The history of the 20th century is marked by the deepest social upheavals: two world wars that brought huge casualties and destruction, many other "local" wars, revolutions, the formation and collapse of totalitarian regimes, the crimes of Hitlerism and Stalinism, the genocide of entire nations, the mass extermination of people in concentration camps and the creation of an atomic and hydrogen weapons, a period of "cold war", political repression and an exhausting arms race; the collapse of colonial empires, the entry into the political arena of new independent states, the defeat of the socialist system in the confrontation with " free world”, finally outlined since the 1980s. a decisive turn towards peaceful coexistence and cooperation, the beginning of a general movement of many states in the mainstream of democracy and reforms.

Inside this historical period the chronological boundary is clearly drawn: the end of the Second World War. There are two periods: literature 1918-1945. and literature after 1945

Social conflicts unfolded against the backdrop of greatest discoveries in the field of science, in particular in medicine, genetics, cybernetics, computer science, which significantly influenced the mentality, lifestyle, and the very conditions of human existence. All this has received a complex, ambiguous reflection in literature, which is characterized by an exceptional variety of writers' personalities, richness artistic styles, fruitful

Innovative searches in the field of form, means of expression, content. It is significant that many new (African, Asian, Latin American) literatures have been added to the "traditional" Western European literatures.

The inhabitants of which have become world famous. Among these phenomena: the Latin American novel, created in the spirit of the so-called "magical realism" (Garcia Marquez, Jorge Luis, Borges, etc.); Japanese philosophical novel (Abe Kobo, Yasunari Kawabata, Oe Kenzabure, etc.); Icelandic novel (X. Laxness); the poetry of Nazim Hikmet (Turkey) and Pablo Neruda (Chile); "drama of the absurd" by Samuel Beckett (Ireland) and other winners Nobel Prize Literature has become in our century representatives of many countries, all continents. Contacts of writers deepened, interconnections and mutual enrichment of various national literatures. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of the quantity and quality of translations by foreign writers.

In the multicolored panorama of the literary process in the 20th century. several leading currents and trends are drawn. First of all, it is modernism, a philosophical and aesthetic trend both in literature and in art, which entered a new phase after the First World War, inheriting and continuing the traditions of decadence and avant-garde that preceded it at the turn of the century. Modernism, as the name implies, declared itself contemporary art, using new forms and means of expression, corresponding to the new realities of the 20th century, as opposed to the "old-fashioned" art, focused on the realism of the last century. Modernism in its own way vividly and impressively reflected the crisis phenomena in life. modern society, the process of its deep dehumanization, conveyed a feeling of a person’s powerlessness in the face of forces that are difficult to explain and hostile to him, the confrontation between a person and the environment, the exclusion of an individual, doomed, lonely, from social ties. The personification of such a total impotence of man, his doom was Gregor Samza from Kafka's short story "The Metamorphosis". Modernists placed special emphasis on the image inner peace person as self-sufficient. At the same time, they relied on the achievements of modern science, in particular psychology, on the latest psychological and philosophical theories of Freud, Bergson, and on the philosophy of existentialism. They introduced a number of new techniques into everyday life, such as, for example, the “stream of consciousness”, widely used the genre of parable, allegory, and philosophical allegory. Among the modernists were the largest, most talented artists, such as Franz Kafka, author of the novels "The Trial", "The Castle", world-famous short stories-parables; Marcel Proust, author of the epic In Search of Lost Time; James Joyce, author of the philosophical-allegorical novel Ulysses, one of the greatest works of verbal art of our century; poet T. S. Eliot and others. In the mainstream of modernism there are such interesting phenomena in the literature of the 20th century, mainly in the second half of it, as “ new novel"(or" anti-novel "), which was developed in France in the 1950s-1970s. (Natalie Sarrot, Alain Robbe-Grillet and others), as a "drama of the absurd" (in the work of Eugene Ionesco, Samuel Beckett).

Modernism is characterized by a generally pessimistic worldview, disbelief in man. Of course, he reflected in his own way some of the essential features modern world. However, the picture of the world cannot be reduced only to the absolutization of evil, chaos and absurdity, to the "alienation" of man, to the recognition of his helplessness.

Our century has given other examples: human heroism, creative upsurges, high ideals of collectivism and internationalism, the triumph of will, stamina, social activity and effective humanism.

