. According to the drawing by I.A. Ivanova.

Items from the private glass service of the "Cottage" palace of the Alexandria dacha in Peterhof. Glasses and glasses.
Imperial glass factory. 1827 - 1829 years. Colorless crystal with a blue overtone, diamond cut, gold and enamel painting.
According to the drawing by I.A. Ivanova.

In 1815 - 1848 A.I. Ivanov held the position of inventor at the Imperial Glass Factory. The position of an inventor is an analogue of the chief artist, who is responsible for the appearance of all the products of the plant.
But the collection contains not only works of art made at the Imperial Glass Factory. In Russia since 1634 there were private glass factories. The most famous glass manufacturers were the Bakhmetyevs (the factory known as "Bakhmetevsky" was called "Red Giant" in Soviet times). The glass empire of the Maltsevs began its existence in 1730, in the 19th century they already owned 26 factories. In the collection you can see almost all the stylistic trends that were present in production at that time, as well as many innovations that mastered the glassworks.

A glass with a picture of a woman giving Cupid a bow and quivers. St. Petersburg. Workshop P.P. Semechkin and K.I. Terebenev. 1840s Violet (manganese) glass; faceting, printing, gold painting.

May 6, 1840 "Artists Provincial Secretary Terebenev and 14th class Semyachkin" received the privilege "to the method of lithography on faience, porcelain and glass over glaze" for a period of 10 years. The workshop produced items decorated with lithographed drawings. The plots of the drawings were varied, but portraits of members of the royal house were especially popular.

A glass with a portrait of Tsesarevna Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna. St. Petersburg. Workshop P.P. Semechkin and K.I. Terebenev. 1840s Colorless glass; printing, silver painting on paste, gilding.

Maria Alexandrovna (Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-August-Sophia-Maria, 1824 - 1880), Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt since 1855 Empress of All Russia, since 1841 wife of Emperor Alexander II. The source of the printed portrait was a lithograph made in 1841 by R.F. Dragunov in honor of the marriage of Grand Duke Alexander and Princess of Hesse-Darmshdat.

Glasses and goblets with plot images. St. Petersburg. Workshop P.P. Semechkin and K.I. Terebenev. 1840s Colorless glass; faceting, printing, gold painting.

During the existence of glass, many processing options were invented, and various types of it were created, including with the help of impurities that create different colors. For example, red glass is obtained by adding gold, violet - manganese oxide. You can get acquainted with all these wisdoms and tricks in the exhibition hall.

Vases paired with the monogram "AM" (?) under the imperial crown. St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory.

Fragment. Vases paired with the monogram "AM" (?) under the imperial crown. St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory.
1830s - 1840s Colorless crystal; cutting, engraving.

The exhibits presented in the hall will reveal to you many secrets of glassware and crystal processing. You will know that the "diamond edge" is so popular at the beginning of the 19th century appeared in England in the 1780s. The most widespread are the edges sharpened at an angle of 45 degrees by a wheel that produces wedge-shaped cuts. At the beginning of the 20th century, the number of variants of the “diamond edge” became so great that not only names, but also numbers began to appear in the price lists. Home distinguishing feature This "numbered edge" was that the ornament consisted of several simple elements.

Glass "Krestovsky Island". St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory.
Mid 19th century. Colorless crystal; cutting, engraving.

Fragment. Glass "Krestovsky Island". St. Petersburg.
Imperial glass factory. Mid 19th century.

A jug in the shape of an aska. St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory. 1830s (capacity).
St. Petersburg. Master K.G. Ekquist. 1830s (frame).

This jug is made in the form of an ask - an ancient ceramic vessel, widespread in the 6th - 4th centuries. BC. AT ancient Greece asci were much smaller and were used for incense. This form was popular in the 1830s as a response to the "Etruscan" trend, but fell out of fashion in more recent times.

Caviar bowl (?) with a lid. St. Petersburg. Imperial glass factory. 1840s (capacity) Moscow. 1847 (lid).
Uranium glass; faceting (caviar); silver; chasing, casting (lid).

On the silver there are hallmarks with the image of George the Victorious, in rectangular frames the initials and numbers "84" (silver sample), "IS" (master's name), "AK 1847" (mark of the assay master A.A. Kovalsky).

