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NEOIMPRESSIONISM (from the French neo-impressionnisme) - a trend in painting that arose in France around 1885. The largest representatives of this trend are J. Seurat and P. Signac, who created the artistic technique of divisionism. The French neo-impressionists and their followers continued the tradition of late impressionism. Using the technique of decomposing tones into pure colors, they tried to apply the discoveries made in the field of optics in art. At the same time, they tried to move away from the fragmentation and randomness characteristic of the Impressionists, they strove for a flat-decorative creation of landscapes and multi-figured panel paintings. The optical mixing of the pure tones of the spectrum carried out by them led, on the one hand, to a sensation of dazzling white light, and on the other hand, to a faded whitish color.

NEOCLASSICISM , neoclassic - a term denoting various trends in art that arose after the classicism of the 17th century, focusing on the classical examples of the art of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and the Renaissance and aiming to make them the criterion of modern art. Most often, the term "neoclassicism" is used to refer to the current within the Art Nouveau style, early functionalism and early avant-garde of the first quarter of the 20th century.

NUANCE(French nuance) - the same as shade.

VOLUME(English, French volume, German Umfang, Volumen) - in painting, the illusory endowment of objects and figures with the qualities of a physical body located in space with the help of modeling, chiaroscuro, line, plastic elaboration of forms and perspective. The problem of transferring volume can be solved in different ways: from a complete rejection of it (a flat image of the post-impressionists) to its almost real reproduction using stereoscopic effects.

PRIMARY COLORS - yellow, red, blue colors that cannot be obtained by mixing other colors, but mixing them with each other or with additional colors makes it possible to reproduce the natural colors of the surrounding world.

HUE, nuance (French nuance, English hue, German Schattierung) - a slight difference in one color or light and shade tone. A carefully designed system of shades contributes to the creation of a rich pictorial color and fine elaboration of light and shade modeling.

PALETTE(French palette) - a set of colors used by the artist when creating a painting.

PANNO(French panneau) - a painting that serves to decorate a wall, ceiling of an architectural structure, made on canvas with oil or tempera outside the place intended for it.

PASTEL(French pastel, Italian pastello, from pasta - dough) - rimless colored pencils molded from paint powder, as well as painting and drawing with them.
They write with pastel on the rough surface of paper, cardboard, primed canvas, etc. And they start with hard pencils, and end with soft ones. The colorful powder is shaded with fingers or a special blend.
Works made with pastels are distinguished by a velvety matte surface of the paint layer, sonorous and pure color, softness of colors that retain their original freshness for a long time. Among the Impressionists, E. Degas stood out with his passion for pastels.

PASTOSITY (from Italian pasto-so - pasty) - an artistic technique, expressed in the thickening of the paint layer as a result of applying thick strokes directly to the ground or to already dried layers.
Pastosity is manifested in relief, unevenness of the paint layer, in a plastic stroke and serves to emphasize the material side of the subject and give dynamism to the composition.

LANDSCAPE(French paysage, English landscape, German Landschaft) - a genre of fine art or its individual works showing nature and the human environment. Depending on what the artist's attention is focused on and the nature of the image, a rural, urban, architectural, industrial landscape is distinguished, images of the water element - sea (marina) and river landscapes - belong to a special variety of landscape. In addition, the landscape can be historical, showing the appearance of the Earth in the past or reflecting the eternal laws of the development of nature - and fantastic, based on the imagination of the artist. The cosmic, or astral, landscape has become widespread - a starry space actually seen from the Earth or invented, as well as images of planets and other space objects. Starting from the XVI century. the landscape is formed into an independent genre and its main varieties appear: lyrical, heroic, documentary landscape. This is connected with the work of such artists as P. Brueghel in the Netherlands, A. Altdorfer in Germany, P. Rubens in Flanders, J. van Goyen, Rembrandt, J. van Ruisdael in Holland, N. Poussin, C. Lorrain in France, F. Guardi in Italy.
The main conquest of the XIX century. in the field of landscape - plein air - led to the emergence of impressionism (the Frenchmen E. Manet, C. Monet, O. Renoir), which opened up new possibilities in the transfer of space, changes in the light and air environment, and complex colors. Leading landscape painters of the late XIX - early XX century. (P. Cezanne, V. Van Gogh, A. Matisse in France, M. S. Saryan in Armenia, A. I. Kuindzhi, N. K. Roerich in Russia) try to solve complex philosophical problems, expand the emotional and associative qualities of the landscape painting.

PLENAIR(French plein air, letters, open air) - the transfer in painting of changes occurring in nature in natural conditions, under the influence of sunlight, air and atmospheric phenomena.
Plein air painting, unlike work in the studio, is concerned with the study of the environment, reflexes, color changes, transitions, nuances, shadows observed in the open air. Its main features are a light color, a pure radiant color, a feeling of a light-air environment, etc.

outline(from German abriß - drawing, contour) - the linear outlines of the depicted figure or object.

accent- the technique of emphasizing with color, light, a line or the location in space of a certain figure, face, object, image detail, which needs to be paid special attention to the viewer.

airbrush- a device for thin spraying of paint with compressed air when applying it to paper, fabric, etc.

baguette(from French baguette, lit. stick) - a wooden or plastic plank for making picture frames and decorating walls.

valer(from French valeur - value, dignity) - a shade of tone, expressing (in relation to other shades) any amount of light and shadow.

vernissage(from the French vernissage, literally - varnishing) - the grand opening of the exhibition, in which specially invited persons participate: artists, critics, people associated with art, etc.

scratching(from French grattage, from gratter - scrape, scratch) - a way to make a drawing by scratching paper or cardboard covered with ink on wax with a pen or sharp instrument.

priming(from German grund - base) - a thin layer of a special composition applied over the base in order to give its surface the color or texture properties desired by the artist and limit excessive absorption of the binder.

deformation- an artistic technique that enhances the expressiveness of the image, consisting in changing the visible form of the image.

decorative- a set of artistic properties that enhance the emotional-expressive and artistic-organizing role of fine arts.

diptych(from the Greek diptychos - double, folded in half) - two paintings connected by a single idea.

detailing- Careful study of the details of the image.

duplication- in restoration - strengthening a damaged or dilapidated base of a painting by gluing it onto another base. Usually duplication is used in the field of oil painting.

genre(from French genre, from Latin genus - genus, species) - a historically established internal division in all types of art.

witheredness- changes in the paint layer, due to which part of the surface of the picture or study becomes matte, loses the brilliance and sonority of colors.

carnation- pictorial techniques of multi-layered overlaying of paints used in the depiction of human skin, his face and other naked parts of the body.

coloring(from Italian colorito, from Latin color - color, coloring) - a system of correlations of color tones, forming a certain unity and being an aesthetic embodiment of the colorful diversity of reality.

collage(from the French collage, literally - gluing) - a technical technique in the visual arts, gluing materials that differ from it in color and texture onto a base.

composition(from Latin compositio - compilation) - the construction of a work of art, due to its content and character. Composition is the most important element of the artistic form, giving unity and integrity to the work.

counterpost(from Italian contrapposto - opposite) - an image reception in which the position of one part of the body is contrasted with the position of another part.

corpus letter- technical reception in; work with oil, tempera and other paints applied in a compacted, opaque layer.

coroplasty- production of female figurines from baked clay, wax, plaster, etc.

craquelure(from the French craquelure - a small crack) - a crack in the paint layer in paintings.

crackle(from French craquele) - a network of fine cracks on the glazed surface of ceramic products, created for a decorative effect.

glaze(from German lasierung - glaze coating) - a painting technique that consists in applying very thin layers of transparent and translucent paints over a dried paint layer.

chandeliers- a thin transparent film applied to the glazed surface of porcelain and faience products to give them an iridescent metallic sheen after firing.

palette knife(from Italian mestichino - spatula) - a tool made of flexible steel in the form of a knife or spatula. A palette knife is used by artists to clean a palette or to partially remove wet paint from a painting. Also, a palette knife is used instead of a brush to apply paint in an even layer or a relief stroke on the picture.

miniature- a work of fine art, characterized by small size and subtlety of artistic techniques.

modeling(from the French. modeler - to sculpt) - the transfer of the relief, the shape of the depicted objects and figures in the conditions of a particular lighting. In the figure, modeling is carried out by chiaroscuro, taking into account the perspective change in forms.

easel(from German, no longer used malbrett - a shelf for painting) - a wooden or metal painting machine, on which a stretcher with canvas, cardboard or board is fixed at different heights and with different slopes.

monochrome(from the Greek mono - one and chroma - color) - the monochromaticity of works of arts and crafts, sculpture and architecture.

Painting on architectural structures and other stationary grounds. The main techniques of monumental painting are fresco, mosaic, stained glass. Monumental painting is the oldest type of painting, known from the Paleolithic (paintings in caves, etc.). Due to their longevity, works of monumental painting have remained from almost all cultures.

maulstick(from German Maßstab) - a wooden stick with which the right hand of the painter is supported while working on the fine details of the picture.

sketch- a work of painting, drawing or sculpture of small size, fluently and quickly executed by the artist.

nuance(from French nuance - shade) - a very subtle shade of color or a very slight transition from light to shadow.

obscura(from lat. obscurans - dark) - a dark chamber known from the Middle Ages with one miniature hole. The camera obscura is capable of projecting an inverted miniature image of the objects that the hole is pointing at on the wall. The camera obscura was used by 18th century artists when preparing sketches.

the basis- canvas, board, plywood, cardboard, paper, silk, etc., on which a primer and a paint layer of painting are applied.

palette(from French palette) - 1) a small thin wooden board for mixing paints; 2) the nature of the color combinations typical for a given painting, for the works of a given artist or art school.

panel(from French panneau - plane, from Latin pannus - a piece of fabric) - 1) a part of the wall, highlighted by a frame (stucco frame, ornamental ribbon, etc.) and filled with a painting or sculptural image; 2) paintings of large sizes on canvas, filling the space (usually in the walls).

panorama(from the Greek pan - everything and horama - a spectacle) - 1) a synthetic art form designed to create a visual illusion, the effect of being present at the depicted event; 2) a circular tape-picture and a subject plan located in front of it.

passe-partout(from French passe-partout) - a cardboard frame for drawing, engraving, photography, watercolor or engraving.

pastiness(from Italian pastoso - pasty) - the quality of the paint layer, which occurs due to the uneven application of a thick paint paste to the ground.

perspective(from French perspective, from Latin perspicio - I see clearly) - a system for depicting three-dimensional bodies on a plane, conveying their own spatial structure and location in space, including distance from the observer.

pinakothek(from the Greek pinax - picture and theke - receptacle) - a collection of paintings, an art gallery.

pinax(from Greek pinax - picture) - ancient Greek easel painting on boards.

plastic arts- types of art, works of which: exist in space, not changing and not developing in time; have a substantive character; performed by processing material material; perceived by the audience directly and visually.

plastic(from the Greek plastikos - malleable, plastic) - the quality inherent in sculpture, the artistic expressiveness of a three-dimensional form.

plein air(from French plein air, literally - open air) - 1) the transfer in the picture of all the richness of color changes due to exposure to sunlight and the surrounding atmosphere; 2) outdoor painting.

underpainting- the preparatory stage of work on the picture, performed in the technique of multilayer oil painting.

stretcher- a wooden rectangular frame, on which a canvas is stretched, on which a picture is then written. The finished picture on a stretcher is inserted into a baguette.

polychrome(from the Greek poly - many and chroa - color) - multicolor (at least 2 colors) of works of arts and crafts, sculpture and architecture.

penumbra- chiaroscuro element; gradation of chiaroscuro on the surface of an object, occupying an intermediate position between light and deep shadow.

reception- distinctive features of artistic creativity, reflecting the individuality of the artist, his style.

profile(from French profil, from Italian profile - outline) - a side view of a person or object.

blur- a technique of working with a brush with abundant use of water, which makes it possible to achieve complex and rich pictorial effects in drawings with sepia, ink, watercolor, etc.

angle(from French raccourci - reduction, shortening) - a perspective reduction of the depicted objects. It is used for the most effective transmission of movement and space.

shading- rubbing on a sheet of paper lines and strokes drawn with a pencil, sanguine, pastel, etc. Shading is done with a feather, rubber band, bread crumb or finger.

feathering- a short stick made of paper or suede with tapered ends for rubbing a stroke into a stain when drawing with pastels and other soft materials.

replica(from French replique - print, repetition) - the author's copy of a work of art, which differs from the original in size or in individual details of the image.

retouch(from French retouche, from retoucher - to paint on, touch up) - correction of images.

reflex(from lat. reflexus - facing, turned back, reflected) - in painting (less often in graphics) - a reflection of color and light from an object that occurs when this object is illuminated by a reflection from surrounding objects (neighboring objects, sky, etc.).

rhythm- a feature of the compositional construction of works, which is an alternation or repetition of any parts. Rhythm enhances the expressiveness of the artistic image.

socket(from the French rosette, literally - a rosette) - an ornamental motif in the form of a stylized blossoming flower (for example, a rose).

The material was prepared by the art gallery Art SPb
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Here is a brief interpretation of the most commonly used special terms, names and expressions found in the literature on fine arts, in catalogs of art exhibitions, in programs, methodological and teaching aids of the faculty.

The words in the directory are in alphabetical order. If in the text explaining a particular term, there is a word typed in a discharge, this means that you will find its explanation for the corresponding letter of the alphabet. After foreign words, the language (in abbreviated form, for example: German - German, French - French, Latin - Latin, etc.) from which they originate is indicated in brackets.

ABRIS(German - drawing) - the linear outlines of the depicted figure or object. Same as outline.

SELF-PORTRAIT(Greek - himself) - a portrait in which the artist depicts himself. In this case, the creator of the work and the model (see) are combined in one person (see Portrait).

ACCENT(lat. - stress) - in the visual arts, the technique of emphasizing with color, light, line or location in space of some figure, face, object, image detail, which needs to be paid special attention to the viewer.

ALLA PRIMA(lat. - from the first time) - an artistic technique in painting, consisting in the fact that the picture is painted without preliminary registration and underpainting.

ANATOMY PLASTIC- a section of anatomy that studies the proportions of the human body, the dependence of the external forms of the body on their internal structure and changes that occur as a result of movement. The main attention in A. p. is drawn to the structure of the skeleton and muscles of the body, to the features of the connection of bones and muscles.

ANIMALISM(lat. - animal) - the image of animals in art.

ANIMAL PAINTER is an artist working in this genre.

FULL FACE- see face.

APPLICATION(lat. - application) - an image composed of multi-colored pieces of paper or fabric, glued or sewn to paper, canvas, etc. A. The very method of performing these works is also called.

ASYMMETRY- see Symmetry.

ACHROMATIC COLORS- see Chromatic colors.

BLIK(German - look) - an element of chiaroscuro (see). The lightest spot on an illuminated, mostly glossy or shiny surface. Usually this spot differs extremely sharply in its brightness from the general tone of the object.

VALER(fr. - value, dignity) - a concept associated in painting with the luminosity (see) of color. This term usually refers to the subtlest transitions of chiaroscuro (halftones), which are determined by specific lighting conditions and the air environment.

OPTION(lat. - changing) - the author's repetition of the work or any of its parts (details) with some changes. Including: changes made to the composition or color scheme of the picture, or to the gestures and postures of the people depicted; in the setting of a living model or objects; a change in the point of view on this or that object, etc. In the plot composition, there is also a complete change in the image while maintaining the same content. Under all conditions, the variant assumes the presence of similarity with the original (see) to some extent.

