The world has never been more technologically advanced than today, but this does not mean that we today have absolutely all the technologies developed earlier in our hands. Yes, there are things that were simply forgotten on the way to this level of development. Many of the technologies, inventions, and manufacturing processes of the ancient world simply disappeared over time, while others are still not fully understood to this day. Some of them have been rediscovered (water supply, road construction), but many of the more mysterious lost technologies have become legends. Here are ten of the most famous examples.

10. Stradivarius violin

One of the forgotten technologies of the 1700s is the process by which the famous Stradivarius violins and others were made. stringed instruments on his behalf. Violins, along with various violas, cellos and guitars, were constructed by the Stradivari family in Italy around 1650-1750. Violins have been valued at all times, and since their creation they have gained a truly worldwide fame for their unsurpassed and even incredible ability to reproduce very complex sounds with very high quality. To date, only about 600 Stradivari violins remain, most of which cost several hundred thousand dollars. Eventually, the name Stradivari was used so often alongside synonyms for quality that it ended up being a descriptive term for something considered the best in its field.

The technique of making Stradivari instruments was a family secret, known only to the head of the family, Antonio Stradivari and his sons, Omobono and Francesco. After they died, the secret of making musical instruments died with them, but that didn't stop some craftsmen from trying to figure it out. Researchers have studied everything from the mushrooms in the forest used to create the unique shape of the case, to the famous resonance achieved by instruments in the Stradivarius collection. The leading hypothesis states that the density and structure of each particular piece of wood affects the reproduction of a particular sound. However, some people still dispute the claim that there is anything special about Stradivari instruments at all. And at least one study has indeed shown that most people don't even notice the difference in sound quality between a Stradivarius violin and its modern counterpart.

9. Nepenf

The special sophisticated technologies used by the ancient Greeks and Romans often seem impossible to the level of development of the ancient Greek and Roman civilization, especially when it comes to medicine. Among other things, the Greeks became known for their use of nepenf, a primitive antidepressant known for its ability to "ward off sadness". The drug is often mentioned in Greek literature, for example, in Homer's Odyssey. Some historians claim that it did not actually exist, others say that the drug was real and was widely used in ancient Greece. They also say that nepenf was first invented in Egypt, and its action as a "drug of oblivion" led many to compare it to opium or to a tincture based on it.

How was the technology of its preparation forgotten?

Often "forgotten" technologies are still hovering around us, and only we ourselves are to blame for not being able to determine their modern equivalent, which is what makes them so mysterious. If we assume that they really exist, then it is most likely that the drug will be close in name to Nepenf. But at least it's stupid. It can be relatively safely stated that it is most likely still in use, but historians cannot determine exactly which of all modern substances similar to it in the nature of the action, they are referring to nepenfe. Opium is by far the most popular suggestion, but other substances include wormwood extract and scopolamine, which ancient nepenth is believed to have contained.

8 Antikythera Mechanism

One of the most mysterious archaeological artifacts this is the so-called Antikythera mechanism - a bronze mechanism discovered by divers off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera in the early 1900s. It consists of a chain of over 30 gears, wheels and dials that could be used to determine the astronomical position of the sun, moon and other planets. The device was found among the remains of a sunken ship, and scientists equated the date of creation of this mechanism with the estimated date of the creation of this ship, around the 1st or 2nd century BC. This seems to be the most logical explanation, still does not have 100 percent evidence, and the mystery of its creation and use has puzzled researchers for many years now. The unanimous opinion, with which modern scientists agree, is that the Antikythera mechanism was a kind of primitive clock that allowed to calculate the phases of the moon and solar years, which led some experts to call it the earliest example of an "analog computer".

How was this technology forgotten?

The complexity and precision we see in the design of this mechanism suggests that it was not the only device of its kind. In addition, many scientists think that its use could well be widespread. However, the existence of other devices similar to the Antikythera mechanism was not mentioned in historical records until the 14th century, which indicates that this technology was forgotten for almost 1400 years. Why and how will probably remain a mystery, especially since this mechanism still remains as the only ancient discovery of its kind.