A huge number of objects of various eras, styles and techniques appears before the guest of the museum. You will plunge into the majestic Empire style, fabulous Russian style, airy and mysterious Art Nouveau. And you can see the white gold of kings - porcelain and compare it with glass. And it is worth visiting these exhibitions, if only because both of these enterprises were merged in the 19th century under the name of the Imperial Porcelain and Glass Factory and existed until 1917.

For the exhibition, the museum prepared a catalog of the collection, unfortunately, it costs a lot of 3,500 rubles, and it will also not work to buy it for a cashless payment.

The exhibition will last until August 28, 2015.

Address: Red Square, 1. New exhibition hall.
Working hours: daily from 11:00 to 19:00, ticket office until 18:30. Thursday - from 11:00 to 21:00, ticket office until 20:00.
Day off - Tuesday
Ticket price: 200 rub. There are benefits.

Russian glass

R In the early spring of 1630, during the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the Swede Julius Koyet arrived in Moscow. He was supposed to teach Russian craftsmen how to cast cannons. The cannon master was well received. The king immediately granted a silver ladle weighing two pounds, "digged velvet", "good taffeta", forty sables and a horse with a saddle and a bridle. Coyet liked this reception, and he decided to stay in Russia altogether. It turned out that he also knows the glass craft well. Koyet undertook to build a glass factory in Russia.

In those days, we almost did not know the glass. Even in the royal palace the windows were mica. They ate from copper or pewter utensils. The poor managed with wooden bowls. Coyet's suggestion came in handy.

A suitable place was found in the Moscow district, not far from Voskresensk. Here they built a factory - several pine huts with melting furnaces and pipes. In 1635, the plant began to produce pharmaceutical glassware: flasks, jars, retorts, bottles. Such dishes were very expensive. For the price paid for the great glass jar, you could buy a calf.

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, a second plant was built - in the village of Izmailovo, near Moscow. It was already a state, state-owned plant. He made not apothecary utensils, but suleys (bottles and decanters), pewters (jugs), stavets (ladles), mugs, brothers (ladles for wine), glasses, glasses, lamps and flycatchers. The pride of the Izmailovsky plant was the fathom (two-meter) glass cast by him. The miracle glass was cunningly decorated with glass threads; she could hold two buckets of wine.

Under Peter I and Elizabeth, several more glass factories were built. Russian glassblowers have already appeared. Foreigners were reluctant to share their experience with them, tried not to reveal their secrets to them. Fortunately, there were inventors among the Russians who not only independently discovered the ancient secrets of glassmaking, but also improved them.

The first of these inventors was M.V. Lomonosov. Everyone knows that Lomonosov wrote poems about glass (excerpts from the poem "Letter on the benefits of glass"):

... I sing praise before you in delight,
Not expensive stones, not gold, but glass ...
Dear child, beautiful glass.
Seeing the mortals, oh how they marveled at him!
Art was trying to find something like that.
And skill was successful in this matter:
Has exceeded the nature by the zeal.
That made life in the world happy for us:
From pure glass we drink wine and beer ...
Medicines that are stored and made up in glass;
In glass alone they are harmless...
In the viewing tubes the glass shows us
Koliko gave space to the heavens.
Just a lot of Suns shining in them,
How many motionless stars the night shows us clearly ...
Far to the end of the glass worthy of praise,
For which a whole year would hardly have gotten me ...

However, not everyone knows that Lomonosov himself brewed glass. He was not only a great physicist, chemist, geologist, mineralogist, astronomer, philosopher, historian, but also a wonderful glassmaker. In the first Russian chemical laboratory, Lomonosov produced more than 4,000 experimental glasses. These works formed the basis of factory methods for producing colored glasses.

O Once, at Count Shuvalov's, Lomonosov saw a mosaic portrait brought from Italy. He was delighted with a wonderful picture made up of multi-colored glass cubes. Is it really impossible to do the same wonderful things here in Russia? Lomonosov decided to take up the mosaic himself.