STAINED GLASS(fr. - glass). Painting on glass with transparent paints or a picture (composition, ornament) made up of pieces of multi-colored glass, fastened with a metal (usually lead) binding. Stained-glass windows are one of the types of monumental and decorative art, they primarily serve to fill window and door openings.

The artistic effect is created by light rays penetrating the glass. They give increased brightness to colors and cause a play of color and light reflections in the interior. These decorative properties of stained-glass windows were valued in the Middle Ages, mainly in the design of Gothic cathedrals. The art of stained-glass windows occupied a large place in Soviet architecture, primarily in the Baltics. In contemporary art, not only color combinations are used, but also the texture of glass.

AIR PERSPECTIVE- see perspective.

COLORS- the main relations of color tones (see), which prevail in this work and determine the nature of its pictorial solution (for example, the picture is painted in cold colors, etc.).

HARMONY(Greek - harmony, unity, consistency of parts) - in the visual arts: combinations of shapes or colors, or the relationship of parts of the image that have the greatest consistency and, therefore, are most favorable for visual perception.

MAIN VANISHING POINT- see perspective.

HORIZON- see perspective.

ENGRAVING(fr. - cut out). One of the types of graphics (see), which allows you to get printed prints of works of art made on solid material (wood, metal, linoleum, etc.). There are many types of engraving. An engraving is an engraving in which the entire process of its production is carried out by the artist from beginning to end with his own hand. Along with this, there are engravings in which the drawing and its prints are made by different masters. Distinguish between easel engraving and book engraving. The two main types of engraving are convex and advanced. In convex engraving, the surface of the engraving board around the drawing being covered with paint is cut off. Areas that remain unpainted on the print are cut out. In an in-depth engraving, recesses in the board are filled with paint, made in various ways (scratching, cutting, etching). In the engraving technique, special cutters are used.

Types of convex engraving.

1) Woodcut (woodcut). There are longitudinal and end engravings in the direction of the wood fibers. End engraving gives great opportunities, it is more convenient for engraving technique. 2) Engraving on linoleum (linocut) in terms of execution technique is close to woodcut, but more than the latter, it uses the expressiveness of large spots. Types of in-depth engraving: 1) Incisive engraving is one of the most common. It is performed with steel cutters, most often on copper. Gives the ability to transmit chiaroscuro transitions. Most often used for reproduction. 3) Etching (fr. - strong vodka). A print of a work of art made on a board coated with a special varnish. The image is obtained by scratching the varnish and etching with acid. Etching technique allows you to achieve great ease and freedom of stroke in the drawing. Color engraving is done from several boards, on each of which one specific paint is applied.

An engraving is also called a separate work made in one of these indicated techniques.

GRAPHIC ARTS(Greek - descriptive) - a type of fine art. It is characterized by the predominance of lines and strokes, the use of contrasts of white and black, and less use of color than in painting. G. includes the actual drawing and various types of its printed reproductions (engraving (see), lithography (see), etc.).

Depending on the content and purpose, printmaking is subdivided into: easel (not associated with a literary text) - easel drawing, printmaking (see), popular print; preparatory sketch (see), sketch sketch; book and magazine-newspaper illustration; applied - diplomas, stamps, labels, advertisements, etc.; technical-G. industrial, associated with the work of designers.

GRISAILLE(fr.) - a technique of execution and a work made with a single brush (mostly black or brown); the image is created on the basis of tonal relationships (tones of varying degrees of lightness).

ART AND APPLIED ARTS- a type of fine art. Artistic means and D. p. and. are usually subordinated to the practical purpose of the object and are due to the characteristics of the material and technology. This art is more conventional than, for example, easel painting. D. p. and. is closely connected with the life of the people, so it is characterized by the use of folk traditions.

DETAILS- careful study of details (see) images. Depending on the task that the artist sets for himself, and his creative manner, the degree of detail may be different.

DETAIL(fr. - detail): 1) element; 2) a detail that clarifies the characteristics of the image; 3) a less significant part of the work; 4) fragment (see).

DEFORMATION(lat.) - change in the visible form in the image. D. in art is often used as an artistic technique that enhances the expressiveness of the image. It is widely used in caricature (see), but is also found in easel painting and sculpture.

DESIGN(designer) see Technical aesthetics.

DYNAMIC(Greek - power) - in the visual arts: movement, lack of rest. Here it is not always an image of movement - a physical action, which is a movement in space, but also the internal dynamics (dynamics) of the image, both in living beings and inanimate objects. D. is achieved by a compositional solution, an interpretation of forms, and a manner of execution (the nature of a stroke, stroke, etc.).

GENRE(fr. - gender) - a concept that unites works on the basis of the similarity of themes. The works of one Zh. reflect a certain area of ​​human life or nature. In the visual arts (mainly in painting), a distinction is made between painting: still life, interior painting, landscape painting, portrait painting, and plot painting (casual painting, historical painting, battle painting, etc.).

PAINTING- one of the main types of fine arts. Zh.'s works are made on the plane of canvas, cardboard, on paper, etc. with various colorful materials. A decisive role in painting as an artistic medium is played by color, which makes it possible to give the most complete, in comparison with other types of fine art, a figurative reflection of the objective world.

According to the colorful materials used, painting is subdivided into: watercolor - water paints; oil Zh.; tempera; encaustic - wax paints; pastel - dry paint; glue painting, gouache, etc.

According to their purpose, Zh. easel (see), monumental (see. Fresco) and decorative and applied (see. panel).

STRICTLY- in painting - changes in the paint layer, as a result of which part of the surface of the picture or sketch becomes matte, loses the brilliance and sonority of colors. G. It arises from a lack of a binder in the paint - oil that has soaked into the ground, or from excessive dilution of paints with a solvent, as well as from applying paints to a paint layer that is not completely dry.

COMPLETENESS- such a stage in the work on the work, when the greatest completeness of the embodiment of the creative idea is achieved, or, in a narrower sense, when a certain pictorial task is completed.

IDEA(Greek - concept, representation) - the main idea of ​​the work, which determines its content and figurative structure, expressed in the appropriate form.

FINE ARTS- painting, graphics (see), sculpture. They also include decorative and applied arts (see). All of them reflect reality in visual visual images. I. and. sometimes called spatial, as they recreate visible forms in real or conditional space. Unlike the temporal arts (music, theater, cinema), in which the action develops over time, in the works of I. and. in each case, it is possible to depict only one specific moment. Ever since antiquity, artists have sought to overcome the limitations of I. and. in this regard (for example, depicting several episodes from the life of a person in one picture at the same time). This also includes “brands” in icons, triptychs, showing various moments of one movement in several figures, or dynamism (see) of compositional construction. With sufficient skill, the artist manages, even by conveying one moment, to give an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwhat happened before and what will happen later. In each of types And. and. there are artistic means inherent only to him (see).

ILLUSION(lat. - delusion) - the similarity of the image with nature, bordering on an optical illusion. Sometimes used as an artistic device. For example, in the monumental paintings of ceilings and walls to create the impression of a greater depth of space or a larger size of the room. Often, illusory nature is manifested in an unusually accurate transfer of the material qualities of objects. Due to the illusory nature, the artistic expressiveness of the work and the depth of its content may be lost. This happens in those cases when in a work that is sufficiently serious and deep in design, the desire for external similarity obscures the main thing.

ILLUSTRATION(lat.) - a shallow, superficial or one-sided reflection of reality in art, the transfer of purely external features of a phenomenon without penetrating into its essence. I. also arises in the case when the features of the plot chosen by the artist cannot be fully conveyed by means of fine art, or these artistic means and techniques do not adequately correspond to the disclosure of the topic.

ILLUSTRATION BOOK- a kind of graphic art (see), embodying the images of a literary work, its content. I. to. is also a part of book design, so its features are determined not only by the content of the book, but also by external qualities: page format, typeface, etc.

CARICATURE(Italian - exaggerate) - a deliberately exaggerated or distorted image of any characteristic features of a person, object or event. K. serves to ridicule and expose the negative phenomena of reality. Being a powerful weapon of criticism, it is of great social and political importance.

PAINTING- a painting, independent by purpose. To. happen various genres (see). Unlike an etude (see), a picture can reflect reality with the greatest depth, in a complete and thought-out form in general and in details.

CERAMICS(Greek - clay, pottery). Works of arts and crafts, sculptures and utilitarian items made of fired clay of different grades and different processing. Clay - the main material of ceramics - has high plastic qualities, due to which it is used in easel sculpture and small plastic. Ceramics include porcelain, faience, terracotta, etc. Majolica is clay products covered with glaze.

Ceramics, glazed, painted, painted (underglaze and overglaze painting) are distinguished by great decorative merits and excellent coloristic possibilities.

Ceramics serves not only to decorate interiors, it is an indispensable architectural and building material and a means of decorative design of a building. In recent decades, it has been increasingly used in Soviet architecture.

COLORITY(lat. - color) - a feature of the color and tonal structure of the work. K. reflects the color properties of the real world, but only those of them are selected that correspond to a certain artistic image. K. in the work is usually a combination of colors that has a certain unity. In a narrower sense, K is understood as the harmony and beauty of color combinations, as well as the richness of color shades. Depending on the color scheme prevailing in it, it can be cold, warm, light, reddish, greenish, etc. K. affects the feelings of the viewer, creates a mood in the picture and serves as an important means of figurative and psychological characteristics.

COMPOSITION(lat. - composition, connection) - the construction of a work, the consistency of its parts, corresponding to its content. In the compositional solution of a work, the choice of the best point of view on the depicted, the selection and staging of a living model or objects are of great importance.

Compositional construction includes the placement of an image in space (three-dimensional in sculpture, on a plane in painting and graphics).

Work on the composition continues from the initial idea to the completion of the work. This is the search for ways and means of creating an artistic image, the search for the best embodiment of the artist's intention.

These include: the clarification of the center, the K. node and the subordination of other, more secondary parts of the work to it; unification of separate parts of the work in harmonic unity; subordination and grouping in order to achieve expressiveness and plastic integrity of the work.

Work on K. also consists in choosing a theme, developing a plot, finding the format and size of a work, building a perspective, coordinating scales and proportions, and in the tonal and color scheme of a work.

DESIGN(lat.) - in the visual arts: the essence, a characteristic feature of the structure of any form in nature and in the image, suggesting the relationship of parts as a whole and their relationship.

CONTRAST(fr. - a sharp difference, opposite) - in the visual arts, a widespread artistic technique, which is a comparison of any opposing qualities, contributing to their strengthening. Color and tonal K. Color K. usually consists in comparing additional colors or colors that differ from each other in lightness.

Tonal K. - comparison of light and dark. In compositional construction, k. serves as a technique, thanks to which the main thing is emphasized more strongly and greater expressiveness and sharpness of the characterization of images is achieved.

CIRCUIT- see outline.

BODY PAINTING- painting, made with dense, thick strokes: its colorful layers are opaque and often have a relief texture (see).

SHAPING FORMS- see Modeling.

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE- see perspective.

LITHOGRAPHY- a printing method in which prints from a flat (non-relief) printing form (stone - limestone) are transferred under pressure to paper. The drawing is applied with oily ink (brush, pen) or lithographic pencil and, before printing, it is subjected to chemical treatment, covered with water and paint.

L. Invented in Germany by A. Zenefelder in 1798. E. Delacroix, O. Daumier, V. Serov and Soviet graphic artists G. Vereisky, V. Lebedev, E. Kibrik.

LOCAL COLOR(fr. - local) - 1) a color characteristic of the color of a given object. L. c. constantly changes somewhat under the influence of lighting, air, surrounding colors, etc .; 2) color in painting, taken in the main large ratios to neighboring colors, without a detailed identification of color shades.

SMEAR- a trace of a brush with paint left on a base (canvas, cardboard, etc.). The technique of painting with strokes is very diverse and depends on the individual style of the artist, on the task that he sets for himself, on the features and properties of the material in which he works.

SIMULATION(Italian - to heal) - in artistic practice: the transfer of relief (see), the shape of the depicted objects and figures in the conditions of one or another lighting. In the figure, M. is carried out in tone (chiaroscuro) (see), and the perspective change in forms is also taken into account. In painting, the form is modeled by color, since here the tonal and color side are inextricably linked. In sculpture, molding refers to the very process of sculpting and processing three-dimensional forms.

The degree of M. is determined by the content of the work and the intention of the artist.

MODEL(fr. - object, subject of the image) - mostly living nature, mainly a person.

MOSAIC(fr.) - one of the types of monumental painting. The image is made up of many multi-colored pieces of natural stones, colored glass (smalt), ceramic tiles and other solid materials, tightly fitted to each other and attached to the base (wall, ceiling, etc.) using special mastic, cement and other binders substances.

Mosaic particles are selected by color and tone in accordance with the idea (sketch) of the artist. The mosaic takes into account the effects that occur at a distance due to the optical mixing of colors of individual particles and the position of the mosaic cubes at an inclination with respect to the light source and to each other.

In addition to the mosaic, which is composed of small particles mostly of the same size - the Byzantine mosaic, there is another type of it - the Florentine mosaic. In it, the image is usually composed of larger pieces, most often natural stones. These pieces are cut in accordance with the parts of the drawing on which the work is made, and have a different shape and size.

Mosaic is also called a separate work made in this technique.

An important quality of the mosaic is not only its decorative possibilities, but the fact that it does not lose its original color strength over the centuries. Widespread in ancient times (in Ancient Greece and Rome) and in the Middle Ages (in Byzantium), the mosaic technique is becoming increasingly important in modern art in the design of buildings.

MONOCHROME(Greek) - one-color. Cm. Grisaille.

MOTIVE(fr.): 1) an object of nature chosen by the artist for the image, most often a landscape. M. - the plot, which determines the moment, the color and pictorial-plastic solution of a picture or sketch; 2) in arts and crafts - the main element of the ornamental composition, which can be repeated many times.

MULAGE(fr.) - an exact cast taken directly from nature or from any sculptural work. Painted wax (or papier-mâché) masks of fruits, vegetables, and other items are sometimes used as visual aids.

OBSERVATIONAL PERSPECTIVE- see perspective.

NEUTRAL BACKGROUND- see Background.

NUANCE(fr.) - a very subtle shade of color or a very easy transition from light to shadow, etc .; see Hue.

IMAGE(artistic) - a form of reflection of the phenomena of reality in art, a form of artistic reproduction of reality. In the visual arts, O. is a sensually concrete, visual expression of an idea (see).

A realistic artistic image always involves generalization, highlighting the most essential aspects of life. Through this typification, the artist reveals the truth and meaning, the inner regularity of life phenomena.

ORIGINAL(lat. - the same as the original) - 1) in the visual arts: a work that is a creative creation of the artist; 2) any work of art from which a copy has been made.

ORNAMENT(Latin - decoration) - a pattern, usually characterized by a rhythmic arrangement (see Rhythm) of the same decorative motifs (see), which is created by processing and stylizing images of various objects of the real world or from combinations of geometric shapes. O. can be made in various techniques. It always serves as a decoration for objects, interiors, etc.

RELATIONS- the relationship of image elements that exists in kind and is used in the creation of works. For example, visualization of colors and shades (in painting), tones of different lightness (tonal visualization in a drawing), visualization of sizes and shapes of objects (proportions), spatial visualization, etc. comparison method.

Tonal and color eyewear can be contrasting, sharp, or light and nuanced. Moreover, certain elements taken in O. always turn out to be influencing each other to a certain extent, since they are perceived depending on one another. For example, practically the features of color and tone are perceived only when they are considered in O. to other colors or tones, and not in isolation from the environment.