7. Telharmonium

Often referred to as the world's first electronic musical instrument, the telharmonium was a large organ-like device that used wheels to create musical notes, which were then transmitted by wire to a series of horn loudspeakers. The Telharmonium was developed by inventor Thaddeus Cahill in 1897, and at the time was one of the largest musical instruments ever built in the world. Cahill ended up building three versions of the telharmonium, one of which was said to weigh around 200 tons and take up an entire room. It was equipped with many keys and pedals, when pressed, the musician could reproduce the sounds of other instruments, in particular, wind instruments such as flutes, bassoons and clarinets. The first public performances of the Telharmonium were a great success. People came in droves to hear the public performances musical works on a primitive synthesizer that was said to produce a crisp, smooth sound reminiscent of a sine wave.

How was this technology forgotten?

After achieving initial success, Cahill began to make big plans for his Telharmonium. Because of its ability to transmit a signal over telephone wires, he envisioned that the music produced by this instrument would be transmitted remotely, using it as background sound in places such as restaurants, hotels and private homes. Unfortunately, it turned out that the device was ahead of its time. Its huge amounts of electricity consumed the first electric grids, and with a price tag of a whopping $ 200,000 (for that money), the musical instrument became too expensive to mass-produce. Furthermore, early experiments broadcasting his music over the telephone proved disastrous, as his sound often broke into private telephone conversations. After some time, the huge public attention to this device began to decline and eventually the creation of it various versions was cancelled. Today we have only stories and written testimonies, mankind has not preserved any other signs of his existence, they have not preserved those first three Telharmoniums, nor sound recordings with his game.

6. Library of Alexandria

Although it doesn't apply to technology per se, the legendary Library of Alexandria deserves a place on this list, if only because its destruction resulted in the complete loss of a large amount of knowledge collected in a single place. The library was founded in Alexandria (Egypt) around 300 BC, most likely during the reign of Ptolemy Soter. It was the first serious attempt to collect all known information about the outside world in one place. The number of scriptures and books collected in it is not known for certain (although their number, according to some estimates, may be in the region of one million scrolls). However, this library undoubtedly attracted many great minds of its time, among them were Zenodotus of Ephesus and Aristophanes of Byzantium, both of whom spent considerable time in it, doing scientific work in Alexandria. It became so important in the lives of the people of that time that there is even a legend about it, which says that all visitors to the city had to turn in their books at the entrance so that the workers could make a copy of them to store the latest in a large library.

How was she forgotten?

The Library of Alexandria and all of its contents burned down around the first or second century AD. Scientists still don't know exactly how the fire started, but there are several competing theories. The first, heavily backed by historical documents, suggests that Julius Caesar accidentally burned the library after setting fire to a couple of his own ships in an attempt to block the path of an advancing enemy fleet. The fire spread to the docks and then engulfed the library. Another theory claims that the library was looted and burned by the invaders who came here along with the emperor Aurelian, Theodosius I and the Arab conqueror Amr ibn al-As. In whatever way the Library of Alexandria was destroyed, there can be no doubt that many of the secrets of antiquity were lost with it. We will never know for sure what exactly was lost in it, but we will always remember this and assume that many of the technologies included in this list would never have been forgotten if it had not burned down.

5. Damascus steel

Damascus steel was an incredibly strong type of metal widely used in the Middle East between 1100 and 1700 AD. She became most famous for the swords and knives made from her. The blades, forged from Damascus steel, were known for their amazing strength and cutting ability, and were said to be able to cut stone and other metals in two, including the blades of weaker swords by comparison. Their blades are believed to have been made from crucible damask steel, most likely imported here from India and Sri Lanka, and then mixed many times to create a blade decorated with patterns. The special quality of the swords is believed to have come from the blending process. The latter consisted of mixing hard cementite and soft iron to such an extent until a metal was obtained that was very strong and yet very flexible.

How was this technology forgotten?