He had to start all over again, as if no one had done mosaics before him. Recipes for coloring glass were then kept secret, few craftsmen knew them abroad, and no one in Russia knew. In books one could read only about the most simple and well-known things. And about how to cook multi-colored glass, how to make cubes, how to fix them - all this was not said in the books. Lomonosov spent almost three years uncovering these secrets. He patiently made experiments, writing them down in a laboratory journal. During this time, he happened to melt glass more than two thousand times. Finally all the secrets were revealed. It could be taken for a mosaic.

Lomonosov's first mosaic was an icon made from 4,000 glass cubes. He then made mosaic portraits of Elizabeth and Catherine II. After that, he took up a huge - 42 square meters - mosaic painting "Poltava battle", which they wanted to decorate the wall of the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Such a large mosaic required a huge set of glass cubes of all colors. After all, the more shades at the disposal of the artist, the the best picture he can create. Suffice it to say that, for example, in the Vatican mosaic workshop of the Pope, cubes of twenty-eight thousand different shades are stored. One only green color has four thousand tones - from salad to dense green, almost black. You need a very keen eye to choose the most suitable from all these shades. A person unaccustomed to such work will not even notice the difference between neighboring shades: it is so elusive. And the master will notice. And from the many plates with glass cubes standing in front of him, he will choose the right one. Mosaic paintings are made for several years. They demand from the artist extraordinary thoroughness, endless patience.

Lomonosov worked on the Poltava Battle for almost five years and finished it shortly before his death. And then the picture suffered a sad fate. They didn't take her to the cathedral. A huge painting is missing.

More than 150 years have passed. The October Revolution took place. And then one day, while putting the cellars of the Academy of Sciences in order, the workers stumbled upon some large, very heavy boxes. There were many. One of them was opened - it contained a piece of a mosaic depicting the head of a Peter's soldier. In another box they found another piece of mosaic - the standard of Peter I. In the remaining boxes there were also pieces of mosaic. It was the "Poltava battle" cut into pieces.

Descendants appreciated the amazing work of Lomonosov. Pieces of the mosaic were carefully removed from the boxes, put together, and the pieces of glass that had fallen out were replaced with new ones. Now a magnificent glass picture, reminding us of glorious military deeds Russian army brought back to life.

T There have always been many talented people in Russia, but there are few machines and various devices that facilitate and speed up work. And there were no machines at all in the Russian glass industry. in Russia until the 20th century. they only knew how to make dishes, bottles and window glass. A lot of mirror glass was ordered from abroad. There is nothing to say about optical glass: they did not know how to cook it at all. I had to work hard to catch up. Now all Russian glass factories have machines.

Glassmaking was a craft until recently. Now it has become a real science. But this does not mean at all that now the glazier no longer needs skill, talent. On the contrary, talent, art in this matter is now even more necessary than before.

The most difficult thing, of course, is to make glasses for a large telescope. This is like the highest, most stringent exam for glaziers. There were so few craftsmen who could polish such glasses that they can be listed by name. Such was, for example, Short. He lived over 200 years ago. He was a wonderful master, a true artist of his craft. Nobody could compare to him. Before his death, he broke all the polished lenses and mirrors. Alvino Clark, who lived in the 19th century, was also an amazing master. He made glasses for observatories all over the world.

Almost all such masters were self-taught, almost all of them fell into bondage to large optical firms and lived very poorly. But they did not give up their business, because they loved it.

These masters do not form one dynasty: the secret is easy to inherit, but the talent cannot be bequeathed. They can be compared, perhaps, with the great chess players. Both one and the other achieved success with their incredible perseverance, exerting all their strength. But a chess champion will play thousands of games, and a glazier will polish only a few large glasses in his whole life, which long after the death of the master will work flawlessly in telescopes of different countries, serve as a silent glass monument of great work ...

In 1912, glass for the new telescope of the Pulkovo Observatory was ordered to one of these famous masters, the Englishman Grebb. 10, 15 years have passed, and all the glasses were not ready. In 1930, the old master died a beggar, money for his funeral was collected by public subscription. And the question arose: to whom now to transfer the order?

The observatory turned to the famous German optical firm Zeiss. C.F. Zeiss was ready to get down to business: he had already stocked up a suitable piece of glass. Zeiss demanded 100,000 marks in gold for grinding and polishing. And he set one more indispensable condition: the deadline for completing the order is not indicated. He will try to do the job in two and a half years. But if it doesn't come out, it won't come out. Maybe you have to wait five years, maybe ten. What was to be done? Agree?