All the variety of features and properties of the objective world is conveyed in the visual arts with the help of O. However, the artist is not able to achieve full compliance with nature in color and tonal O., to convey it adequately, literally, since his artistic means are more limited than the phenomena of nature. For example, whitewash and white paper can never accurately convey the power of sunlight. But, observing the correct, proportional ratios within the available limits, it is possible to make the image convincing enough and life-like.

HUE- 1) a change, sometimes hardly noticeable, in the color of nature under the influence of its environment; 2) a slight difference in colors in terms of aperture ratio, saturation, color tone (see). For example, the red color of kraplak has a colder, and cinnabar has a warmer shade, etc .; 3) the difference in any color during its transition from cold to warm and vice versa.

PALETTE(Italian) - 1) a board, most often wooden, on which the artist lays out and mixes paints; 2) the nature of the color combinations typical for a given painting, for the works of a given artist or art school. They say: a rich palette, a faded palette, a monotonous palette.

PANNO(fr.) - 1) A work of painting or sculpture (bas-relief) of a decorative nature. It is intended for a specific and permanent place in the interior or on the facade of a building. The panel usually serves to decorate walls, ceilings, etc. The close connection with architecture brings the panel closer to monumental painting. But unlike the latter, the panel is painted on canvas attached to a stretcher like an ordinary easel painting. The shape of the panel is subject to the shape of the place chosen for it. 2) A panel is also called a flat section of the wall devoid of an image, delimited from the rest of its surface and framed by a border (sculptural or pictorial). 3) Panels and temporary panels are created, which serve to decorate the streets of the city on holidays.

PASTOSITY(Italian - pasty) - the technique of pictorial writing, when the paint is applied with thick, embossed strokes. Used in oil and tempera painting.

PERSPECTIVE(fr.) - 1) an apparent change in the shape and size of objects and their color at a distance; 2) a science that studies the features and patterns of perception by the human eye of forms located in space, and establishes the laws of the image of these forms on a plane. The use of P.'s laws helps to depict objects as we see them in real space. Depending on the task that the artist sets for himself, various uses of perspective are possible. It can be used creatively as one of the artistic means (see), enhancing the expressiveness of images (angles (see), deformations (see), etc.).

Linear P. determines the optical distortions of the shapes of objects, their sizes and proportions, caused by their perspective contraction. In artistic practice, the so-called observant P. is widespread, that is, the image "by eye" of all kinds of changes in the shape of objects.

The main, most important terms of P. include: the horizon line is an imaginary straight line, conditionally located in space at the level of the observer's eyes; point of view - the place where the drawing eye is located; central vanishing point - a point located on the horizon line directly opposite the observer's eyes; angle of view (see "Perspective" in the appendix).

P. aerial - determines the change in color, shape and degree of illumination of objects that occurs as nature moves away from the eyes of the observer, due to an increase in the light-air gap between the observer and the object.

SPATIAL PLANS- 1) when observing nature, conditionally divided sections of space located at different distances from the observer; 2) parts of the picture, different in degree of remoteness in the depth of the space depicted in it. Usually there are several plans: first, second, third or front, middle, far. Their number can be different and depends on the object that is depicted, and on the creative idea; 3) when modeling (see) the form, the parts of the form, differently located in space, are called plans.

PLASTIC(Greek - sculpture) -1) the art of modeling forms in drawing, painting and sculpture; 2) expressiveness of painting techniques, artistry, freedom and ease in working with a brush in painting; 3) expressiveness of form in sculpture and in graphic and pictorial representations; 4) the same as sculpture. P. most often includes works of sculpture made of soft plastic materials - clay, wax, plasticine, etc. P. is also called the technique of working in these materials.

PLASTIC- in works of different types of art: special beauty, integrity, subtlety and expressiveness of the modeling and color scheme of forms, the richness of color and tonal transitions, as well as the harmonic interconnection and expressiveness of masses, forms, their lines and silhouettes (see) in the composition.

PLENAIR(fr. - full air) - work in the open air, in natural conditions, and not within the walls of the workshop. The term P. is usually used in relation to the landscape, as well as to refer to works of any kind of painting, distinguished by the variety and complexity of color and tonal relationships and well conveying the light and air environment.

PENUMBRA- one of the elements of chiaroscuro (see). P., both in nature and in works of art, is a gradation of chiaroscuro on the surface of an object, intermediate between light and deep shadow.

SEMITONE- a transitional tone between two adjacent low-contrast tones in the illuminated part of the subject, In works of art: a means of expressiveness of the artistic image. P.'s use promotes greater subtlety of modeling (see) forms, greater softness of tone-to-tone transitions.

PORTRAIT(fr.) - a genre of fine art, as well as a work dedicated to the image of a particular person or several people (pair, group P., etc.).

PROPORTION(lat.) - a measure of parts, the ratio of the sizes of parts to each other and to the whole. In the visual arts, P. are diverse. The artist deals with various types of painting. They determine not only the construction of the forms of figures and objects, but also the compositional construction of works. This includes finding the appropriate sheet plane format, the ratio of image sizes to the background, the ratio of masses, groupings, shapes to each other, etc.

SPATIAL ARTS- see Fine Arts.

PROFILE(fr.) - in a broad sense: the view of any living creature or object in a lateral position.

ANGLE(fr.) - a perspective reduction of living and objective forms, significantly changing their appearance. R. is due to the point of view of nature (view from above, from below, at close range, etc.), as well as the very position of nature in space.

RELIEF(fr.) - a type of sculpture. In contrast to the round sculpture, the volume of the R. partially protrudes above the plane. There are various types of relief: bas-relief ("ba" in French - low), in which the figures protrude beyond the plane by no more than half of their volume; high relief ("go" in French - high), in which the figures can almost completely protrude above the plane; in-depth, or anchor, in which the image is embedded deep into the plane, below its surface.

A relief image is an energetic modeling of a three-dimensional form in tone or color. See Modeling.

REFLEX(lat. - reflection) - 1) in painting - a shade of color of a more strongly illuminated object on the surface adjacent to it. Color R. arise as a result of the reflection of light rays from surrounding objects. For example, a red drapery may give a reddish reflection on the surface of a brown jar next to it; 2) in the figure - the reflection of light from the surface of one object in the shaded part of another.

RHYTHM(Greek) - one of the features of the compositional construction of works. The simplest type of R. is a uniform alternation or repetition of any parts (objects, shapes, pattern elements, colors, etc.); most often manifested in monumental, arts and crafts and architecture.

In works of painting, graphics, and sculpture, the manifestation of R. is more complex. Here he often contributes to the creation of a certain mood in the picture, thanks to him a greater integrity and coherence of the parts of the composition is achieved and its impact on the viewer is enhanced.

R. is often manifested in variants (see) of gestures, movements and compositional groupings of figures, in repetitions and variants of light and color spots, as well as in alternation when larger parts of the image are placed in space, which are significant elements of the composition.

LIGHT- in the visual arts, an element of chiaroscuro (see). Both in nature and in works of art, the term is used to designate the most illuminated parts of the surface.

LIGHT POWER- a term related to chiaroscuro (see). In painting, the degree of color saturation with light, the comparative degree of lightness of a color in relation to other neighboring color tones. In graphics - the degree of lightness of one tone in relation to another, located next to it.

chiaroscuro- gradations of light and dark, the ratio of light and shadow on the form. S. is one of the means of compositional construction and expression of the idea of ​​the work. Thanks to S., the plastic features of nature are perceived visually and transmitted in the work. In nature, the nature of S. depends on the features, shape, and material of the object. In works of art, S. is subject to a general tonal solution.

Gradations of chiaroscuro: light, shadow, penumbra, reflex, highlight (see).

SESSION(fr.) - the time spent at any occupation, the period of continuous work of the artist on one work. This work can take place in different periods of time, take a different number of hours. An artist may spend one, two or more sessions to complete a work.

SILHOUETTE(fr.) - the general outlines of a figure or object in kind. In works of art: a kind of figures or objects in which their shape is perceived without details and a pronounced three-dimensionality, or even looks completely flat (a solid spot on a dark or light background). Thus, the silhouette becomes a figure placed against the light. S. are also called all profile dark images in the graphics.

SYMMETRY(Greek - proportionality) - such a structure of an object or composition of a work, in which homogeneous parts (or objects) are parallel to each other, at the same distance from the central axis of any object that occupies a central position in relation to them.

A similar composition is often found in arts and crafts. In painting and sculpture, sometimes too strict (not corresponding to the living nature of the image) S. can make works dry and boring.

Violation of the symmetrical structure of objects that are characterized by the presence of S. is called asymmetry.

EASEL ART- the name comes from the machine on which the works are created (the machine for the sculptor, the easel for the painter). The works of S.i. always have their own meaning. Their ideological and artistic features do not depend on the environment in which they are located. Unlike works of monumental and decorative art, they are not intended for a specific place (indoors, in space) or for decorative purposes. In this regard, when creating them, slightly different artistic means are used. For example, a more subtle and detailed rendering of color and tonal relationships is often given (q.v.) and a more complex and more elaborate psychological characterization of the characters.

STATIC(Greek - standing) - as opposed to dynamism (see) - a state of rest, immobility. S. may correspond to the idea of ​​the figurative solution of the work. But sometimes S. is caused by the inability of the artist to convey movement, to give a more expressive image. In works of fine art, S. is not always frozen. For example, a static posture in itself, characteristic of a standing figure: tilting the shoulders and hips (upper and lower parts of the body) in opposite directions (the so-called contrapposto), does not make the human figure stiff and has no less rich linear rhythm than a figure in motion.

STYLE(fr.) - 1) the commonality of the ideological and artistic features of works of different types of art of a certain era. The emergence and change of S. are determined by the course of the historical development of human society, but at the same time there may be several heterogeneous or even opposite styles (for example, classicism and baroque); 2) the national peculiarity of art (Chinese style, Moorish style, etc.); 3) the concept of S. sometimes defines individual specific artistic features of works of art or monuments of material culture (for example, black-figure S. in Greek painting); 4) they also speak of S. of a group of artists or one artist, if their work is distinguished by bright, individual features.

PLOT(fr.) - 1) in a plot picture: a specific event or phenomenon depicted in a work. One and the same theme can be conveyed in a set of S. In the visual arts, the plots are primarily works of everyday, historical and battle genres; 2) in a broader sense, S. is understood to mean any object of living nature or the objective world, taken for the image, including a single object. Often, S. replaces the concept of motive (see), which is the basis of the work (especially the landscape).

CREATIVE PROCESS(creativity) - the process of creating a work of art, starting from the birth of a figurative idea to its embodiment, the process of translating observations of reality into an artistic image. In the visual arts, the artist's creativity always consists in creating a work in directly visible forms. In the work of each artist there is a lot of individual, peculiar only to him alone. However, there are some general patterns here. Usually the work begins with a compositional search for a visual solution and the selection of material. After this preparatory period, the artist completes work on the work. It happens that the artist, even at the final stage of the work, makes significant changes and amendments to the work, or even starts looking again for a more successful embodiment of the creative idea.

SUBJECT(Greek) - a circle of phenomena chosen by the artist to depict and reveal the idea of ​​his work.

SHADOW- an element of chiaroscuro (see), the most dimly lit areas in nature and in the image. Distinguish T. own and falling. T., belonging to the object itself, is called proper. The placement of these lamps on its surface is determined by the shape of the given object and the direction of the light source. Falling are T., thrown by the body onto surrounding objects.

WARM COLOR- see Colour.

TECHNICAL AESTHETICS(SEE AESTHETICS) - the area of ​​artistic creativity associated with the design and production of industrial products. In this creative process, design artists (see Designers) co-author with design engineers and technologists.

TONE(fr.) - the degree of lightness inherent in the color of an object in kind and in a work of art. The tone depends on the intensity of the color and its luminosity (see).

1) T. in a drawing - a drawing is usually one-color (monochrome), therefore, T. in it is one of the leading artistic means. With the help of the relations of various t., the volume of the form, the position in space, and the illumination of objects are conveyed. T. also conveys the difference in lightness of objects, which is due in nature to the variety of their color and material.

2) T. in painting - this concept means the aperture ratio (see) of the color, as well as the saturation of the color (see). In painting, color and light and shade relationships are inextricably linked. You should not confuse the concept of T. with the concept of shade (see) and color tone (see), which determine other qualities of color. Colors different in T. (lightness) can have the same color shade, for example, a blue-green color can be darker or lighter, but its shade remains the same.

3) Color T. - one of the qualities of color (see).

4) General color T. of the work - this term coincides in meaning with the concepts of color gamut (see) and tonality (see).

5) General chiaroscuro tone of the work - see Tonality.

6) In everyday life, T. is used to designate the color of paints (blue T., green T. paint, etc.).

7) In a broader sense, in everyday speech, tone often replaces the concepts of color (see), shade (see), color scheme (see), color (see).

KEY- a certain ratio of colors or tones characteristic of a given work, one of its artistic features. In the schedule T. it is defined by degree of contrast (see) dark and light tones. In painting, the concept of color has the same meaning as the color scheme (see), as it determines the features of the color structure of the work, along with color nuances (see).

TORSO(Italian) - the human body.

VANISHING POINT- see Perspective.

TEXTURE(lat. - processing) - 1) the characteristic features of the material, the surface of objects in kind and their image in works of art (for example, the shiny surface of a glass jar in kind or in a picture);

2) features of the processing of the material in which the work is made, as well as the characteristic qualities of this material (for example, the F. of a painting is the nature of the paint layer, strokes. It can be smooth, rough, embossed, etc.; in sculpture - the nature of the processing of stone, wood, etc.). F. The work largely depends on the properties of the material used by the artist, on the characteristics of the nature he depicts, as well as on the task and manner of execution. The artist's individual handwriting, his "hand", is manifested in the fine arts of his works. F. is one of the artistic means that contribute to the emotional impact of the work.

FAS(fr.) - front view.

FIXING, FIXING OR FIXING(fr.) - fixing the pattern with special compositions to give it better preservation.

BACKGROUND(fr. - bottom, deep part) - in kind and in a work of art - any environment located behind an object located closer, the background of the image. In works of fine art, the background may be neutral, devoid of images, or include images (pictorial).

THE FORM(lat.) - 1) appearance, outline. In this sense, F. presupposes the presence of three-dimensionality, a clear design, and proportion; 2) in the visual arts, F. refers to the volumetric-plastic features of an object; 3) in all types of art - artistic means that serve to create an image, to reveal the content of a work (see Content and Form). In the creative process (see) they find the form that best suits the idea. In any form of art, the form largely determines the artistic merit of the work. In the visual arts, artistic phrasing is a compositional structure, a unity of means and techniques implemented in artistic material and embodying an ideological and artistic conception (see Content and Form).

FORMAT(fr.) - the shape of the plane on which the image is performed (rectangular, oval, round-rondo, etc.). It is due to its general outlines and the ratio of height to width. The choice of F. depends on the content and on the mood expressed in the work. F. paintings should always match the composition of the image. It is essential for the figurative structure of the work.

FRAGMENT(lat. - a fragment, a fragment) - a part of an existing work or a preserved remnant of the deceased.

FRESCO(Italian - fresh). One of the main types of monumental painting (see). The binder in the paints here is an aqueous solution of lime or water. In combination with the plaster substance on the wall (ceiling), they form a durable paint layer. The fresco technique is very complex, because it does not allow corrections in the process of work. Only later are they brought in with tempera. When working on a fresco, the artist must also take into account some lightening of the colors when they dry. The fresco is painted in parts, each of which is completed in one session. Its individual parts are executed on cardboard (cardboard is in this case an auxiliary material intended for copying), in which the drawing, composition and size fully correspond to the future work.