These aspects were captured, in particular, by the realism of the 20th century, which opposes modernism. Realism largely inherited, but also developed and enriched - in terms of subject matter, artistic techniques and forms - the classical realism of the last century, the realism of the Balzac, Stendhal, Dickensian types.

Realism of the 20th century, in contrast to modernism, is characterized by life-affirming pathos, the belief that “man will stand” (W. Faulkner), “man alone cannot do a damn thing”, th, oh “man cannot be defeated” (E. Hemingway ). At the same time, it is sometimes difficult, and hardly expedient, to draw a clear “dividing line” between modernism and realism. Realism of the 20th century can be complicated both by modernist attitudes (as, for example, in some works by W. Faulkner, T. Mann, G. Hesse), and by naturalistic elements (in the works of T. Dreiser, J. Steinbeck, etc.). Realism is not alien to the use of many of the characteristic techniques of modernism, such as stream of consciousness. In general, the “watershed” between modernism and realism does not run along the line of form, artistic and stylistic devices, although they are very significant in themselves and inseparable from the content, but from the point of view of the original philosophical position, i.e., the concept of man. Somewhat schematizing a complex problem, we can say: the weak, helpless, sometimes doomed hero of modernism is opposed by the active hero of realistic literature, capable of fighting. The realists oppose the principle of historicism, concrete social analysis, to the desire of modernists for the artistic justification of certain universal laws of being.

The richness of realism clearly demonstrates the variety of genre forms of the novel: social, political, philosophical, intellectual, fantastic, detective, utopian, dystopian novel, epic novel. Here are wide panoramas of life (by Roger Martin du Gard, Romain Rolland, T. Dreiser, etc.), and the use of myth (by Garcia Marquez), symbolism and parables (by Max Frisch, William Golding, Vercors), fiction ( by Ray Bradbury), philosophical allegory (by K. Oe, A. Camus, J. P. Sartre, etc.), synthesis of fiction and document (by J. Dos Passos), synthesis of fiction and music (by Romain Rolland), whimsical mixing styles (by Kurt Vonnegut). A remarkable contribution to the enrichment of the genre of the novel was made by Thomas Mann, who used the "symphony" of style, myth, irony (in "Doctor Faustus"), William Faulkner, who "integrated" symbolism, stream of consciousness, grotesque into his style. The American novel of the interwar twenty years, represented by Faulkner, Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Dos Passos, Thomas Wolfe, Steinbeck, Sinclair Lewis, became a phenomenon of world significance.

In the literature of the XX century. the anti-war theme (by Aldington, Remarque, Hemingway, Dos Passos, Barbusse, and others) and anti-fascist theme (by Brecht, Becher, Anna Zegers, Feuchtwanger, and others) were widely developed. A dystopian novel that satirizes totalitarian states and their leaders (in the novels It's Impossible With Us by Sinclair Lewis and 1984 by George Orwell); all kinds of "technical" utopias (by Kurt Vonnegut) became the object of satire.

notable role in literary process 20th century played writers of a socialist orientation, such as John Reed, author of the famous non-fiction book "Ten Days That Shook the World"; Henri Barbusse, author of the anti-war novel Fire; Louis Aragon, the greatest French poet and creator of the epic "Communists"; the outstanding German poet Johannes Becher; playwright and theorist of the "epic theater" Bertolt Brecht; Dreiser, who joined the Communist Party at the end of his life, and others. In the 20s and early 30s. many writers of the West showed sympathy for new Russia, sympathetic interest in the "communist experiment" (T. Dreiser, R. Rolland, B. Shaw). However, unleashed in the mid-30s. Stalin's "great terror", the cruel methods of building socialism - all this was a cruel blow to the illusions of those who believed in the ideals of the "new world" (for example, Dos Passos, A. Malraux, and others).

In this article, we will look at what distinguishes modernism from realism. To note the differences, let's look at the two directions separately.

Modernism. His characteristic

Modernism is a trend that appeared in art in late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. It is characterized by new, unconventional beginnings, a change art forms, schematic and abstract style. This direction was in the lead in the first half of the 20th century.

He showed himself differently in different areas. In the fine arts, he was similar to the early stage of avant-garde. Modernist artists created original works that reflected a special view, the inner freedom of the authors, introduced new means into the work, and even shocked the public.

In Russian literature, this direction has replaced the classical novel. The main currents were symbolism, acmeism, futurism. They had their own characteristics and differed from each other. All this can be seen when getting acquainted with the poetry of the first half of the 20th century.