The exact way Damascus steel was forged seems to have disappeared around 1750 AD. The exact reason for the loss of this technique is unknown, but there are several theories that explain this fact. The most popular assumption is that the reserves of the ores that make up Damascus steel began to deplete, and therefore sword makers were forced to come up with other methods for forging weapons. Another suggestion is that the entire recipe for Damascus steel (in particular, the presence of carbon nanotubes in it) was discovered completely by accident, and that the blacksmiths could not actually remember the exact recipe. Instead, they did everything on a whim, and in the end they chose “the most Damascus” from a mountain of blades. Whatever the technique, Damascus steel is one of those technologies that modern experimenters have never been able to fully reproduce. Today, blades can be found labeled as "patterned steel", but no matter how well they are made, they are still only a semblance of a lost technique for making real Damascus steel.

4. Apollo and Gemini space programs

Not all lost technologies date back to antiquity, sometimes they are so outdated that they are no longer compatible with modern developments. The Apollo and Gemini space programs of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s enabled NASA to achieve resounding success, including some of the first manned space flights and the first flight to the moon. The Gemini program, which took place in 1965-1966, enabled much of the early research and development in the mechanics of human spaceflight.

How was this technology forgotten?

The Apollo and Gemini programs were not really forgotten. Today, there are still one or two Saturn 5 rockets standing idle and many other fully serviceable parts for spacecraft capsules. But just because modern scientists have them at their disposal, does not mean that they have enough knowledge to understand how and why they worked in one way or another. In fact, there are very few diagrams and records left today regarding the operation of the original programs. This absence of accounts is a by-product of the rapid pace that the American space program has taken. That's because NASA was so caught up in the space race with the USSR that the planning, design, and production processes for the Apollo and Gemini programs were always a matter of urgency. Not only that, in most cases, private contractors only worked on one distinct part of the spacecraft. After the programs ended, these engineers (along with all their records) moved on to other projects. None of this would be a problem, but now that NASA is planning to fly back to the Moon, knowing how engineers did their flights in the 1960s would be very helpful. Surprisingly, the absence and loss of records of the program's operation is so massive that NASA employees today have to resort to dismantling existing spacecraft parts lying in landfills in order to understand a little about how the Apollo and Gemini programs managed to work so well.

3. Sylph

The loss of data on many technologies is not always the result of too much secrecy or poor record keeping, sometimes nature itself does not want to cooperate with man. Such was the case with silphium, a miraculous medicinal herb used by the Romans as one of the oldest birth control remedies. Sylphium was made from a plant belonging to the plural genus fennel, which grew only along one coastline located in what is now Libya. Bearing heart-shaped fruits, sylphium is known to have been something of a panacea for all ills, and has often been used in the treatment of warts, fevers, indigestion, and a host of other ailments. But the use of silphium as a contraceptive made it one of the most valuable substances in the Roman world, and its popularity developed to such an extent that its image appeared on several types of ancient Roman currency at once. If a woman drank silphium juice every two weeks, it was enough to prevent pregnancy. Proper use of this herb also made it possible to terminate the current pregnancy, which subsequently made this plant one of the earliest methods of abortion.

How was it forgotten?

Sylphium was one of the most sought after drugs of the ancient world, and its use quickly spread throughout Europe and Asia. But, despite its remarkable effect, a particular genus of plants took root and grew in only one area along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea in North Africa. Its scarcity, combined with overwhelming demand, most likely led to an increased collection of the plant, which in turn led to its complete extinction. Since the specific species no longer exists, modern scientists cannot study silphium enough to determine if it was as effective as a contraceptive as Roman historians and poets wrote about it, or to know if it had any adverse effects. side effects. However, it is worth noting that other herbs similar to sylphium in chemical composition are also quite effective in preventing pregnancy.

2. Roman cement

Modern concrete was developed in the 1700s and today a common mixture of cement, water, sand and stones is the most widely used building material in the world. But the composition of cement, developed in the 18th century, was not at all the first attempt to create concrete. In fact, concrete was widely used by the ancient Persians, Egyptians, Assyrians, and Romans. The latter made extensive use of concrete, and it was they who were responsible for creating the first correct composition of concrete by mixing quicklime with crushed stone and water. Their skill in its use allowed them to build many of the most famous structures such as the Pantheon, the Colosseum, the aqueducts and the Roman baths.