There are the following types of frescoes:

1) painting on wet plaster with tempera correction (“a fresco”); 2) painting on wet plaster without corrections (“buon fresco”); 3) painting on dry plaster (“a secco”); 4) casein-lime painting. The latter is the most durable and allows you to diversify the manner of performance more than others. The valuable quality of this technique is that it is less sensitive to changes in the atmosphere than others. Therefore, it is often used for outdoor work.

COLD COLOR- see Colour.

ARTISTIC MEANS- all pictorial elements and artistic techniques that the artist uses to express the content of the work. These include: composition, perspective, proportions, chiaroscuro, color, stroke, texture (see), etc.

CHROMATIC COLORS(Greek) - colors that have a special quality (color tone - see), distinguishing them from one another. X. c. - the colors of the solar spectrum created by the refraction of the sun's ray (red, yellow, etc.). Conventionally, the colors of the spectrum are located on the "color wheel". This color scale contains a large number of transitions from cold to warm colors (see Color). Achromatic colors - white, gray, black. They are devoid of color tone and differ only in luminosity (lightness).

COLOUR- one of the main artistic means in painting (see). The image of the objective world, various properties and features of nature in painting are transmitted through the relationship of color and color shades. The main qualities of color are: color tone—a feature of color that distinguishes it from other colors of the spectrum (red, blue, green, and other colors have different color tones); luminosity C. - the ability of one or another C. to reflect light rays. There are lighter and darker colors; saturation (intensity) of color is the amount of a particular color tone in a given color. The saturation of color in a paint can change as a result of diluting it with water (in watercolors) or by adding white to it in oil or gouache painting.

In pictorial practice, any color is always considered in relation to the colors surrounding it, with which it is in interaction. This dependence is based on the ratio of cold and warm colors and shades. The idea of ​​cold color in nature and in works of art is usually associated with the color of ice, snow, lilac, dove-colored color of thunderclouds, etc., and of heat - with the color of fire, sunlight, etc. Large Relationships of complementary colors and shades also have significance in painting. These colors and shades, taken in comparison, mutually reinforce each other. Additional colors include the following pairs of colors: red and grass green, lemon yellow and purple, orange and blue. These same C. contrast with each other. Contrasts of additional, cold and warm colors are an integral element of the color scheme of the paintings, serving for a more truthful.

C. is one of the most important means of creating an artistic image. The strength of the influence of color on a person's feelings, the ability of different colors to influence his mood in different ways, play a crucial role in painting. Here C. is an element of the composition of the work. Not only the distribution of color and light in the picture, but also the selection of color helps to more clearly express the content of the work, to create a certain mood in it. In addition, color in painting also has aesthetic significance. A picture with its colors, the beauty of color should evoke a feeling of aesthetic pleasure in the viewer. This quality is possessed by the works of painters of different eras.

HATCH(German) - one of the visual means in the drawing. Each Sh. is a line drawn with one movement of the hand. Sh.'s methods of work are varied. Sh. are used in different strengths, lengths and frequencies, laid in different directions. At the same time, depending on the nature of the work, sh. may look like separate lines, or merge into a continuous spot.

EXPRESSION(lat. - expression) - increased expressiveness of a work of art. E. is achieved by the totality of artistic means and also depends on the manner of execution, the nature of the artist's work in a particular material. In a narrower sense, it is a manifestation of the artist's temperament in his creative style, in the texture, drawing, and color scheme of the work.

SKETCH(fr.) - a preparatory sketch for a work, reflecting the search for the best embodiment of a creative idea. E. can be made in various techniques. In the process of working on a painting, sculpture, etc., the artist usually creates several E. From his point of view, he uses the most successful ones in the future, developing and supplementing the previously found solution. In e., the image can be significantly developed (see - detailing).

SKETCH- speed of execution and significant generalization of image details. E. can be dictated by artistic intent, but it can also manifest itself as a flaw in the work. In this case, E. is understood as insufficient clarity in the transfer of content, in the expression of the ideological and artistic conception, paintings, and negligence in execution.

AESTHETICS(Greek) - the science of beauty in life and in art.

E. studies the foundations and patterns of artistic creativity, the relationship of art to reality, and the role of art in social life. In a broad sense, aesthetic is beautiful, beautiful.

ETUDE(fr. - study) - work done from nature. Quite often E. has independent value. Sometimes it is an exercise in which the artist improves his professional skills and masters a deeper and more truthful depiction of nature. E. They also serve as auxiliary and preparatory material in the creation of works. With the help of E., the artist concretizes the idea of ​​the work, which was originally more generalized, works out the details, etc.

outline - linear outlines of the depicted figure, its contour.

Abstract art - one of the formalist trends in the visual arts, which arose in the late XIX - early XX centuries. Abstractionists refused to depict objects and phenomena of the objective world (hence another name for abstractionism - non-objective art). Their work is an attempt to express their feelings and thoughts through color combinations of spots or lines on their own, without depicting real objects and objects. Abstractionists abandoned drawing, perspective, color and all other means of the visual language of the art of painting. By this they violated the professional foundations of painting, destroyed its true artistic possibilities. Abstractionism disfigures the aesthetic tastes of people, leads them away from understanding the beauty of nature and life.

Adaptation - the property of the eye to adapt to certain lighting conditions. There are adaptations to light, darkness, and also to color. The peculiarity of the latter lies in the adaptability of the eye not to notice the color of illumination on objects.

In conditions of twilight and in general in low light in the eye, the nerve endings (photoreceptors) called rods are most sensitive to light. With their help, the eye perceives black and white gradations. In strong light in the daytime, other photoreceptors are more sensitive - cones, with the help of which color is perceived. With adaptation to light, the sensitivity of vision decreases, and with adaptation to darkness it increases. When the eye adapts to the darkness, we begin to clearly distinguish the details of the landscape. Due to the increased sensitivity of the eye to darkness on a cloudy day and at dusk, the novice artist loses sight of the level of general illumination, which under these conditions is much weaker than on a sunny or bright gray day. At twilight, light objects do not seem to him reduced in lightness to the extent that the illumination has become lower than the previous daylight illumination. He also notices poorly the closer tonal relationships characteristic of twilight and a gray day. In addition, despite the darkening, the novice artist distinguishes in nature (or shadows) very subtle gradations of light and shade on objects and allows for excessive variegation and fragmentation. Thus, at first he is not able to accurately assess and convey those actual changes in lightness and color that occur in nature.

Adaptation is based on various changes that occur in our eye when the light intensity changes. So, for example, during the day the pupil decreases by 1-2 mm, as a result of which little light passes into the eye. In the dark, it expands by 8-10 mm, letting in a lot of light. Knowing that the area of ​​the pupil is proportional to the square of the diameter, it can be established that if the pupil doubles in size, then the amount of light transmitted by it increases four times; if the pupil is enlarged four times, the amount of light transmitted by it increases by 16 times. This is partly the reason why we distinguish the main light ratios at twilight. The pupillary reflex to light and dark thus compensates to some extent for the decrease in illumination.

Academicism - an evaluative term referring to those trends in art, whose representatives are entirely guided by established artistic authorities, believe the progress of modern art is not in living connection with life, but in its closest approximation to the ideals and forms of art of past eras, and defend absolute, independent from place and time, the norm of beauty. Historically, academism is associated with the activities of academies that educated young artists in the spirit of unreasoningly following the patterns of art of antiquity and the Italian Renaissance. Originating for the first time in the Bologna Academy of the 16th century, this trend was widely developed in the academies of subsequent times; it was characteristic of the Russian Academy of Arts in the 19th century, which caused a struggle with the academy of advanced realist artists. Canonizing classicist methods and plots, academism fenced off art from modernity, declaring it “low”, “low”, unworthy of “high” art.

The concept of academism cannot be identified with all the activities of the art academies of the past. There were many virtues in the system of academic education. In particular, based on a long tradition, a high culture of drawing, which was one of the strongest points of academic education.

Watercolor paints - water-adhesive from finely ground pigments mixed with gum, dextrin, glycerin, sometimes with honey or sugar syrup; are produced dry - in the form of tiles, half-moist - in porcelain cups or semi-liquid - in tubes.

Watercolor can be written on dry or wet paper immediately, in full color, and you can work with glazing, gradually refining the color relationships of nature. You need to know that watercolor does not tolerate corrections, torture, numerous repeated registrations with mixed paints.

Often, painters use the watercolor technique in combination with other materials: gouache, tempera, charcoal. However, in this case, the main qualities of watercolor painting are lost - saturation, transparency, purity and freshness, that is, exactly what distinguishes watercolor from any other technique.

Accent - the technique of underlining the line, tone or color of any expressive object, the details of the image to which it is necessary to direct the viewer's attention.

Alla prima - a technique in watercolor or oil painting, consisting in the fact that a sketch or picture is written without preliminary registration and underpainting, sometimes at one time, in one session.

Animal painter - an artist who mainly devoted his work to the depiction of animals.

achromatic colors - white, grey, black; differ only in lightness and are devoid of color tone. In contrast, there are chromatic colors that have a color shade of different lightness and saturation.

glare - an element of chiaroscuro, the brightest place on the illuminated (mainly shiny) surface of an object. With a change in point of view, the glare changes its location on the shape of the object.

Valer - a term of artistic practice that defines the qualitative side of a separate, mainly light and shade tone, in its relationship with the surrounding tones. In realistic painting, the material properties of the objective world are transmitted mainly through objectively regular tone relations. But in order to vividly, holistically reproduce the materiality, plasticity, color of an object in a certain state of illumination and in a certain environment, the artist must achieve very great accuracy and expressiveness in the ratios of tones; richness, subtlety of the ratios of transitions leading to the expressiveness of painting, and are the main feature of valer. The greatest masters of the XVII-XIX centuries. - such as Velasquez, Rembrandt, Chardin, Repin - painting is always rich in valery.

vision picturesque - vision and understanding of the color relationships of nature, taking into account the influence of the environment and the general state of illumination, which is characteristic of nature at the time of its image. As a result of such a vision, the truthfulness of light and color relations, the richness of warm-cold shades, their color unity and harmony appear in the sketch, conveying nature with all the trepidation of life. In this case, one speaks of the picturesqueness of an etude or painting.

Artistic vision - the ability to give the necessary aesthetic assessment of the qualities inherent in nature. Before depicting nature, the artist already sees in its main features a figurative pictorial solution, taking into account a certain material.

stained glass - painting on glass with transparent paints or an ornament made up of pieces of multi-colored glass, fastened with metal binding, serves to fill window and door openings. Rays of light penetrating through the glass acquire increased brightness and form a play of color reflections in the interior.

aerial perspective - apparent changes in some features of objects under the influence of air and space. All nearby objects are perceived clearly, with many details and texture, and distant objects are perceived in a generalized way, without details. The contours of near objects look sharp, and distant objects look soft. At a great distance, light objects appear darker, and dark objects appear lighter. All close objects have a contrasting chiaroscuro and seem voluminous, all distant objects have a slightly pronounced chiaroscuro and seem flat. The colors of all distant objects become less saturated due to the air haze and acquire the color of this haze - blue, milky-pale or purple. All nearby objects appear to be multi-colored, and distant objects appear to be of the same color. The artist takes into account all these changes in order to convey space and the state of illumination - important qualities of plein air painting.

Perception visual - the process of reflection of objects and phenomena of reality in all the variety of their properties that directly affect the organs of vision. Along with visual sensations, perception also involves past experience of knowledge and ideas about a particular subject. To comprehend, to understand the essence of the perceived is possible only if the observed objects and phenomena are compared with those previously seen (aconstant and constant visual perception). To this it should be added that visual perception is accompanied by associative feelings, a sense of beauty, which are associated with personal experience of sensory experiences from the impact of the environment.

Gamma color - the colors that prevail in this work and determine the nature of its color system. They say: a range of cold, warm, pale shades of color, etc.

Harmony - communication, proportionality, consistency. In the visual arts - a combination of forms, the relationship of parts or colors. In painting, this is the correspondence of details to the whole, not only in size, but also in color (color unity, a range of related shades). The source of harmony is the patterns of color changes in natural objects under the influence of the strength and spectral composition of lighting. The harmony of the color system of a study or painting also depends on the physiology and psychology of the visual perception of the light and color qualities of the objective world (contrasting interaction of colors, the phenomenon of a halo, etc.).

Engraving- printed reproduction of a drawing cut or etched on a wooden board (woodcut), linoleum (linocut), metal plate (etching), stone (lithography), etc. A feature of the engraving is the possibility of its replication: from one board engraved by the artist print a large number of multi-colored prints (prints). According to the nature of the processing of the printing form (boards or plates) and the method of printing, convex and in-depth engravings are distinguished.

Graphic arts - one of the types of fine arts, close to painting in terms of content and form, but having its own tasks and artistic possibilities. Unlike painting, the main visual means of graphics is a monochromatic drawing (i.e., line, chiaroscuro); the role of color remains relatively limited in it. From the side of technical means, graphics include drawing in the proper sense of the word in all its varieties. As a rule, works of graphics are performed on paper, and other materials are occasionally used.

Depending on the purpose and content, graphics are divided into easel graphics, which include works of independent significance (which do not require an indispensable connection with a literary text to reveal their content and are not limited to a narrowed, strictly defined practical purpose), book graphics, which form an ideological and artistic unity with literary or an accompanying text and at the same time designed for decorative and artistic design of a book, a poster book, which is the most massive type of fine art, designed to carry out political, propaganda, artistic production or applied tasks (labels, letters, postage stamps, etc.) by artistic means.

Grisaille - image in black and white paint (or monochrome, for example, brown); It is often used for auxiliary work when performing underpainting or sketching, as well as for educational purposes when mastering the techniques of tonal image performed in watercolor or oil paints. The image is created on the basis of only the tonal (lightness) ratios of the subjects of natural setting.

Priming - a thin layer of a special composition (adhesive, oil, emulsion) applied over canvas or cardboard in order to give their surface the desired color and texture properties and limit excessive absorption of the binder (oil). If you work with oil paints on a non-primed base (for example, canvas), the paints do not lay down, they dry out, the oil from the paint is absorbed into the fabric, destroying the canvas and the paint layer. According to the composition of the binder, soils are distinguished: oil, adhesive, emulsion, synthetic. By color - tinted and colored. The primer usually consists of 3 elements: a thin layer of glue that covers the entire surface of the canvas with a film (i.e. sizing), and several layers of primer paint, including a thin final layer. Sizing - a thin layer of glue (carpentry, casein or gelatin) - protects the canvas from the penetration of primer paint or oil into the fabric or onto the reverse side of the canvas, firmly binds subsequent layers of soil to the canvas. Primer paint levels the surface of the canvas, creates the necessary (usually white) color and provides a strong connection of the paint layer with the primer.

Primer - in painting technology: the process of applying a primer to a surface intended for painting.

Gouache - water-based paint with great hiding power. Paints lighten quickly after drying, and considerable experience is needed to foresee the degree of change in their tone and color. They write with gouache paints on paper, cardboard, plywood. The works have a matte velvety surface.

Detailing - careful study of the details of the shape of objects in the image. Depending on the task that the artist sets for himself, the degree of detail may be different.