Realism. His characteristic

What distinguishes modernism from realism is the objectivity of the latter. It reflects the true reality, typical, important aspects of life, concretizes signs and features. The topics of personality and society are touched upon. In literature, various myths, symbols, parables can be used for this.

The direction appeared in the Enlightenment, in the XVIII century. It has several varieties. It can be enlightening, critical and socialist.

In the visual arts, paintings created in this direction depict everyday life of people. Among the Russian realist artists, I. Repin, V. Surikov and V. Serov can be distinguished.

What distinguishes modernism from realism?

Each direction has its own characteristics, sometimes some have common features and properties. However, this does not apply to the currents we are considering: they are absolutely opposite.

What distinguishes modernism from realism? First of all, touching on different topics. In modernism, the authors convey their feelings, a personal outlook on life. In realism, artists touch on important life topics. In the first place they do not own feelings, but the transmission of typical situations. The individual is inextricably linked with society. In modernism, the artist is able to change the world as he pleases. No matter what social phenomena happening around.

If we consider art, then a comparison of realism and modernism shows how different they are from each other. In an earlier direction, artists show life as it is. In modernism, what is seen is not described, but the author's view is expressed. Reality is not copied like a photograph. Artists use new methods to draw pictures: various figures, symbols, and so on.

REAL SOURCES

Archaeological discoveries of the 19th-20th centuries played a huge role in the formation of antiquity studies. German archaeologist G. Schliemann(1822-1890) in the second half of the 19th century. discovered the ruins of the legendary Troy, and then the majestic ruins of Mycenae and Tiryns (fortifications, ruins of palaces, tombs). The richest material about previously unknown pages of the past, which were considered fiction, fell into the hands of historians. So it was opened mycenaean culture, preceding the culture of the era of Homer. These sensational finds expanded and enriched the understanding of the most ancient period of history and stimulated further archaeological research.

The largest archaeological discoveries have been made in Crete. Englishman A. Evans(1851-1941) excavated the palace of the legendary ruler of Crete, King Minos, at Knossos. Scientists have discovered other ancient settlements in Crete and neighboring islands. These discoveries gave the world a unique Minoan culture first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e., more early culture than the Mycenaean.

Systematic archaeological research conducted both on the Balkan Peninsula (in Athens, Olympia, Delphi) and the islands of Rhodes and Delos, and on the Asia Minor coast of the Aegean Sea (in Miletus, Pergamum), gave historians a huge number of very diverse sources. All leading European countries and the United States founded archaeological schools in Greece. They turned into centers of ancient studies, where not only methods of excavation and processing of archaeological material were improved, but also new approaches to the study of stories were developed. Ancient Greece.

Russian scientists did not stand aside either. After the establishment in Russia in 1859 of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, a systematic study of Greco-Scythian antiquities in the Northern Black Sea region began. Archaeologists began to excavate mounds and Greek colonies. (Olvia, Chersonese, Panticapaeum, Tanais, etc.). A number of sensational finds were made that adorned the expositions of the Hermitage and other major Russian museums. Later, when the research was headed by the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, they were joined by scientists and students from leading historical universities of the country.

Arthur Evans

As a result of almost a century and a half of archaeological research, the most diverse and sometimes unique sources fell into the hands of antiquities, discovering many previously unknown or unfamiliar in the history of Ancient Greece. But alone archaeological finds(remains of fortresses, palaces, temples, works of art, ceramics and utensils, necropolises, tools and weapons) cannot give a complete picture of historical processes development of society. Material evidence of the past can be interpreted in different ways. Therefore, without supporting the archaeological material with data from other sources, many aspects ancient history threaten to remain blank spots in our knowledge of the past.

From the book Katyn. Lies made history author Prudnikova Elena Anatolievna

Material evidence In addition to the bodies themselves, something belonging to the killers was also found in the graves. First of all, these are spent cartridges and bullets, which turned out to be ... German. Given their number and the fact that the shells could fall into a variety of hands, the Germans hide

From the book Apostolic Christianity (A.D. 1-100) author Schaff Philip

From the book Prostitution in antiquity author Dupuy Edmond

author Euvelmans Bernard

The first material evidence Generally speaking, since the 17th century, some Sherlock Holmes from zoology could only on the basis of legends and stories prove the existence in the North Atlantic of squids of monstrous size, comparable in size to whales. To

From the book Monsters of the Deep author Euvelmans Bernard

Evidence found in the jaws of sperm whales A few years ago, Charles Alexandre de Calon, the inspector general of France, was concerned about the disappearance of the whaling industry in the country. The Basques, the pioneers in this business, were driven out over the centuries

From the book History of Rome (with illustrations) author Kovalev Sergey Ivanovich

author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

Sources Forsten GV Acts and Letters to the History of the Baltic Question in the 16th and 17th Centuries, vol. 1, St. Petersburg, 1889.