How was this technology forgotten?

Like many technologies of the Greeks and Romans, the composition for concrete was lost with the beginning of the Middle Ages, but why this happened remains a mystery. The most popular theory is that its composition was something of a trade secret among masons, and that the method of making cement and concrete died with those who knew it. Perhaps more interesting in this story than the disappearance of Roman cement is its special qualities that distinguish it from more modern cement. Buildings built with Romanesque cement, such as the Colosseum, managed to endure thousands of years of rough treatment of their elements and still stand, but buildings built with modern cement are known to wear out much faster. On account of this, a theory has been put forward, suggesting that their high resistance is the result of the addition of various chemicals to the ancient cement, among which milk and even blood were sometimes used. Historians said that this was done primarily to create air bubbles inside the concrete, helping the building material expand and contract in heat and cold without damaging its structure.

1. Greek fire

Perhaps the most famous of all lost technologies is Greek fire, an incendiary used by military personnel. Byzantine Empire. Being a primitive form of napalm, Greek fire was a kind of "super-hot fire" that continued to burn even in water. It was most widely used by the Byzantines in the 11th century, when it helped them repel two Arab sieges of Constantinople. Greek fire could be used different ways. In its early form, it was poured into jars and thrown at enemies like a grenade or Molotov cocktail. Later, giant bronze pipes were installed on warships, whose siphons were used to spray fire on enemy ships. At that time, there was even a kind of portable siphon, which had manual control like a modern flamethrower.

How was this technology forgotten?

Of course, the technology of creating Greek fire is not alien to us. After all, the modern military uses essentially similar weapons. However, the closest analogue to Greek fire, napalm, was not a perfect weapon until the early 1940s, indicating the loss of this technology over several hundred years. The use of this type of weapon seems to have begun to fade after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, but just why this happened is still not known. Meanwhile, the possible chemical composition of Greek fire has been extensively studied by historians and scientists. Early theory said that the combustible mixture included a large dose of saltpeter, which would make it similar in chemical composition to gunpowder. But this idea was rejected, since saltpeter does not burn in water. Instead, current theories suggest that the fire was more likely a cocktail of oil and other chemicals, and may have included quicklime, saltpeter, or sulfur.

Despite the fact that the modern world is at one of the peaks of technological development, scientists note that not all the knowledge of the past has survived to this day. Actually, it seems that some inventions have been lost, and some old technologies are incomprehensible to contemporaries. Below are five lost technologies that still attract the attention of scientists.

Roman cement
Modern concrete, which is a mixture of cement, water and aggregates like sand or gravel, was invented in the early 18th century and is the most common building material in the world today. However, the composition developed in the 18th century is far from the first type of concrete. In fact, concrete was used by the Persians, Egyptians, Assyrians and Romans. The latter added quicklime, crushed stone and water to the building mixture - it was this composition that gave Rome the Pantheon, the Colosseum, aqueducts and baths.

Like many other knowledge of antiquity, this technology was lost with the onset of the Middle Ages - it is not strange that this historical era also known as the Dark Ages. According to the popular version explaining the fact of the disappearance of the recipe, it was something of a trade secret and with the death of the few people who were initiated into it, it was forgotten.

It is noteworthy that the components that distinguish Roman cement from modern cement are still unknown. Buildings built using Roman cement have stood for millennia, despite the effects of the elements - the cement used in our time cannot boast of such resistance. Some historians believe that the Romans added milk and blood to the building mix - it is assumed that the pores formed by this process allowed the composition to expand and contract under the influence of temperature changes, while not collapsing. However, the strength of the cement was crushed by other substances, but no one can say for sure which ones.

Damascus steel
Damascus steel, an incredibly strong type of metal, was widely used in the Middle East around 1100-1700 AD. Basically, this type of steel became known thanks to the swords and knives that were made from it. Blades forged from Damascus steel were famous for their strength and sharpness: it was believed that a Damascus sword could easily cut stones and other metals, including armor and weapons made from weaker alloys. Damascus steel is associated with patterned crucible steel from India and Sri Lanka. The high strength of blades made of such steel was due to the manufacturing process, during which hard cementite was mixed with slightly softer iron, resulting in products that were both strong and flexible.