Additional colors - two colors that give white when optically mixed (red and bluish-green, orange and cyan, yellow and blue, violet and greenish-yellow, green and magenta). When these pairs of complementary colors are mechanically mixed, shades with reduced saturation are obtained. Complementary colors are often called contrasting.

Genre - historically established internal division in all types of art; the type of a work of art in the unity of the specific properties of its form and content. The concept of "genre" generalizes the features characteristic of a vast group of works of any era, nation or world art in general. In each art form, the system of genres is composed in its own way. In the visual arts - on the basis of the subject of the image (portrait, still life, landscape, historical and battle painting), and sometimes the nature of the image (caricature, cartoon).

Painting - one of the main types of fine arts. A true transfer of the external appearance of an object, its external features is also possible by graphic means - by line and tone. But only painting can convey all the unusually diverse multi-color of the surrounding world.

According to the technique of execution, painting is divided into oil, tempera, fresco, wax, mosaic, stained glass, watercolor, gouache, pastel. These names were obtained from the binder or from the material and technical means used. The purpose and content of a painting require the choice of such visual means, with the help of which it is possible to most fully express the ideological and creative intent of the artist.

By genre, painting is divided into easel, monumental, decorative, theatrical and decorative, miniature.

Decorative painting does not have independent significance and serves as decoration of the exterior and interior of buildings in the form of colorful panels, which, with a realistic image, create the illusion of a “breakthrough” of the wall, an increase in the size of the room, or, on the contrary, deliberately flattened forms visually, as it were, narrow, close the space. Patterns, wreaths, garlands and other types of decor that adorn the works of monumental painting and sculpture, link together all the elements of the interior, emphasizing the beauty, their consistency with architecture. Things are also decorated with decorative painting: caskets, caskets, trays, chests, etc. Its themes and forms are subordinate to the purpose of things.

Painting miniature was greatly developed in the Middle Ages, before the invention of printing. Handwritten books were decorated with the finest headpieces, endings, detailed illustrations, and miniatures. Russian artists of the first half of the 19th century skillfully used the pictorial technique of miniatures to create small (mainly watercolor) portraits. The pure deep colors of watercolors, their exquisite combinations, the fineness of the painting distinguish these portraits.

Monumental painting - a special kind of paintings on a large scale, decorating the walls and ceilings of architectural structures (fresco, mosaic, panel). It reveals the content of major social phenomena that have had a positive impact on the development of society, glorifies them and perpetuates them. The loftiness of the content of monumental painting, the significant size of its works, the connection with architecture require large masses of color, strict simplicity and laconism of composition, clarity of silhouettes and generalization of plastic form.

easel painting - the name comes from the machine (easel) on which the picture is created. As a material basis, wood, cardboard, paper are used, but most often canvas stretched on a stretcher. The picture is inserted into the frame and is perceived as an independent work of art, independent of the environment. In this regard, to create works of easel painting, slightly different artistic means are used, more subtle and detailed color and tonal relationships are given, and a more complex and detailed psychological description of the characters is given.

Theatrical and decorative painting - scenery, costumes, make-up, props, made according to the sketches of the artist; help to deepen the content of the play. The special theatrical conditions for the perception of painting require taking into account the many points of view of the public, their greater remoteness, the impact of artificial lighting and color highlights. The scenery gives an idea of ​​the place and time of the action, activates the viewer's perception of what is happening on the stage. In the sketches of costumes and make-up, the theater artist strives to sharply express the individual character of the characters, their social status, the style of the era, and much more.

Painting academic - painting, made for any educational purpose.

painting on wet - technique of oil and watercolor painting. When working with oil, it is necessary to finish the work before the paints dry and exclude such stages as underpainting, glazing and re-registration. Painting on wet has well-known advantages - the freshness of the paint layer, good preservation, and the relative simplicity of the technique.

In watercolor, before starting to work on raw paper, evenly moisten with water. When the water is absorbed into the paper and dries a little (after 2-3 minutes), they begin to write; strokes of paint, lying on a wet surface, blur, merge with each other, create smooth transitions. So, you can achieve softness in the transfer of the outlines of objects of airiness and spatiality of the image.

witheredness - undesirable changes in the drying layer of paint, due to which the painting loses its freshness, loses its luster, sonority of colors, darkens, becomes blackish. The cause of withering is an excessive reduction in the paint of the binding oil absorbed by the primer or the underlying paint layer, as well as the application of paints on a not completely dried previous layer of oil paints.

Completeness .- such a stage in the work on an etude or a picture when the greatest completeness of the embodiment of the creative idea is achieved, or when a certain pictorial task is completed.

"Kneading" base paints - preliminary preparation on the palette of a mixture of paints that correspond to the basic tonal and color relationships of objects in nature (landscape). In the process of work, various variations of shades are introduced into these basic mixtures, new colors are poured. However, the colors of the main objects prepared on the palette do not allow you to fall into excessive coloring, do not allow you to lose the character of the main color relationships. In watercolor, these reference "kneadings" are done in separate cups.

Sketch - a drawing from life, made mainly outside the workshop in order to collect material for more significant work, for the sake of exercise, sometimes for some special purpose (for example, on the instructions of a newspaper, magazine). Unlike a sketch similar in terms of technical means, the execution of a sketch can be very detailed.

Idealization in art - deviation from the truth of life due to intentional or involuntary embellishment by the artist of the subject of the image. Idealization usually manifests itself in the exaggeration and absolutization of the positive principle as some kind of ultimate, supposedly already achieved perfection; in smoothing life's contradictions and conflicts; in the embodiment of an abstract, lifeless ideal, etc. Idealization always means a break with the principles of realism and, in one way or another, turns out to be connected with the ideology of the reactionary classes, who are inclined to get away from a true picture of life and replace the study of reality with subjectively embellished ideas about it.

It is necessary to distinguish from idealization the reflection in realistic art of a certain socially progressive ideal of life, which, being an important aspect of the ideological content of any realistic artistic image, can sometimes be the determining principle in the artistic solution of the image.

Painting idea - the main idea of ​​the work, which determines its content and figurative structure, expressed in the appropriate form.

Illusory - similarity of the image with nature; bordering on optical illusion. Due to illusory nature, the artistic expressiveness of the work and the depth of its content may be lost if in the picture the desire for external similarity obscures the main thing - its intention.

Impressionism - a trend in the art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, whose representatives strove to most naturally and impartially capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions. Impressionism originated in the 1860s. in French painting. E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas introduced into art the freshness and immediacy of the perception of life, the image of instant, as if random movements and situations, apparent imbalance, fragmentation of the composition, unexpected points of view, angles, cuts of figures. In 1870-80s. formed impressionism in the French landscape. K. Monet, K. Pizarro, A. Sisley developed a consistent plein air system. In addition to painters, sculptors (O. Rodin, M. Rosso, P. P. Trubetskoy) took an interest in instantaneous movement, a fluid form.

Impressionism developed the realistic principles of art, but the work of its followers often showed a departure from the study of the basic phenomena of social reality, the permanent stable qualities of the material world. This direction of creativity led the late impressionists to formalism.

Interior - interior view of the room. The image of the interior requires a thorough knowledge of perspective. At the same time, it is important to find a place from where you can compose the image more interestingly. The finished image of the interior, in addition to an interesting composition, correct perspective construction, placement of objects in space, should give an idea of ​​the lighting.

Painting - a work of easel painting, truthfully embodying the artist's intention, distinguished by the significance of the content, truthfulness and completeness of the artistic form. The picture is the result of long-term observations and reflections of the artist on life. It is preceded by sketches, sketches, etudes, sketches, in which the artist captures individual phenomena of life, collects material for a future painting, and searches for the basis of its composition and color. Creating a picture, the artist relies on nature, proceeds from it both in the general plan and in individual details. In this process, observation, imagination, and design play an important role. The picture in its own way carries a certain ideological and figurative concept, and the forms of expression are visually authentic. Each detail, part is correlated with the whole, each element expresses an image. The decadent formalist trends are characterized by a crisis in the plot-thematic picture, the rejection of significant ideological issues and psychologism. Not only is the plot expelled from the paintings, but there is also a break with the subject image in general. According to the form of the image, the picture becomes pointless, abstract.

Adhesive paints - dry paints produced in powders and mixed by the artist himself with glue water. Well ground, they are sometimes used by artists in the design of reproduction originals as substitutes for gouache paints. Most often they perform theatrical scenery.

klyachka - a kind of soft gum, used in cases where you need to lighten the tone of the shading in pencil drawings. The nag is soft and easily kneaded by fingers; they do not erase the pencil with it, but lightly press it against those parts of the drawing that lighten up: graphite sticks to the nag and is held by it after it is taken away from the paper. If the lightened areas are very small, the nag is given the appearance of a pointed cone.

Klyachka can be made as follows. Ordinary gum is placed in gasoline for two or three days (possibly in kerosene), then it is kept for another two days. After that, the softened rubber is kneaded with potato flour (starch), the flour should be taken in pinches and the viscosity of the nag should be adjusted in its quantity.

coloring (etude or painting) - the nature of the relationship of all the color elements of the image, its color system. Its main advantage is the richness and consistency of colors that correspond to nature itself, conveying, in unity with chiaroscuro, the subject properties and the state of illumination of the depicted moment. The color of the sketch is determined by: 1) the consistency of color relationships proportional to nature, taking into account the general tone and color state of illumination, 2) the richness and variety of reflections of the light-air and object environment, 3) the contrasting interaction of warm and cold shades, 4) the influence of the color of lighting, which unites colors of nature, makes them subordinate and related.

A true reflection of the state of real lighting conditions has an impact on the feelings of the viewer, creates a mood, and causes appropriate aesthetic experiences.

brushes . Brushes are kolinsky, squirrel, bristle. Bristle brushes are designed to work with oil paints, but can be used in painting with tempera and gouache paints. Squirrel and kolinsky brushes are used in watercolor. The shape is flat and round. The size of the brush is indicated by a number. The numbers of flat brushes and flutes correspond to their width in millimeters, and the numbers of round brushes correspond to their diameter (also expressed in millimeters).

After working with oil paints, brushes are washed with warm water and soap. Do not wash brushes in acetone: this will damage the hair. Watercolor brushes are washed in clean water after work. In no case should you let the brushes dry out, especially after working with oil paints, put the brushes in the jar with the hair down, as the hair is deformed. The washed brush must be wrapped in paper, then it will retain its shape.

Composition - construction of a sketch or picture, coordination of its parts. With a natural image: selection and staging of objects, choosing the best point of view, lighting, determining the format and size of the canvas, identifying the compositional center, subordinating the secondary parts of the work to it. When creating a picture: choosing a theme, developing a plot, finding the format and size of a work, characterizing the characters, their relationship to each other, postures, movements and gestures, expressiveness of faces, the use of contrasts and rhythms - all these are the constituent elements of the compositional construction of the picture, serving the best realization of the artist's vision. In such a composition, everything is taken into account: the masses of objects and their silhouettes, the rhythm with which they are placed on the canvas, perspective, an imaginary horizon line and a point of view on the depicted, the color of the picture, the grouping of characters, the direction of their views, the direction of the line of perspective reduction of objects, distribution chiaroscuro, poses and gestures, etc.

Constancy of visual perception - the tendency to perceive an object, its size, shape, lightness, color as stable and unchanged, regardless of the changes that occur to it (removal from the viewer, change in lighting, environmental influence, etc.) - Size constancy - the tendency to perceive the size of an object as constant, despite the change distance to it. As a rule, novice draftsmen do not notice perspective changes.

Form constancy - the tendency to perceive the actual shape, even if the object is rotated so that its image on the retina differs from the actual shape. (For example, a square piece of paper lying on a table appears square even though its projection on the retina is not square.)

Luminance constancy - the tendency to perceive the lightness of an object as constant despite changes in illumination; depends mainly on the constant ratio of the intensity of light reflected from both the object and its environment.

Color Constancy - the tendency to perceive the object color (its local color) regardless of changing lighting conditions, its strength and spectral composition (day, evening, artificial).

Due to the phenomenon of constancy, the perception and transmission in painting of objects and phenomena exactly as they appear to the eye in specific lighting conditions, in a certain environment and at a certain distance, present a certain difficulty at the beginning of training. Although the novice artist knows that the color changes depending on the lighting conditions, he sees it without changes and does not dare, for example, to write green-colored trees in the rays of the setting sun as reddish or to write the blue sky in a complex pink-ocher, as it happens at sunset.

It seems to an inexperienced painter that a white object is white in all its parts, a dark object is dark. Meanwhile, in a natural setting, the surface of a dark object facing the light will reflect more light rays than the shadow part of a white object, and therefore the shadow of a white object will be darker than the light part of a dark object.

While working on a sketch of a landscape, an inexperienced painter does not notice how dusk is coming, although the lighting has decreased significantly.

Surrounding objects can be illuminated by light of different spectral composition, which changes the spectral composition of light reflected from objects. However, the eye of a novice artist does not notice even this change in color.

Constancy of perception can increase and intensify from many reasons. The stronger the chromatic illumination, and also the greater the distance from which the object is observed, the weaker the manifestation of constancy. The ability of the surface of an object to strongly reflect light rays also contributes to aconstant perception: objects that are light in color more noticeably show the influence of the color of illumination. Light and color adaptations enhance the constancy of perception. Observing the winter landscape in cloudy weather, you can see only complex grayish shades. If you look at the same winter motif from the window of a room lit by electricity, then the landscape outside the window will be perceived as intensely bluish. If you leave the room under the open sky, then after a few minutes the blue tone of the landscape will disappear. Similarly, zero constancy in the audience manifests itself in the color lighting of the theatrical stage; after the warm electric lighting in the hall fades, the curtain opens and the viewer admires the scene of winter, moonlight or other conditions of illumination.

As a result of practice, the artist acquires the ability to notice in nature the changes in the color of an object due to the environment and lighting, sees and conveys all the richness and diversity of the outside world, a great many color gradations. As a result, the lighting appears convincing on the canvas, the color looks complicated and enriched by the environment and lighting. Many artists and educators performed special exercises, creating visual models to understand the coloristic features of different lighting conditions. K.. Monet, for example, wrote a series of studies depicting the same object (haystack), and thus studied the change in color under different lighting conditions in nature. To develop aconstant perception, N. N. Krymov placed a white cube, painted on one side with black paint, and illuminated it from this side with a powerful lamp, leaving the white side in shadow. At the same time, his students were convinced that the black, illuminated side of the cube was lighter than the white, which was in the shade. Krymov suggested that students write a small cardboard accordion screen, the planes of which were painted in various colors and illuminated from two sides: on one side - an electric lamp, on the other - daylight. The rays from the lamp were directed to areas painted with cool colors, while warm colors were turned to daylight. The students were convinced that the lighting conditions significantly change the subject colors, and thus were freed from the constant perception of colors.

A novice painter must get rid of the constancy of perception and be able to perceive the shape of an object, its lightness and color, due to the light environment, lighting and space.

Design - in the fine arts, the essence, a characteristic feature of the structure of the form, suggesting a natural relationship between the parts of the form, its proportions.

Contrast - 1) a sharp difference, the opposite of two quantities: size, color (light and dark, warm and cold, saturated and neutral), movement, etc.; 2) lightness and chromatic contrast - a phenomenon in which the perceived difference is much greater than the physical basis. On a light background, the color of the object appears darker; on a dark background, the color appears lighter. Light contrast is most clearly tripled at the border of dark and light surfaces. Chromatic contrast is a change in hue and saturation under the influence of surrounding colors (simultaneous contrast) or under the influence of colors previously observed (sequential contrast). For example: green next to red increases its saturation. Gray color on a red background acquires a greenish tint. Chromatic contrast is stronger when the interacting colors are approximately equal in lightness.

copying - the process of obtaining copies of a drawing or drawing; can be done in various ways: by puncturing, tracing, squeezing, redrawing to the light, redrawing along the grid, as well as using a pantograph and an epidiascope.

perforation - a method of copying without changing the scale: the original is placed on a blank sheet of paper and, using a thin needle, all the characteristic points of the drawing or drawing are pricked, through which pencil lines are then drawn on the pricked paper.