It was then that our Optical Institute suggested: before giving an answer to Zeiss, to see if there are such people in their country who could polish glasses for a telescope. And such a person really was found - one of the employees of the institute, physicist D.D. Maksutov, a man who devoted 30 years of his life to the construction of telescopes. As a boy, he made himself a telescope. Then he began to make small telescopes for schools, and then - mirrors and lenses for the most accurate optical instruments.

A special commission arranged a rigorous test for Maksutov's glasses: they were compared with similar glasses made by Zeiss. And what a surprise it was when they turned out to be no worse, and even better than Zeiss glasses. After that, there was, of course, no point in giving an order to Zeiss. We ourselves, on our own, began to build a new telescope. And it was done flawlessly.

So, almost by accident, it turned out that we were too modest, in vain did not trust our forces. There were people in Russia who were able to take on any task in glassmaking, to create not only excellent microscopes, but also the best, largest telescopes.

The material was prepared by P.A.KOSHEL
(Based on the book: Sveshnikov M.P. Secrets of glass. L.: Detgiz, 1955, 190 p.)

The turn of the 19th - 20th centuries passes in Europe under the sign of a new style, which in different countries received different names: art nouveau - in France, art nouveau - in Germany, secession - in Austria, liberty - in Italy, modern - in Russia. Everywhere the works of this style were distinguished by an innovative approach to form, interest in wildlife, and an appeal to new production technologies. Such a material as glass, with its transparency and fluid plasticity, with its inexhaustible palette of shades and textures, turned out to be surprisingly in tune with the Art Nouveau style and became one of the symbols of the new style. One of the main aesthetic ideas Art Nouveau - to make high art more accessible, that is, to find an alternative to the mass mechanized production of household items. This artistic program has received different incarnations in different countries.

Antique glass by René Lalique

occupies a special place in modern art. Rene Lalique(1860 - 1945). This artist became famous primarily as a jeweler, but glass played an important role in his work. He used it in his unrivaled jewelry, often ditching gemstones in favor of glass. In addition, René Lalique made lighting fixtures, vases, sculptures, perfume bottles and even car decorations. His works made of colorless and colored glass, frosted and transparent, sometimes using colored enamels, were distinguished by both monumentality and lightness, smoothness and originality of forms, and were no less popular than his jewelry.

Vase with the image of ivy. Rene Lalique. 1912
Source: http://www.kreml.ru/exhibitions/moscow-kremlin-exhibitions/iskusstvo-rene-lalika/

Glass Art Nouveau Emil Galle

The key figure for glassmaking in the Art Nouveau era was Emile Galle(1846 - 1904). His work refracted the traditions of European and Oriental art, giving rise to a completely new unique style, which combined deep symbolism, close attention to nature, an endless variety of techniques, amazing freedom and sophistication of form. Emile Galle was born in Nancy, small town in Lorraine, in the family of an entrepreneur who was engaged in trade and production of glass and faience. Emile Galle's career began with a family business. Later he collaborated with the factory "Burgun, Schwerer andToᵒ» in Meisenthal. Already in 1867, Galle created an art studio, and in 1894 he headed his own glass production in Nancy. If in early period Since Galle’s creative work was mainly creating sketches of dishes made of transparent colorless glass with engraving or painting, then in his own atelier he begins a series of technological experiments. As a result, many new techniques were invented and patented, ancient technologies were revived, and an unprecedentedly diverse palette of colored glass shades was created. In 1882, Emile Gallé starts the production of laminated glass, which has become one of the symbols of Art Nouveau. Engraving was the most important element of the decoration of multi-layer products, which could be carried out mechanically (engraving with a wheel) or chemically (etching). Glass became the pinnacle of Halle's creativity "cameo" (cameo glass) - laminated glass, on which the image was applied using sequential layer-by-layer etching and carving using various tools. As a rule, flowers and plants (orchids, lilies, chrysanthemums, thistles, ferns) were depicted on vases using this technique, but there are also images of insects, marine life and other images borrowed from nature. The decorative decoration of such works has always had a symbolic and philosophical connotation. Halle even creates a new genre that combines glass and poetry: the so-called "talking glass" ”, where lines from poems by Baudelaire, Maeterlinck, Hugo were woven into the ornamentation of the vase.