From the book History of the Middle Ages. Volume 2 [In two volumes. Under the general editorship of S. D. Skazkin] author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

Sources Bruno Giordano. Dialogues. Transl. from Italian. M., 1949. Galileo Galileo. Selected works, vol. 1-II. M., 1964. Guicciardini F. Works. M. - L., 1934. Giordano Bruno before the court of the Inquisition (a brief summary of the investigative case of Giordano Bruno). - Questions of religion and atheism, vol. 6. M "1958.

From the book History of the Middle Ages. Volume 2 [In two volumes. Under the general editorship of S. D. Skazkin] author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

Sources Bacon F. New Atlantis. Experiments and instructions, moral and political. M "1962. More T. Utopia. Utopian novel of the 16th-17th centuries. Library of World Literature. M" 1971.

From the book History of the Middle Ages. Volume 2 [In two volumes. Under the general editorship of S. D. Skazkin] author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

Sources D0binye Agrippa. Tragic Poems. Memoirs. M., 1949. Domestic politics French absolutism. Ed. A. D. Lyublinskaya. M. - L., 1966. Documents on history civil war in France 1561-1563 Under. ed. A. D. Dyublinskaya. M. - L., 1962. Documents on the history of foreign

From the book History of the Middle Ages. Volume 2 [In two volumes. Under the general editorship of S. D. Skazkin] author Skazkin Sergey Danilovich

Sources Bacon F. Works. Ed. A. L. Subbotina, vol. 1-I. M., 1971-1972. Vesalius A. About the structure human body. Transl. from Latin. vol. 1-II M 1950-1954. Galileo Galileo. Selected works. Transl. from Latin. and Italian., T.I-II. M., 1964. Descartes Rene. Selected works. Transl. from French and Latin., M "1950.

From the book History of Rome author Kovalev Sergey Ivanovich

Material monuments Archaeological material for early period The history of Italy is presented quite richly, although unevenly in different regions. If Paleolithic sites are found only sporadically, then, starting from the Neolithic and ending with the Iron Age,

From the book Murder royal family and members of the Romanov dynasty in the Urals author Diterichs Mikhail Konstantinovich

MATERIAL EVIDENCE As the basis for the work of this area of ​​investigative proceedings, Sokolov put an extremely detailed, consistent and comprehensive method of studying and researching the physical condition and history of the origin of each individual little thing,

author Semenov Yuri Ivanovich

Sources Braudel F. Dynamics of capitalism. Smolensk, 1993. Braudel F. Material civilization, economy and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. T. 1. Structures of everyday life: possible and impossible. M., 1986; T. 2. Games of exchange. 1988; T. 3. Time of the world. 1992. Braudel F. What is France? Book. one.

From the book Philosophy of History author Semenov Yuri Ivanovich

From the book What the Revisionists Say author Bruckner Friedrich

2. Is There Physical Evidence of the Crime If millions of Jews were in fact murdered in the gas chambers, it is to be expected that there will be plenty of evidence confirming these unprecedented atrocities - genuine gas chambers, or at least drawings of these

Material sources in all their diversity (from archeological objects to modern cars and household items). This, by the way, allows us to take into account that as a result of human activity, both plant and animal world(Flora and fauna). This type includes not only stuffed animals, birds and models of fruits, herbariums (exhibited in museums), but also the animals themselves, birds, plants and other natural and geographical sources of historical (artificial) origin.

EXAMPLE: Tools of labor - a wooden plow, a hand axe, a stone cutter, a scarf, a plow, a harrow, etc. Jewelry– bracelet, pendant, diadem, amulet, medallion, necklace, etc.

Each era leaves behind a trace in the form of culture, on the basis of which social historical experience is formed. The predominant part of these works, cultural monuments are by no means written, but material sources, reflecting the natural part that we call material culture.