Tracing - a way to copy without changing the scale. Tracing paper is applied to the original, on which an image is drawn with a pencil or ink; the working surface of the tracing paper should first be degreased - wiped with chalk powder or magnesium carbonate.

Squeezing - a method of copying without changing the scale: dry transfer paper is placed under the original or its copy on tracing paper; A pointed needle is driven along the lines of the original image, due to which the translated image is imprinted on a blank sheet of paper. The reverse side of the original (tracing paper) can be rubbed with a soft pencil, in which case the transferred image is clearer.

Redrawing to the light - a way to copy without changing the scale. The original is placed on glass and covered with clean paper or tracing paper; behind the glass is a light source (daylight or electric); the lines of the original translucent through the paper are circled in pencil. There are special copiers adapted for this purpose.

Grid redrawing - a method of copying with a possible change in scale (enlargement or reduction of a picture) using a coordinate grid made on the original and a blank sheet of paper. The image is drawn "by cells". Cells build square or rectangular. Redrawing by cells is very laborious and cannot convey the lines of the original with impeccable accuracy, since it is done by eye and by hand.

Body (pastose) laying of paints - execution of a study or painting with a dense, opaque, relatively thick layer of oil paint, often with a relief texture.

Kroki - a quick sketch from nature, less often a quick fixation of a compositional idea in the form of a drawing. The term "crocs" is of little use; in general sense, it is close to the broader term "sketch".

Woodcut - woodcut, the main technical variety of convex engraving, the oldest engraving technique in general. Woodcuts are performed by cutting on a board, usually pear, beech wood, those parts of the engraving applied on top of it, which should remain white. In a longitudinal or edged engraving, the fibers of the board are parallel to its surface, and the work is carried out mainly with pointed knives. The possibilities of this technique are relatively narrow, but the difficulties are significant (since the resistance of the fibrous material to the knife is uneven in different directions). End engraving is performed on a board with a fiber perpendicular to the surface; her main tool, the engraver, allows for very fine and varied techniques.

Unlike any type of intaglio engraving, woodcuts can be printed along with typesetting on a conventional printing press, and are therefore often used in book illustration.

Lucky . Artists varnish the grounds to prevent them from penetrating oil from the paints, introduce varnishes into the binder of the paint, apply them to the hardened paint layer before further work (for better bonding of the layers) and, finally, varnish the finished works. At the same time, the varnish enhances the saturation of colors. The lacquer film protects the picture from direct contact with harmful atmospheric gases, dust and soot in the air. Varnishes in the composition of oil paint contribute to its more uniform and faster drying, and the paint layers better bind to the ground and to each other. It is better to cover the paintings with turpentine varnishes than with oil varnishes (then they darken less). Lacquer-fixer fixes works made with charcoal, sanguine, pastels, watercolors.

Modeling a shape with color - the process of modeling an object, revealing its volume and material with color shades, taking into account their changes in lightness and saturation.

Glaze - one of the methods of painting technique, which consists in applying very thin layers of durable and translucent paints over a dried dense layer of other paints. This achieves a special lightness, sonority of colors, which is the result of their optical mixing.

Linocut - engraving on linoleum, a kind of convex engraving. In terms of technique and artistic means, linocut is similar to woodcuts, and in the print it often differs from it only in the absence of fine details.

Lithography - in the visual arts, a widespread type of graphic technique associated with working on stone (dense limestone) or a metal plate replacing it (zinc, aluminum).

The artist performs lithography by drawing on the grainy or smooth surface of the stone with a bold lithographic pencil and special ink. Following the etching of the stone with acid (acting on the surface not covered with grease), the pattern is washed off: in return, printing ink is applied, which sticks only to the unetched particles of the stone, exactly corresponding to the pattern. The paint is rolled with a roller over a moistened stone; printing is done on a special machine.

local color - the color characteristic of a given object (its color) and has not undergone any changes. In reality, this does not happen. Object color is constantly changing somewhat under the influence of the strength and color of lighting, the environment, spatial removal, and it is no longer called local, but conditioned. Sometimes a local color is understood not as a subject color, but as a uniform spot of a conditioned color, taken in basic relation to neighboring colors, without revealing a mosaic of color reflections, without nuances of these main spots.

Manner - in relation to artistic practice: the character or method of performance as a purely technical feature (for example, "broad manner").

In the history of art, the term "manner" sometimes denotes the general properties of performance characteristic of an artist or art school in a certain period of creative development (for example, "Titian's late manner").

Manerity - in artistic practice: properties of approach and execution, devoid of simplicity and naturalness, leading to pretentious, far-fetched or conditional results. Most often, mannerism is called predilection for some outwardly spectacular, learned manner and all sorts of biased artistic techniques, gravitation towards stylization. The extreme expression of mannerism is given by the formalistic practice of contemporary bourgeois art.

Oil paints - dyes mixed with vegetable oil: linseed (mainly), poppy or walnut; oil paints from exposure to light and air gradually harden. Many bases (canvas, wood, cardboard) are primed in advance to work on them with oil paints. The most commonly used primer is as follows: the material is covered with liquid carpentry glue, and when it dries, rubbed with pumice, and then coated with fine chalk powder mixed with glue water to the consistency of sour cream. To clean the brushes, they are washed in kerosene, turpentine or gasoline, and finally in warm water with soap, squeezing the paint from the root of the brush, after which they are rinsed in clean water.

Materiality depicted objects is transmitted primarily by the nature of chiaroscuro. Objects consisting of different materials have gradations of chiaroscuro characteristic of them. A cylindrical gypsum object has smooth transitions from light through penumbra, shadow and reflex. A glass cylindrical vessel does not have pronounced gradations of chiaroscuro. On his form, only glare and reflexes. Metal objects are also characterized mainly by glare and reflections. If you convey the nature of chiaroscuro in the figure, then the objects will look material. Another, even more important condition, on which the representation of the material qualities of objects depends, is the consistency in the drawing or pictorial study of tonal and color relations between objects proportional to nature. When perceiving the material qualities of objects, our consciousness relies mainly on their tonal and color relationships (differences). Therefore, if the nature of chiaroscuro, tonal and color relationships are conveyed according to the visual image of nature, we get a true image of the material qualities of still life objects or landscape objects.

Layered painting - the most important technical type of oil painting, requiring the division of the work into a number of successive stages (underpainting, registration, glazing), separated by breaks for the complete drying of the paint. When performing a large thematic composition, as well as during long-term work in general, multilayer painting is the only full-fledged oil painting technique. Until the middle of the XIX century. all the major progressive artists of the past used this technique as the main one. Later, the Impressionists and their followers abandoned it.

From a narrow technological point of view, not related to the technique of the old masters, the concept of multilayer painting can only correspond to registration on a dried paint layer (without underpainting and glazing).

Modeling - in the visual arts: the transfer of volumetric-plastic and spatial properties of the objective world through light and shade gradations (painting, graphics) or the corresponding plasticity of three-dimensional forms (sculpture, in particular relief). Modeling is usually carried out taking into account perspective, in painting, in addition, with the help of color gradations that are inextricably linked with chiaroscuro. The tasks of modeling are not limited to simple reproduction of the objective world: participating in the ideological and figurative characteristics of the object, it generalizes, enhances and reveals the most essential, characteristic.

Modernism - a general designation of the directions of art and literature of the late XIX-XX centuries. (Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Expressionism, Abstract Art, etc.). The main features of modernism are: the denial of the cognitive and social role of art, its ideology, nationality, the substitution of art for all sorts of tricks, the complete distortion or ignorance of the professional traditions of the realistic artistic heritage.

Mosaic - a special technical kind of monumental painting, based on the use of multi-colored solids - smalt, natural colored stones, colored enamels over fired clay, etc. as the main artistic material. The image is made up of pieces of such materials, well fitted to each other, reinforced with cement or special mastic and then polished. According to the method of the so-called direct set, the mosaic is executed from the front side - in the place intended for it (wall, vault, etc.) or on a separate slab, which is then built into the wall. With the reverse set, the colored pieces are visible to the artist only from the back, as they are pasted with the front surface onto a temporary thin lining (removed after the transfer of the mosaic to the wall). The first of these methods is relatively complex and time-consuming, but more perfect from an artistic point of view.

Easel - a machine (hence the definition of "easel painting"), necessary for the artist to maintain the desired tilt of the picture during work. The main requirement for an easel is stability.

Monotype - a special type of graphic technique associated with the printing process, but sharply different from any kind of engraving by the complete absence of mechanical or technical influences on the surface of the board. Paints are applied by hand on a smooth surface, followed by printing on the machine. The resulting print is unique and inimitable.

Mmonumentality in the works of easel painting is due to the social significance of the theme of the painting, its heroic pathos, the depth and strength of the embodiment of ideas in the corresponding images - simple, strict, majestic and expressive.

sketch in color - an etude of small size, fluently and quickly executed. The main purpose of such a sketch is to acquire the ability to fully perceive nature, to find and convey the correct color relationships of its main objects. It is known that the full-fledged pictorial structure of the image is determined by the proportional transfer of differences between the main color spots of nature. Without this, no careful study of details, reflections, mosaics of color shades will lead to a full-fledged pictorial image.

Nationality - the connection of art with the people, the conditionality of artistic phenomena by life, struggle, ideas, feelings and aspirations of the masses, the expression in art of their interests and psychology. One of the basic principles of socialist realism.

Nature - in the practice of fine arts, these are any natural phenomena, objects and objects that the artist depicts, observing as a model directly. From nature, as a rule, only a sketch, sketch, sketch, portrait, and sometimes a landscape is performed.

Naturalism - in the visual arts, it is expressed in isolation from broad generalizations, from ideological principles and leads to a method of purely external copying of everything that is in the field of view. Beginning painters also sometimes think that a reliable depiction of nature in the transfer of its three-dimensional, material and spatial qualities is the absolute goal of fine art. Of course, it is necessary to master the fine arts, the technical techniques of pictorial mastery. However, it is equally important to simultaneously develop the ability to see reality through the eyes of an artist. The picturesque image is not a mirror reflection of nature. “Painting,” said I. I. Levitan, “is not a protocol, but an explanation of nature by means of painting.” The painter selects and generalizes in the colorful diversity of nature those elements that can expressively convey the ideological and figurative design. He tries to reveal the essence of the depicted, shows what excited him. This shows the personality of the artist, his worldview, as well as taste and practical experience in the use of colorful materials and techniques.

Still life - one of the genres of fine arts dedicated to the reproduction of household items, fruits, vegetables, flowers, etc. The task of the artist depicting a still life by means of painting is to convey the coloristic beauty of the objects surrounding a person, their voluminous and material essence, and also to express their attitude to the depicted . The image of a still life is especially useful in educational practice for mastering painting skills. In a still life, the artist comprehends the laws of color harmony, acquires the technical skill of pictorial modeling of form.

Artistic generalization - the artist's ability to cognize objective reality, revealing the main, essential in objects and phenomena through comparison, analysis and synthesis. A work of fine art is the result of the expressiveness of the general, while at the same time retaining all the originality of the concrete visual image.

In a narrow professional sense, generalization is the last stage in the process of drawing or painting from nature, following the detailed study of the form. At this stage of work, the details are summarized in order to create a holistic image of nature based on its integral visual perception.

Artistic image - a specific form of reflection of reality in a concrete-sensory visually perceived form. The creation of an artistic image is closely connected with the selection of the most characteristic, with emphasizing the essential aspects of an object or phenomenon within the limits of the individual unique nature of these objects and phenomena. It is known that human consciousness reflects not only the objective visual image of an object or phenomenon, but also the emotional qualities of their perception. Therefore, the artistic image in painting contains not only the real features of the depicted object, but also its sensual and emotional significance. Each image is both a true reflection of objective reality and an expression of the artist's aesthetic feelings, his individual, emotional attitude to the depicted, taste and style.

Reverse perspective - an erroneous technique for drawing perspective, the essence of which is that parallel and horizontal lines in space in the picture are depicted not converging, but diverging; occurs quite often in ancient icon painting, as a result of artists' ignorance of the elementary rules for constructing perspective (in some cases, deliberate violation of the rules for perspective construction is allowed).

General tone and color state of nature - the result of different lighting strengths. In order to convey the state of different illumination (in the morning, afternoon, evening or on a gray day), when building the color system of the sketch, light and bright colors of the palette are not always used. In some cases, the artist builds a relationship in a reduced range of lightness and color strength (gray day, dark room), in other cases, light and bright colors (for example, a sunny day). Thus, the artist maintains the tone and color relationships of the study in different tonal and color ranges (scales). This contributes to the transmission of the state of illumination, which is especially important in landscape painting, since it is this state that determines its emotional impact (see the tonal and color scale of the image).

Volume - the image of the three-dimensionality of the form on the plane. It is carried out primarily by the correct constructive and promising construction of the subject. Another important means of conveying volume on a plane is the gradation of light and shade, expressed in color: highlight, light, penumbra, own and incident shadow, reflex. The image of volume on the pictorial plane is also facilitated by the direction of the stroke or hatching, their movement in the direction of the form (on flat surfaces they are straight and parallel, on cylindrical and spherical surfaces they are arcuate).

Halo - a phenomenon also known as "irradiation"; occurs as a result of the scattering of bright light in a transparent liquid that fills the eyeball. Due to the increase in the sensitivity of the eye in the dark, it reacts strongly when observing bright light sources (a fire or a lit lamp). During the day they do not seem bright, but at dusk or at night they can blind the eyes. The eyes almost do not perceive the color of bright light sources, but the halo around luminous bodies or strongly illuminated objects has a more pronounced color. The flame of a candle looks almost white, and the halo around it is yellow. A strong highlight on a shiny surface appears white, and the halo around it takes on the color property of the light source. Thin tree trunks against the sky are completely shrouded in a halo, that is, they look blue, and against the background of a yellow sunset - orange or red. When the halo is transmitted in the image, the eye perceives objects as luminous (a candle, bright windows day and night, stars in the sky, etc.). Depicted without a halo, an indispensable companion of bright light, the tree trunk and its crown look like a hard application against a light sky, the stars without a halo give the impression of specks of paint sprayed on a dark background, bright highlights without a halo against the background of a jug look like light patches.

The basis - in the technology of painting: the material on which the primer and the paint layer of the picture are applied. The most common type of base is canvas, wood (it was the most common base in antiquity, in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance), cardboard, paper, metal, glass, linoleum, etc. are less commonly used. In some types of painting (for example, fresco, watercolor and etc.) the basis is used without special preparation.

laundering - 1) watercolor technique using very liquid paint or ink. To paint a relatively large area in a light tone, they color with paint about 1/* a glass of water, let the paint settle (it is better to filter it later) and take the “solution” from above with a brush, without touching the bottom of the glass; 2) receiving clarification of the paint or removing it from the paper with a brush dipped in clean water, and collecting the soaked paint with blotting paper (the procedure is repeated several times).

Color relationships - differences in objects by lightness and color: what is lighter in nature, what is darker, plus differences in color and its saturation.