Vase with the image of a magnolia flower. Halle manufactory 1900 Laminated glass, etched. GMZ Pavlovsk

Etching was also used to treat the entire surface of the glass. Exposure to various concentrations of acid in a solution could replace mechanical polishing, give a matting effect, or "frosty glass" (glass as if covered with a layer of frost). Acid etching made it possible to achieve greater smoothness of lines and softer outlines compared to mechanical engraving. Etching also made it possible to create circulation products, and in the 1890s Halle began mass production of laminated glass at his own enterprise. Halle's serial glass was named galle standard . Halle's unique invention was the technique glass marquetry (fr.marqueterie de verre- set of glass on glass), by analogy with the technique that has long been used to decorate furniture. Pieces of glass of various colors were placed on the walls of the vessel in hot form. Another technique patented by Halle is patination technique , when dust of different chemical composition was applied to the surface of the glass between layers, thus achieving unusual color effects and subtle gradations.

Vase with the image of cyclamen. Halle manufactory. Late 1890s Laminated glass, etching, marquetry on glass technique. State Museum ceramics and the Kuskovo Estate.
Source:Galle lines. European and Russian colored end laminated glassXIX- startXXcentury in the collections of Russian museums. Moscow 2013.

The main feature of Emile Galle's antique glass is the highest quality and virtuosity of execution, each of his works is an unsurpassed masterpiece. There are also a number of details that help determine if an antique Galle glass is genuine. Such details include a polished bottom, on which all the numerous layers of colored glass are visible. Undoubtedly, important role when attributing, the signature (signature) of Emile Galle also plays. He signed his works in the technique of engraving or etching, but the signature changed both during the life of the artist and after his death (serial production of Galle vases continued its work until the 1930s). Currently, the rights to the Galle brand are owned by the Coman design plant located in Romania. Their products are of high quality and artistic value, but are hardly of interest to the collector of antique glass. In the labeling of these products, next to the name "Galle" there is the word "tip".

Vase with anemones. Emile Gallé, 1900 Laminated glass, marquetry on glass technique, engraved. State Hermitage.
Source: Halle Lines. European and Russian colored laminated glass of the late 19th - early 20th centuries in the collections of Russian museums. Moscow 2013.

Followers, Seekers, Experimenters

The unique work of Emile Galle gave rise to many followers, forming the Nancy school, which became the leader for the entire modern era. The first followers of Halle were the masters of the factory in Meisenthal, with whom the artist collaborated for a long time - Desiree Christian and Eugene Kremer. An important place in the art of that period was occupied by firm "Legra and Kᵒ". hallmark Legr's glass was widely used, along with engraving and etching, painting with enamels and gold, as well as the extraordinary brightness and variety of shades of glass masses. Undoubtedly, one of the recognized leaders of artistic glassmaking of that time was firm of the Dom brothers (Auguste Dom and Antonin Dom). Among the artistic techniques used in their works, the following techniques are worth noting: technique colored crumbs , in which glass chips of various colors were applied to the product in hot form; technique pat de ver (fr.pâte-de-verre - glass paste), in which details were created for decorating multilayer vases, as well as a widely used technique martel (fr.martele - forged), that is, an imitation of a forged texture on glass.

Vase with anemones. Manufactory of the Dom brothers, 1910 Laminated glass, etching. GMZ Pavlovsk.
Source: Halle Lines. European and Russian colored laminated glass of the late 19th - early 20th centuries in the collections of Russian museums. Moscow 2013

The influence of Emile Galle and the Nancy school was so great that it was not limited to France. Antique glass is an example. by Ludwig Moser & Sons in the Czech Republic, and firm "Costa" in Sweden, in which the features of Halle's creativity and the ideas of modernity were refracted in a peculiar way. Russian glass factories were no exception, and they also responded to new trends in European art.

Russian glass Modern

AT late XIX century Imperial Glass Factory (ISZ) experienced not better times, and was merged with the Imperial Porcelain Factory to reduce costs. Nevertheless, ISZ still remained one of the largest glass productions in Russia and produced the highest class products. Shortly after the famous world exhibition 1889 in Paris, where Émile Galle first demonstrated his laminated glass vases, ISZ also begins to create similar works.