The things that surround us and our ancestors are objects created by man to satisfy his multilateral needs. From the point of view of sociology, neither their place in the world, nor their size matters; the main thing is their expediency, a direct connection with the purpose, that is, the dependence of the form on the will and labor of people. This infinitely diverse world (from a digging stick to spaceships) is opposed to another world - the world of "not things", the world of natural objects

^ Material sources are called material objects created by human labor and reflecting information about the past. The concept of "material source" is more universal than the categories "archaeological source", "museum object" or "museum exhibit". archaeological sources are the objects that were found as a result of archaeological excavations. museum items (exhibits)- These are material sources that are in the funds and exposition of the museum. Therefore, material sources include both archaeological sources and museum items. The category "material source" is closest to the term accepted in Western archeology "artifact", which is understood as "any object made or modified by a person."

Material sources classified according to the following criteria: the function performed, the material of manufacture. According to the functional criterion, the following groups can be distinguished: architectural structures, weapons, tools, furniture, utensils, clothing, shoes, vehicles, jewelry, etc., according to the material of manufacture - stone and wooden architectural structures, stone, bronze and iron weapons and tools, etc.

The concept of an artifact brings us closer to understanding a material source. For the latter, being a carrier of social information, includes not only “things” in the ordinary sense (what has a certain functional meaning), but also what we refer to as works of art.

Artifacts are a product of the worldview, people's ideas about how objects should look like and how they can be used. Each culture has its own roots that dictate and shape the artifacts. After some time, there is a break in the tradition, complicating the understanding of things that have come down to us. L.S. Klein defines them as "antiquities" - the object of study of archeology (they are also called archaeological monuments). To archaeological sites include fossil tools, weapons, clothing, jewelry, settlements and the remains of individual dwellings, tombs and religious buildings, ancient architectural monuments etc. It should be emphasized that archaeologists use written and other sources to supplement and recreate the world of things of the period under study.

By studying and interpreting archaeological, material monuments, archaeologists, as it were, translate information from the “language of things” into a sign form that is understandable to us - a language system, as well as a system of graphic information.

1. Why is it necessary to study the history of your homeland?

Just as we know our own past, we need to know the past of our country in order to truly call it Motherland. In addition, history helps us avoid the mistakes of our ancestors, and also suggests successful solutions, for example, tells how to prevent conflicts within society or with other states.

2. Prove that the history of Belarus is part of world history.

The first people came to the territory of Belarus from other lands, just like the first farmers. Belarus has been part of other states more than once. But the Belarusian lands themselves were an important component of regional processes. Immigrants from Belarus played a big role in the history of other countries, sometimes quite distant ones.

3. Write down in your history notebook the chronological framework of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, as well as the periods of the Middle Ages. Use the timeline on p. 10-11.

The Stone Age on the territory of Belarus lasted intermittently from 100 to 5 thousand years ago (III century BC).

The Bronze Age lasted from the 2nd century BC. until the 7th century BC.

The Iron Age began in the 7th century. BC. and ended simultaneously with the Ancient World in other regions in the 5th century. n. e.

Earlier the Middle Ages occupies the V-IX centuries, the High - the X-XIII centuries, the Late - the XIV-XV centuries. ad.

4. Give examples of material historical sources.

Material sources are what archaeologists find. For example, ancient sword, fragments of ceramics, the remains of houses, chess pieces and much more.

5. Which of the written sources provide more information on the history of the Middle Ages?

Most of the information we receive from those sources that specifically aim to tell about the events of the past: chronicles, chronicles, etc.

6. Calculate how many centuries approximately lasted in the history of Belarus:

a) Bronze Age

The Bronze Age lasted from the 2nd century BC. until the 7th century BC, that is, 10-13 centuries.

b) iron age;

The Iron Age began in the 7th century. BC. and ended with the Ancient World in the 5th century. n. e., that is, it lasted 12 centuries.

in the middle Ages.

The Middle Ages lasted from the 5th to the 15th centuries. AD (more specifically, from 476 to 1492), that is, 10 plus centuries.

7*. Think about which sources are more valuable for studying the history of Belarus: written or material.

Their combination is the most valuable. But if you choose, then written ones are better, because it often happens that one source tells about many events, while in the case of real ones, to get the whole picture, you need to study many sources. Not for nothing is the historian M.N. Tikhomirov said "Where there are no written sources, the historian wanders in the dark."