Hue (nuance) - a small, often barely noticeable difference in color, lightness or color saturation.

Etching - needle or line etching, a widely used technical variety of in-depth engraving on metal. Work on etching by scratching the engraving ground with special needles, usually in free line drawing technique. The uneven duration of etching of image details with acids results in differences in the strength and richness of the stroke. The etching technique is characterized by comparative simplicity and great flexibility.

Visual sensation - the result of the interaction of radiant energy with the organ of vision and the perception of this interaction by consciousness. As a result, a person receives a variety of sensations of light and color, rich color gradations that characterize the shape of objects and natural phenomena in various conditions of lighting, environment and space.

Palette - 1) a small thin board of a quadrangular or oval shape, on which the artist mixes paints while working; 2) an exact list of colors used by this or that artist in his creative practice.

Panorama - a painting canvas in the form of a closed circular ribbon. Various real fake objects are placed on the canvas in front of the pictorial image, which create the illusion of a direct transition of the real space of the foreground into the pictorial space of the picture. The panorama is located in a picture hall specially built for it with a central, usually darkened, viewing platform. Unlike a panorama, a diorama is a picturesque picture in the form of a curved semicircular ribbon.

Panoramas created by the artist F. A. Rubo "Defense of Sevastopol" (1902-1904) and "Battle of Borodino" (1911) are still unsurpassed examples.

Pastel - colored pencils without rims, made from paint powder. They are obtained by mixing paint powder with an adhesive (cherry glue, dextrin, gelatin, casein). Work with pastel on paper, cardboard or canvas. Paints are applied with strokes, as in a drawing, or rubbed with fingers with shading, which allows you to achieve the finest colorful nuances and the most delicate color transitions, a matte velvety surface. When working with pastel, paint layers can be easily removed or overlapped, as it is freely scraped off the ground. Works made in pastel are usually fixed with a special solution.

Pastosity - 1) in the technique of oil painting: a significant thickness of the paint layer used as an artistic medium. Acting as a technical feature, pastosity always remains noticeable to the eye and manifests itself in a certain unevenness of the paint layer, in a “relief stroke”, etc. painting); 2) a special property of the plasticity of the paint material, which allows the non-diluted oil paint to completely retain the shape that the brush gives it.

Landscape - view, image of any area; in painting and graphics, a genre and a separate work in which the main subject of the image is nature. Often depicted views of cities and architectural complexes (architectural landscape), sea views (marina).

Variegation (fractionality) of the image - flaws in a drawing or sketch, which are obtained when a novice artist draws or paints nature in parts, “point blank”. As a result, the shape of objects is overloaded with details, their contours are sharp, many objects and their surfaces look the same in tone and color strength. This happens because an inexperienced artist, although he compared objects by tone and color, looked at them alternately, separately. When an artist develops the skill of simultaneous (integral) vision and comparison of objects according to three color properties (color, lightness, saturation), the tonal diversity of the image disappears.

Spatial plans - conventionally divided areas of space located at different distances from the observer. Several plans are distinguished in the picture: first, second, third, or front, middle, back. The space on the plane of the canvas or paper is conveyed mainly by the correct perspective construction. If objects or volumes on spatial plans are drawn without strict adherence to their perspective changes, the color solution will do little to depict the space. The nature of the stroke also contributes to the transmission of the spatial qualities of the image (in the figure - the nature of the stroke). The shading technique for foreground objects is more defined, rigid and dense. A smear of paints is more pasty, embossed, fractional. Distant plans are transmitted with a softer stroke, a thin layer of paint.

Plastic - harmony, expressiveness and flexibility of forms, lines, noticed by the artist in the depicted nature.

Plein air painting - painting in the open air. Changes in the colors of nature under the influence of light and air have an active meaning in writing a sketch in the open air. Particular attention should be paid to the general tonal and color state of nature (depending on the strength and color of lighting) and the phenomenon of aerial perspective. The defining moment in painting in the open air is the consistency of the tonal and color scale when constructing the tone and color relationships of the study (see the tonal and color scale of the image):

Underpainting - the preparatory stage of work on the picture, performed in the technique of oil painting. Underpainting is usually done with a thin layer of paint and can be monochromatic or multicolor.

Stretcher. The canvas on which the artist paints a picture is stretched on a stretcher. Its purpose is to keep the canvas taut. This is ensured by non-rigid fastening of the wooden planks of the subframe. With a blind fastening of the corners of the stretcher, it is difficult to correct the sagging of the canvas from dampness. On the slats of the subframe, bevels are made directed inside the subframe. Otherwise, at the points of contact between the canvas and the inner ribs of the stretcher, the canvas is deformed, and the inner ribs of the stretcher appear on it. Subframes of large sizes are made with a cross, which protects them from diagonal distortions and deflections of the slats.

Penumbra - one of the gradations of chiaroscuro on the surface of a three-dimensional object, intermediate between light and shadow (both in nature and in the image).

Portrait - an image that captures the appearance of a particular person, his individual features. The art of portraiture requires that, along with external resemblance, the appearance of a person reflect his spiritual interests, social status, and typical features of the era to which he belongs. The artist's personal attitude to the people depicted, his worldview, the imprint of his creative manner should also be present in the portrait.

Primitivism - one of the formalist trends in the visual arts. It is characterized by a complete rejection of the achievements of realism in order to imitate the art forms of the so-called primitive eras (primitive tribes), deliberately borrowing the features of children's drawings, etc.

Registration - in the technique of oil painting, the main stage in the execution of a large canvas, which follows the underpainting, preceding glazing. The number of registrations depends on the progress of the artist's work; each of them ends with complete drying of the paint. In a broad and inaccurate sense of the word, underpainting, as well as any processing of an already finished canvas or its part, is sometimes called registration.

Proportions - the ratio of the sizes of objects or their parts to each other and to the whole. In a drawing or painting, these relationships are conveyed in proportion, that is, similar, reduced or increased by the same number of times. Compliance with proportions is of decisive importance, since they are the most characteristic feature of the subject and form the basis of a truthful and expressive image.

Proportionality of relations - the law of realistic painting, which determines the relationship of each light-color spot of the study with others, proportional to the visual image of nature, an important condition for a truthful and holistic depiction of reality. Our visual perception and recognition of the shape, color, material of objects, the state of illumination is based on their tonal and color relationships. Features of tone and color are visually perceived not in isolation, but depending on the environment, along with other tones and colors. Therefore, the artist reproduces the tonal and color differences of nature on the sketch, as well as the perspective dimensions of objects, by the method of proportional correspondence between the image and the visual image of nature. This achieves the state of illumination of the study, the true modeling of three-dimensional form, materiality, spatial depth and other pictorial qualities of the image.

The process of painting from nature involves a special order of doing work at the beginning, in the middle and at the final stage. This process goes from the general to the detailed elaboration of the form and ends with a generalization - highlighting the main and subordinating the secondary to it. In painting at these stages, the following specific tasks are solved: 1) finding the relationship of the main color spots, taking into account the tone and color state of illumination (its strength and spectral composition), 2) color-tone "stretching" within the found basic relationships, color modeling of the three-dimensional shape of individual objects , 3) in the stage of generalization - softening the sharp contours of objects, muffling or enhancing the tone and color of individual objects, highlighting the main, subordinating the secondary to it. Ultimately, the entire pictorial image is brought to integrity and unity, to the impression that vision receives when seeing nature as a whole.

Thinners . For watercolors and gouache paints, the only thinner is water. To dilute oil paints, compositions of turpentine origin (pinene No. 4) or petroleum products mixed with alcohol or linseed oil (thinners No. 1, 2) are used. Adding, for example, pinene, to oil paint contributes to their rapid drying. In addition, in order to ensure better adhesion of the paint layers, the hardened surface of the paint layer is wiped with pinene before re-registration.

Angle - perspective reduction of the form of an object, leading to a change in its usual outlines; sharply pronounced contractions that occur when an object is observed from above or below.

Frame. The picture created by the artist has a frame. It completes the composition, gives it unity, directs the viewer's attention to the work itself. Most often the frame has a rectangular shape, occasionally round or oval. Often the frame slats have thin profiles, like steps descending to the picture itself. They help the viewer's eye to more easily immerse themselves in the world of the depicted. Artists treat the frame as an essential part of the painting composition and paint it in light and dark colors of different shades. There are frames with rich plastic motifs, conventional floral or geometric ornaments.

Realism - a method of artistic creativity based on a deep knowledge of life and a figurative reflection of its essence and beauty. Realism in painting is based on the depiction of life in the forms of life itself. The artist constantly studies life with a pencil and a brush in his hand and perfectly masters the skill of truthful depiction of objects and objects of reality. Without organic knowledge and generalization of life, on the one hand, and the ability to embody all this in a concrete visual image, on the other hand, the artistic image in the picture turns into a scheme devoid of life's persuasiveness.

realism socialist - the method of socialist art, aimed at a truthful, historically concrete reflection of reality in its revolutionary development for the purpose of ideological and aesthetic education of people in the spirit of socialism and communism.

Reflex - light or colored reflection that occurs on the form as a result of the reflection of light rays from surrounding objects. The colors of all objects are interconnected by reflections. The greater the difference in lightness and color between two adjacent objects, the more noticeable are the reflexes. On rough, matte surfaces they are weaker, on smooth they are more visible and more distinct in outline. On polished surfaces, they are especially distinct (in this case, they are enhanced by specular reflection).

Picture -1) full-fledged reproduction of the objective world: volumetric-spatial modeling, correct proportions, truthful expression, clearly expressed character, etc. This is the basis for a realistic depiction of reality in general - by any technical means and techniques. Teaching drawing is an essential part of the professional education of a painter, graphic artist and sculptor; 2) a kind of artistic graphics based on technical means and drawing capabilities. Unlike painting, drawing is performed mainly with a solid coloring matter (pencil, charcoal, sanguine, etc.), as a rule, by means of a stroke and a line, with the auxiliary role of color; 3) a separate work of the corresponding type of graphics.

Rhythm and rhythm - the repetition of certain compositional elements of the work, their special proportionality, leading to a harmonious, regular coherence of the whole. Rhythm can manifest itself through contrasts and correspondences of groupings of figures, objects, lines, movements, black and white and color spots, spatial plans, etc.

Light - an element of light and shade gradations, serves to designate the illuminated part of the surface of objects.

Lightness (tone) - the comparative degree of difference from the dark: the farther from the dark, the greater the lightness of the color.

Aperture - the degree of lightness of the subject, its tone. Aperture depends on the presence of other (neighboring) tones, as well as on the color of objects.

Chiaroscuro - regular gradations of light and dark on the volumetric form of an object, due to which, both in nature and in the drawing, such objective properties as volume and material are perceived by the eye. The main gradations of chiaroscuro: highlight, light, penumbra, own shadow, reflex, falling shadow.

color properties - color tone, or shade: red, blue, yellow, yellow-green, lightness and saturation (the degree of its difference from gray, that is, the degree of proximity to a pure spectral color). In the process of painting, these three properties are used to compare the colors of a natural production, find their color differences and are transferred to the sketch in proportional relationships.

Binder - this is an astringent (glue, oil, slaked lime, chicken egg yolk), with the help of which the pigment particles are interconnected and fixed on the surface of the soil, forming a paint layer. Types of painting - fresco, oil painting, tempera - differ precisely in the composition of the binder, although the pigment is usually the same.

Silhouette - a one-color planar image dark on a light background. person, animal or object. The term comes from the name of the French Minister of Finance of the XVIII century. E. de Silhouette, who was caricatured in the form of a shadow profile.

Symbol. - an image that allegorically expresses any broad concept or abstract idea. In the event that the connection of a symbol with the concept it expresses results from an internal meaningful similarity, a relationship between the depicted object and its allegorical meaning, the use of a symbol becomes appropriate and possible in realistic fine art. A symbol is used when they want to express a broad, multi-encompassing concept in a concise and concise form.

Content and form in art - inextricably linked and interdependent categories, one of which indicates what exactly is reflected and expressed in the work (content), and the second indicates how, by what means this is achieved (form). The leading, determining role belongs to the content. It becomes a certain phenomenon of life, realized and aesthetically comprehended by the artist in the process of creative work. The category of artistic form in the visual arts includes: plot, composition, type, drawing, color system, volume, spatiality, light and shade construction, etc. It should be noted that the artistic merits of a work are directly dependent on how professionally trained the artist is using forms of expression. Without practical mastery of the culture of using color, it is impossible to express the figurative content by means of painting in a certain material.

Comparison - a method for determining proportions, tonal and color relationships, etc. Properties and qualities are known by our consciousness through comparison. To understand the nature of the form of an object, to determine its tone and color is possible only in comparison with other objects. In order to depict nature truthfully, the artist must create on the sketch proportional to nature differences in objects in size, tone and color. It is only by the method of comparison (with an integral perception of nature) that it is possible to determine in nature the color relationships between objects, to convey them on canvas or paper.

Stylization - 1) intentional imitation of the artistic style, characteristic of any author, genre, trend, art and culture of a certain social environment, nationality, era. Usually involves a free interpretation of the content and style of the art that served as a prototype; 2) in the visual arts and mainly in the decorative arts, design, the generalization of the depicted figures and objects using conditional techniques; stylization is especially characteristic of the ornament, where it turns the object of the image into the motif of the pattern.

Style - 1) the commonality of the ideological and artistic features of works of art of a certain era. The emergence and change of styles is determined by the course of the historical development of society (for example, classicism, baroque, etc.); 2) national feature of art (Chinese, Moorish style, etc.). They also talk about the style of a group of artists or one artist, if their work is distinguished by bright individual features.

Dry brush - in painting and graphics, an auxiliary technique consisting in working with hard brushes that are weakly saturated with paint. As an independent technique, the dry brush is mainly used in the decorative arts.

Sfumato - in painting and graphics, a term associated with the painting of the Italian Renaissance starting with Leonardo da Vinci and meaning the softness of execution, the elusiveness of object outlines as a result of a certain artistic approach.

Plot - 1) a specific event or phenomenon depicted in the picture. One and the same theme can be revealed in a variety of plots; 2) sometimes the plot is understood as any object of living nature or the objective world, taken for the image. Often, the plot replaces the concept of a motif, which is the basis of a work (especially a landscape).

Creative process (creativity) - the process of creating a work of art, from the birth of a figurative idea to its embodiment, the process of translating observations of reality into an artistic image. In painting, creativity consists in creating a work in directly authentic visible forms.

Subject - the range of phenomena chosen by the artist to depict and reveal the idea of ​​the work.

tempera paints - water-based paints made from dry powders mixed with egg yolk diluted with glue water. Currently, semi-liquid paints are also made, enclosed in tubes and prepared on the yolk, whole egg or vegetable oil emulsion with egg and glue. Tempera paints can be written thickly, like oils, and thin, like watercolors, diluting them with water. They dry more slowly than gouache. The disadvantage is the difference in shades of raw and dried paint. Paintings painted with tempera paints have a matte surface, so they are sometimes covered with a special varnish that eliminates this matteness.

Shadow - an element of chiaroscuro, the most dimly lit areas in nature and in the image. There are own and falling shadows. Shadows that belong to the object itself are called proper shadows. Falling shadows are shadows cast by the body on surrounding objects.

Warm and cold colors . Warm colors are conditionally associated with the color of fire, the sun, hot objects: red, red-orange, yellow-green. Cold colors are associated with the color of water, ice and other cold objects: green-blue, blue, blue-blue, blue-violet. These qualities of color are relative and depend on the location of another color nearby. Ultramarine, for example, is cold on its own, will be warm next to Prussian blue, and speckled red will appear colder than cinnabar red.