Vase. Imperial Porcelain and Glass factories. 1897 Colored glass, crackle technique.
Source:T. A. Malinina. Imperial glass factory.XVIII- StartXXcentury. St. Petersburg: 2009.

In addition, at the turn of the century, ISZ produced thick-walled colored glass vases decorated using techniques such as millefiori (ital.millefiori- a thousand flowers) in which many glass tubes of various colors were cut across and fused into the thickness of the vessel in the form of thin plates, crackle (fr.craqueler- covered with cracks- glass with cracks on the surface, as well as glass with the inclusion of metallic spangles in the mass.

Vase with the image of a snake in the thickets of clover. Imperial Porcelain and Glass factories. According to the drawing by K. Krasovsky. 1897 Two-layer glass, carving, engraving.

Artistic glass is a significant and worthy part of the national cultural heritage of Russia. This is one of the most ancient and widespread types of domestic arts and crafts, as well as one of the first and leading branches of the Russian art industry for almost four centuries now. Glass has been known in Eastern Europe since ancient times. Here, to the northern shores of the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus - the Hospitable Sea), they brought a variety of glass products created by the masters of Alexandria, the Eastern Mediterranean and northern Italy. Archaeological excavations carried out by Russian scientists in the pre-revolutionary and Soviet times in the Black Sea ancient Greek colonial cities - Panticapaeum (Kerch), Nymphaeum, Chersonese, Olbia, Feodosia, Gorkippia (Anapa) and other cities, gave science a huge number of material monuments: balsams, dishes, bowls, jugs and other glass vessels dating from the period of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. - I-II centuries. n. e. Local glass production appears here a little later than the middle of the 2nd century, which is confirmed by the presence of glass workshops in the settlement of Alma Kermen near Bakhchisarai, although, apparently, Roman craftsmen worked here (Shchapova, 1983. P. 135, 140). From the 10th century from Byzantium to Old Russian the state received large quantities of multi-colored smalts, and already at the end of the 10th century in Kyiv, in connection with the construction of the Tithesthe church, decorated with mosaics, there are local glass workshops. Moreover, it is interesting that the ancient Russian glasses in terms of chemical composition and manufacturing technique, despite their kinship with Byzantine ones, still differ from them. That is, at the beginning of the 11th century, when “the preservation of the mystery of glass was main feature in the policy of the Byzantines towards their Kievan counterparts”, in Kievan Rus already existed local glass production with its own recipe and melting technology. Thus, the formation of an independent school of glassmaking in Russia, and specifically in the Kiev region, was due, firstly, to the presence of a rich raw material base here, secondly, the existence of local glass recipes, and, finally, the mutual influence of their own practical experience and the experience of Byzantine masters.
In the 12th century, Old Russian glassmaking, centered on Kyiv, actively spread to other East Slavic regions, where it occupied a prominent place. Initially, it was the production of smalts of an extremely rich color palette, including “golden”, to decorate with mosaics erected monumental Christian churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov and other cities. The production of "end" glass was also established, which gradually replaced mica windows in rich houses. Although even later, in the 17th century, in Moscow royal palaces in Kolomenskoye and Izmailovo, along with glass "windows", mica ones continued to be preserved.
Another important part of the Old Russian glass production was the manufacture of hand-blown glassware by the craftsmen of Kyiv, which testifies to the high level of glassmaking of that time. In addition, in the XI-XIII centuries in many ancient Russian cities - Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Staraya Ryazan, Polotsk, Chernigov and other places - the manufacture of various women's jewelry - multi-colored beads, bracelets, temporal rings and rings, which were successfully competed with imported beads and beads, which existed here since the 8th-9th centuries. In this regard, the testimony of an Arab traveler of the late 10th century is interesting that imported beads were extremely expensive and fortunes were given for it. Buying these necklaces for their wives, "husbands went bankrupt, paying from 15 to 20 kopecks in silver for each bead."
Studies by Russian scientists prove that even a century before the invasion of Batu, the development of Russian crafts, including glassmaking, reached a high level. As you know, Kievan Rus by this time was a powerful state, the princes of which were related to many royal courts of Europe. Foreigners called it "the country of cities, crafts and arts." However, the heavy yoke of the Golden Horde, the brutal destruction of cities, the hijacking of masters for several centuries interrupted such a successful economic development ancient Russian state. Only in the 15th century, forgotten crafts, including glassmaking, gradually begin to revive. In the former places - in the wooded regions of the Chernihiv region - the activity of glass workshops is resumed, in which, as in Europe, a variety of hand-blown household utensils are made. From here, from the "Cherkasy" lands, from small craft workshops during the 15th - early 17th centuries, a wide range of ordinary, ordinary glass of "simple matter", as it was called, "green" and "blue WATER" was exported. They take him to the new center of Russia - to the Muscovite state, as well as to Veliky Novgorod, Smolensk and other Russian cities.
Over time, the activities of small Cherkassy artisan guts, although numerous, could not satisfy the growing demand for glass products of the Muscovite state, which was actively expanding trade relations with Western Europe. At the beginning of the 17th century, through the Hanseatic trade union, the port of Arkhangelsk and Veliky Novgorod began to receive fabulously expensive "Vinitsa" glass with colored filigree, which had already conquered all of Europe; merchants brought outlandish mirrors, which grooms willingly gave to brides as a wedding gift. A large number of glass beads arrived, made not without the influence of Venetian glassmakers. Excavations carried out in last years on the territory of Moscow, testify to the widespread existence of glass luxury items. Glassware at the beginning of the 17th century was used at the royal court, in royal pharmacies and in state drinking establishments - “kruzhny yards” (“circles”) for “placement of trial and exemplary wine”.
In the 17th century, with the strengthening of the Muscovite state, glassmaking entered a new production stage. Increasing demand for a variety of glass - household and luxury - lead to the need to create their own glass production. As a result, already in the first half of the 17th century, its own glass production appeared near Moscow - “the first glass factories were started. In 1634, with the permission of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich near Moscow, in the village of Dukhanino, Dmitrovsky district, the Swede E. Koyet began the construction of the first Russian glass factory. The plant was opened in 1639 and produced apothecary utensils and window glass. Later, in 1668, in the village of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Izmailovo, near Moscow, by his decree, a now state-owned factory was started up, also of a manufactory type, but larger and closer to the capital, producing products "about the everyday life of the great sovereign." And indeed, the plant lived up to its purpose, releasing a huge assortment of household utensils for the king and his entourage. These products were richly decorated, in accordance with the new European influences - gilding, polishing and engraving.
Venetian glassmaking, which created a whole trend in Europe in the 17th century - Facon de Venise, was also reflected in the products of the “figurative business of the Izmailovsky plant. The first two decades in Izmailovo worked foreign "glass" masters, called "Vinitsa", who were immigrants from the Czech Republic, Germany, Holland and the Baltic countries. It was they who transferred their experience and skills, which had developed under the influence of Venetian glassmaking, to Russian soil. So, the name of the figure master "of the Dutchman Indrik Lerin is known, who worked at the Izmailovsky plant practically from its foundation to the transfer to the Apothecary Department and whose activities are associated with a number of "cracker" cups.
Products of "figurative business" - "glasses long", in a sazhen" and "amusing cups" - among the huge variety of products of the Izmailovsky plant stood out especially. These products include the rarest goblets with "secrets" - a system of hidden pipes, which made it possible to unexpectedly pour a fountain on a person drinking at that moment. Such goblets were decorated with rich plastic decor: molded and blown figures of birds, horses, deer, rams, various flowers and leaves, which brings them closer to the products of Venetian craftsmen. Similar products with "secrets", common in Europe as early as the 17th century under the influence of Venice, also came to the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia, where all kinds of "joking" fun were extremely loved and widespread.
Speaking about the figured glass of the Izmailovsky plant, it should be noted that Venetian glassmaking, which gave impetus to the development in Europe of a whole direction in the "Venetian style", the so-called faconde Venise with its developed plastic system of shaping, it was extremely in tune with the traditions of Russian folk plastic art of the 16th-17th centuries.
The Izmailovsky plant played a huge role in the development of Russian artistic glassmaking in the 17th century and had a guiding influence on the subsequent course of its development. The craftsmen of the Izmailovsky and state-owned Vorobyevsky factories, who later worked in Yamburg and Kyiv (at the glass factory founded there in 1720 by decree of Peter I), transferred to new places the secrets of glass craftsmanship that they had developed at the "sovereign" factory for 30-40 years.