In the color appearance of visible nature, both warm and cold shades are always present. This warm-coldness of shades is based primarily on natural color contrasts in light and in shadow. In nature, it often happens that the colors of objects are cold, and their shadows are warm, and vice versa. The so-called contrast visual perception of colors also contributes to the phenomenon of coldness: from the presence of a warm color in the perceived nature, the impression of a cold one arises on the retina, although this is not the case in nature. Heat-coldness in painting is a natural phenomenon and an integral quality of the pictorial representation of a study of nature or a picture.

Technics - in the field of art: a set of special skills and techniques through which a work of art is performed. The concept of "technique" in the narrow sense of the word usually corresponds to the direct, immediate result of the artist's work with a special material and tool, the ability to use the artistic possibilities of this material; in a broader sense, this concept also covers the corresponding elements of a pictorial nature - the transfer of the materiality of objects, modeling of three-dimensional forms, modeling of spatial relationships, etc. Without exception, all technical means should lead to a well-known, at least modest, artistic result.

The technical means of art do not remain neutral in relation to content. The main features of realistic technique are primarily due to its subordination to the ideological and figurative structure of the work.

Tpainting technique - see oil painting, watercolor, gouache, tempera, glue painting, pastel, encaustic, fresco, mosaic.

Tone (without accompanying the word "color") - in the terminology of artists is equivalent to the concept of lightness of color (paint). Any chromatic or achromatic color can have different lightness. You can say about the tone within the same color, for example red: "light tone of red paint" or "dark tone of paint." Sometimes the term "tone" is used in relation to color, for example, "the golden tone of the panel", "the brown tone of the picture." Artists often use the term "lightness" or "aperture" of color instead of the term "tone" of color.

Key - a term denoting the external features of color or chiaroscuro in works of painting and graphics. It is more common in relation to color and coincides with the term "color gamut".

Tonal and color scale of the image . The transfer of tone and color ratios proportional to nature can be carried out in different ranges of lightness and saturation of the colors of the palette. It depends on the general state of the strength of the illumination of nature and on its removal from the painter. The lightest and most saturated in color objects in nature, the artist can take on a study either in full strength of the light and bright colors of the palette, or only in half of their capabilities. This is how the tonal and color scale of the image is maintained, in which the tonal and color relationships of objects of natural production are reflected.

tone image - an image with different tonal transitions from light to shadow, that is, with areas that have different tone strengths. A typical example of a tone image is a photograph, an oil or watercolor drawing in one color (grisaille), as well as a pencil drawing made using the shading technique.

tone relations . Recognition of the volumetric form of objects, their material occurs in our minds on the basis of visual perception of their light relations. Therefore, the artist must reproduce the lightness ratios of the drawing by the method of similarity. By means of gradations of chiaroscuro on a volumetric form and the transfer of tonal relations proportional to nature between the color (material) of objects, the artist achieves a true volumetric modeling of the form, the expression of materiality, spatial depth and the state of illumination (tonal drawing, grisaille painting).

Texture - characteristic features of the surface of objects made of various materials both in nature and in the image (relief of the paint layer of strokes). The texture can be smooth, rough, embossed. The texture of the letter largely depends on the properties of the colorful material, on the features of the object of nature, which the artist depicts, as well as on the task and material of execution. In watercolor, the texture largely depends on the surface of the paper. The texture of the letter reveals the individual handwriting of the artist.

Fas (full face) - front side, front view. This term indicates that the model (a person's head or an object) is located frontally, parallel to the plane of the picture.

Background - any medium or plane behind the image object.

The form - 1) appearance, outline; implies the presence of volume, construction, proportion; 2) in the visual arts, an art form is an artistic means that serves to create an image, reveal the content (see content and form).

Formalism - the general designation of numerous *> 1X anti-realist schools and trends in the visual arts: cubism, futurism, constructivism, surrealism, suprematism, purism, dadaism, abstractionism, pop art, etc. All these varieties of formalism are based on an unnatural separation of the art form from the content, on the recognition of the independence and independence of form, mistakenly claiming to create works of art through various combinations of “clean” lines or colors. The formalistic image grossly distorts reality, loses the ability to figuratively cognize the world, and sometimes turns into meaningless, charlatan experiments.

Format - the shape of the plane on which the image is performed. It is due to the general outlines of nature, the ratio of height to width. The choice of format depends on the content and suits the composition of the image. For the figurative system, the format is essential.

Fresco - the most important technical variety of monumental painting, using lime as the main binder.

Color in painting. Color in general is the property of objects to cause a certain visual sensation in accordance with the spectral composition of the reflected rays. In everyday life, one specific color is assigned to each object or object. This color is called objective or local (grass is green, the sky is blue, sea water is blue, etc.). In novice painters, as a rule, the objective vision of color prevails, which leads to amateurish coloring. In a pictorial sense, an object can be correctly depicted only if it is not the object color that is conveyed, but the color changed by the lighting and the environment. The subject color changes as the intensity of light increases and decreases. It also varies from the spectral composition of the illumination. The environment in which the object is located also reflects color rays, which, having hit the surface of other objects, form color reflections on them. The color also changes from the contrast interaction. Thus, the color of an object is always a mosaic composed of color and light and shade spots (reflexes and highlights), and in this case it is called not objective, but conditioned. It is this color that is one of the main visual means of realistic painting.

It is generally accepted that color itself can have some effect on a person. Sometimes they think that dark and light colors create a cheerful mood; gray and black evoke a feeling of despondency, etc. In psychology, research and experiments are being conducted on this subject, but certain patterns in this matter have not yet been identified. The painter does not use the above color values. He does not have a general rule for the emotional impact of color on “different occasions”. It is not at all necessary to solve a picture in dark or severe coloring if its theme is tragic or sad, and bright colors are not necessary for joyful plots. For example, the plots of Surikov's paintings "Menshikov in Berezovo" and "Boyar Morozova" are dedicated to the tragic fate of people of strong will and conviction. Dark tones predominate in the coloring of the first picture. The second picture is built on rich color combinations of plein-air painting of a winter landscape, bright clothes of the crowd, festive "carpet" coloring. The nature of the natural plot, the state of illumination determined the color of these works. Thus, the color of the picture is created by a system of color relations aimed at depicting real life conditions and conditions. Color is a means of depicting the three-dimensional form of an object, its materiality, spatial qualities, the coloristic state of illumination of nature, and only by revealing the semantic content of the picture in this way does it have the necessary emotional impact.

Color unity and affinity of colors. The color of lighting, its spectral composition, appropriately affects the various colors of objects and objects of nature, subordinates them to a certain range. The result is a coloristic unity of colors. A true reflection of these qualities makes a study from nature especially truthful and harmonious in terms of painting.

Color Relations - differences in natural colors in terms of hue (hue), lightness and saturation. In nature, color is always perceived in relation to the colors surrounding it, with which it is in strict interaction and dependence. Therefore, the color relations of the study should be transmitted in proportion to the color relations of nature. This is the law of the coloristic transposition of the colors of visible nature into the range of colors of the palette, it is determined by the psychophysiology of our visual perception and thinking.

Image Integrity - the result of working from nature by the method of relations (comparisons) with an integral vision of nature, as a result of which the artist gets rid of such shortcomings of a drawing or sketch as fragmentation and variegation.

Integrity of perception - the artist's ability to see objects of natural production at the same time, all at once. Only as a result of integral visual perception, it is possible to correctly determine the proportions of objects, tone and color relationships and achieve the integrity of the image of a natural production. The integrity of perception is the professional ability to see and the “setting of the eye” of the artist.

There are a number of tips on how to practically perceive nature as a whole: 1) at the time of observation, when determining color relationships, squint or “dissolve” your eyes on the whole nature, 2) P. P. Chistyakov advised “mentally to have in front of you, as it were, flat glass, it gives relations”, 3) R. Falk, for the integrity of vision, recommended cutting a rectangular hole (2X1 cm) in a piece of cardboard and looking at nature in the plane of this window (the eye receives a holistic pictorial system of the main color relationships of nature, similar to a mosaic of precious stones) ; 4) one can also perceive nature as a whole and understand its color relationships with the help of a “black mirror” (if one side of a transparent glass is painted over with black paint, we get a mirror in which, in bright sunlight, landscape objects can be viewed at reduced brightness. In such a mirror, objects are reflected in the same plane in a reduced form, they can be seen all at the same time.This will allow you to more accurately capture the tonal and color relationships of nature).

Exterior (as opposed to interior) - a depiction of the exterior of a building.

Encaustic Wax painting is a kind of painting technique, which is currently rarely used, based on the use of wax as a binder. The best method of wax painting in terms of results and durability is antique encaustic. Its advantages lie in the exceptional qualities of a specially prepared wax, which is almost unaffected by time or dampness, never cracks and retains its color unchanged.

Sketch - a preparatory sketch of a study or painting. In the process of working from nature, sketches are used as auxiliary material; they develop options for compositions of a sheet of paper or canvas. Sketches are made both in the form of quick pencil sketches and in the material.

Etude - an auxiliary image of a limited size, made from nature for the sake of its careful study. Through sketching, the artist improves his professional skills. The main goal of etude work always remains a true and lively embodiment of the pictorial idea, the creation of a picture. In realistic art, the study always plays a supporting role.

Etude is the result of a reassessment of the role of the study, it inevitably leads to the impoverishment of the ideological and figurative content. It is generally accepted that etude was born of impressionism, which limits the artist's activity to cursory work from nature, substituting a etude for a painting.

Purkyne effect - change in the relative brightness of colors when the illumination is increased or decreased. For example, during the day, the relative brightness of red and yellow seems strong, and at dusk, green and blue. The point here is that in the daytime, under normal lighting, our eye sees through some cells of the retina, the so-called cones, and under very weak light already through others - rods. Cones are more sensitive to yellow and red, while rods are more sensitive to blue-green. Even Leonardo da Vinci noticed: "Green and blue intensify their colors in partial shade, and red and yellow win in color in the most illuminated places."

Choose from the list the word you are interested in:

Abstractionism- the odernist trend in the art of the 20th century, which fundamentally abandoned the depiction of real objects in painting, sculpture and graphics.

Abstract art works are based solely on formal elements: line, color spot, abstract configuration. There are geometric and lyrical abstractionism.
Abstractionism
Gegenstandslose kunst
lat. Abstractus - abstract

avant-garde- A set of experimental, modernist, emphatically unusual, exploratory undertakings in the art of the 20th century.
Avant-garde trends are: fauvism, cubism, futurism, expressionism, abstractionism, surrealism, actionism, pop art, conceptual art.
fr.Avant-garde - forward detachment

Watercolor- Paint, for the manufacture of which water-soluble binders are used, such as gum arabic. Typically, watercolor is dissolved in water to a transparent state and applied to paper in broad patches, known as washes. The unpainted surface of white paper gives the impression of translucence, and watercolor spots flowing on each other create gradations of tone (John Marin). Watercolor dries quickly and is compact, which is why it is traditionally used as an plein air sketching technique.

watercolor paint- These are paints with vegetable glue as a binder. They are distinguished by an extremely fine grinding of the pigment and a large percentage of adhesives (honey, sugar, glycerin are added to the glue). Watercolor happens
- solid (in tiles)
- semi-soft (in ceramic cups)
- soft (in tubes).

watercolor technique- Technique of painting with watercolors. Usually, watercolor is done on paper with round hair brushes, dissolving the paints with water. The characteristic properties of watercolor painting are the transparency and softness of the thinnest layer of paint.

Watercolor paint can create various types of drawings:
- transparent, based on glazes, without the use of white, and
- covering, with the use of whitewash (hull technique).

The main distinguishing property of watercolor is the transparency of the paint, through which the texture of the paper shines through.

At the same time, the artist uses the expressiveness of washes and streaks, which creates the effect of trepidation, lightness and airiness of the image.

There are several methods of watercolor technique:
"watercolor drawing" - the combination of a light, transparent layer with a pencil or pen drawing
"Italian watercolor" - work on dry paper, drawing a contour drawing with a brush and developing shadows with it
"English watercolor" - work on raw paper, for which cloth or flannel is placed under the paper, an eraser is used. The paper is stretched on a stretcher and moistened from below with hot steam. This method gives depth to the watercolor and creates a sense of sunlight and aerial perspective.

Aquatint- Invented in France in the middle of the 18th century to reproduce tone drawing in ink in engraving. With this technique, the heated board is evenly covered with a resinous powder, the individual grains of which adhere to the warm metal and to each other. When etching, the acid penetrates only into the pores between the powders, leaving a mark on the board in the form of a mass of individual dotted depressions. Those places that should be darker on the print are etched longer, light places are covered with liquid varnish after short-term etching. Aquatint gives 500 to 1000 prints.

Acrylic paint, acrylic- Synthetic dye, first used in the 1940s, combining the properties of oil and watercolor. Can be used to obtain different effects - from transparent washes to pasty strokes.

Empire- The style of late classicism in architecture and applied arts of Western Europe, for which:
- strict architectural forms are characteristic: Doric and Tuscan orders; and
- an appeal to ancient Egyptian decorative forms: war trophies, winged sphinxes, etc.
fr.Empire - empire

anti-art- It is believed that this term, denoting new revolutionary forms of art, was first used around 1914 by Marcel Duchamp. An example of anti-art is the obscene inscription he made and the mustache added to the reproduction of the Mona Lisa painting by Leonardo before Vinci. The term also includes most of the anarchist experiments of the Dadaists. Subsequently, the term was used by the conceptualists of the 1960s to denote the work of artists who abandoned the traditional practice of art, or at least the creation of works intended for sale. The exhibition of John Baldessari, which exhibited the ashes of burnt canvases, was perceived as a typical manifestation of anti-art.

Art brut, outsider art- The French term Art Brut, coined by Jean Dubuffet, translates to crude art, but is often applied to the art of outsiders. It is used to refer to art created by non-professional authors, but associated with the artistic environment - children, the mentally ill or criminals (Alfred Wallis, Adolf Wölfli). It is sometimes believed that such art expresses feelings more authentically and directly than many museum works.

Assemblage- The inclusion of three-dimensional non-artistic materials and found objects in the work of art, originating in the technique of collage. The assemblage is rooted in the art of the early 20th century, when Pablo Picasso began to use real objects in Kufist constructions - for example, he added a real spoon to his witty sculpture A Glass of Absinthe. One of the earliest and most famous examples of assemblage was Marcel Duchamp's bicycle wheel on a stool, which he called the term readymade. Later, the Dadaists and Surrealists built their art on amazing juxtapositions of unrelated objects and images. The assemblage technique became especially popular in the late 1950s, when artists such as Armand and Jim Dine extensively incorporated extraneous materials, including food and miscellaneous waste, into painting and sculpture. The spread of assemblage in the 20th century testifies to the growth of rebellious attitudes towards traditional art techniques.

airbrush- A device for thin spraying of paint with compressed air when applying it to paper, fabric, etc. A. of various sizes and designs is used for painting fabrics, in the manufacture of theatrical scenery and large-format wall posters, for retouching photographic negatives, photographic prints and illustrations, etc.

Aerography- The technique of painting with an airbrush on a stencil. Airbrushing is used: - in decorating ceramics; - in the painting of fabrics and theatrical scenery; - in book graphics; - in the production of large-format posters. Stencil for airbrushing: - made in the form of a plate of lead foil or cardboard with holes that reproduce the pattern; and - is placed on the surface of the object.