At the beginning of the 18th century, the St. Petersburg region became the center of glass production, where the newly rebuilt capital consumed a huge amount of glass. But the transfer of glass production to a new location was not just a geographical movement. In the general process of the programmatic “Europeanization” of Russia during the time of Peter the Great, one can also speak of the development of a new stage in Russian artistic glassmaking: a reorientation from Venetian glassmaking to Central European glassmaking. First of all, this was expressed in the formation of a Russian school of engraving, akin to European, in particular Bohemian. The beginning of this process was laid back in Izmailovo, then at the Yamburg factories of A. Menshikov, and in the middle of the 18th century it reached its peak at the St. Petersburg factory.
In the next century and a half - until the beginning of the 20th century - the products of the Imperial Glass Factory, executed according to the designs of the largest architects and the hands of the best Russian masters, adorned the interiors of numerous metropolitan palaces and country residences of members of the imperial family and the highest aristocracy, striking with their splendor and perfection. The Imperial Glass Factory, which has become a leading enterprise and a kind of artistic laboratory for private enterprises, was on a par with the largest factories in Europe, bringing fame to Russian glassmaking.
The great Mikhailo Lomonosov made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian artistic glassmaking. In the 40s of the XVIII century, as a result of numerous experiments in the laboratories of the Academy of Sciences, he developed an extensive recipe for colored glass. By permission of the Senate, M. Lomonosov received an interest-free loan of 4,000 rubles for five years and in 1754 built a glass factory in Ust-Ruditsa, where “for the benefit and glory Russian Empire”established the production of colored glass invented by him - one of the most complex types of glass products. The plant produced a variety of colored products, smalts, and also developed a method for manufacturing "haberdashery" - beads and glass beads, a fashionable product that was not previously produced in Russia and came from abroad "at a cost of many thousands."
As for private glass production, since the 18th century, thanks to the protectionist policy of Peter I and his successors, who provided benefits to private manufacturers and protected them from foreign competition by increasing customs import duties and even banning the import of imported glass goods (since 1800), etc. ., the number of new factories increased rapidly. At the same time, in order to preserve forests in which “extreme need is”, government decrees of 1744, 1759, 1762 prohibited the construction of glass (as well as iron and wine) factories within a radius of 200 miles from Moscow and not closer than Yamburgsky district from St. Petersburg, and by decree of the Senate in 1754, the previously built factories were completely subject to destruction. However, despite these controversial measures, early XIX century, there were more than fifty glass factories, and in the first quarter of the century, according to the statement of 1814, there were already 146 glass factories. Of these, the largest number was in the Vladimir province - 22 factories, St. , Kyiv, Oryol and Ryazan - 8 each, Kaluga - 3, etc. These were mainly factories built by representatives of the noble classes and merchants on their estates. Merchants Maltsevs are known among the owners of factories. The Nemchinovs and the Bolotins, the noblemen Bakhmetevs and Orlovs Olsufevs and Poltoratskys, the Golitsyns and Yusupovs Panshin, the Menshikovs, the Nebolsins and others.
To mid-nineteenth century, with the development of capitalist relations, private business in the production of glass is activated, expanding the geography of its distribution not only in the European part of the empire (although mainly) but also in remote Siberian and Asian regions, amounting to 185 factories according to statistics in 1838, more than 1874 in 1874. 200. By the beginning of the First World War, the number of glass enterprises is already approaching four hundred. Thus, since the second half of the 19th century, Russia has become a major glass-producing country, providing glass products not only for the domestic market, but also for sales abroad.
And although far from all of the numerous Russian glass factories of the 18th - early 20th centuries produced household and decorative glass, nevertheless, the products of these enterprises played a role essential role in the formation of the artistic level of domestic glassmaking in general. Imperial Glassworks and leading private enterprises were permanent members All-Russian and international art and industrial exhibitions of the 19th - early 20th centuries, where they invariably received the highest awards.