The technology for forging Damascus steel was lost around 1750. The exact reasons why this happened are unknown, but there are several versions that one way or another explain these reasons. The most popular theory is that the ore needed to make Damascus steel began to run out and gunsmiths were forced to switch to alternative blade-making technologies.

According to another version, the blacksmiths themselves did not know the technology - they simply forged many blades and tested them for strength. It is assumed that, by chance, some of them received properties characteristic of Damascus. Be that as it may, even at the current stage of development of technology, it is impossible to accurately restore the process of creating Damascus steel. Despite the fact that blades with a similar pattern still exist today, modern craftsmen are still unable to achieve the strength of Damascus steel.

Antikythera mechanism
One of the most mysterious archaeological finds, the Antikythera Mechanism, was found by divers on an ancient shipwreck near the Greek island of Antikythera in the early 20th century. After studying the traces of the shipwreck, scientists came to the conclusion that the ship dates back to the 1st or 2nd century BC. At the same time, the found mechanism was incredibly complex in its structure: it consisted of more than 30 gears, levers and other components.

Moreover, it used a differential gear, which, as previously assumed, was not invented until the 16th century. Obviously, the device was intended to measure the position of the Sun, Moon and other celestial bodies. Describing this mechanism, some experts call it the original form of a mechanical clock, while others consider it the first known analog computer.

The precision with which the components of the movement were made indicates that this device was not the only one of its kind. On the other hand, historical records of mechanisms whose structure resembles a find date back to XIV century, which means that for more than 1400 years the technology was lost.

Greek fire
Greek fire, a combustible mixture used for military purposes by the Byzantine Empire and other states, is one of the most famous lost technologies. Being something like the original form of napalm, Greek fire continued to burn even in water. The most famous case of the use of this formidable weapon took place in the 11th century, when Byzantium used fire against the Arabs and put them to flight.

At first, Greek fire was poured into small vessels that were set on fire and thrown at the enemy, like a modern Molotov cocktail. Later, installations consisting of copper pipes with a siphon were invented - these war machines were used to set fire to enemy ships. In addition, there is information about manual installations that vaguely resembled modern flamethrowers.

Of course, the military forces of our time use combustible mixtures, which means that it cannot be said that the technology remains completely unknown. On the other hand, napalm was developed only in the 40s of the XX century, and the original composition of the Greek fire was lost after the decline of the Byzantine Empire - thus, an effective technology, however, remained lost for several centuries. It is still difficult to say exactly how the composition of the substance was lost. In addition, scientists do not know what could be used to prepare the mixture.

According to the earliest version, Greek fire could include a large dose of saltpeter. However, this version was soon rejected, because saltpeter does not burn in water, and it was this property that was attributed to Greek fire. According to a newer theory, the combustible was some kind of cocktail of petroleum products or crude oil, as well as quicklime, potassium nitrate, and possibly sulfur.

Technologies of the Apollo and Gemini programs
It turns out that not all lost technologies originated in antiquity - even relatively recent achievements in science and technology can remain incomprehensible to contemporaries. In the 50s, 60s and 70s of the twentieth century, the Gemini and Apollo space programs led to the most notable achievements of mankind in the field of space flight. In particular, we are talking about NASA's biggest success, namely the Apollo 11 program and the landing of a man on the moon. In turn, the earlier Gemini program of 1965-66. gave scientists valuable knowledge about the mechanics of space flight.

Of course, the achievement of the Gemini and Apollo programs cannot be considered lost in the traditional sense of the word, because scientists still have at their disposal Saturn-5 launch vehicles, as well as fragments of other spacecraft. On the other hand, the possession of mechanisms does not yet imply knowledge of technology. The fact is that as a result of the high pace of the “space race”, the documentation was not carried out as well as we would like. modern workers NASA. In addition to the rush, the situation was aggravated by the fact that private contractors were hired to prepare the programs, working on individual components of ships and equipment.

After the programs were brought to completion, the private engineers left, taking their drawings and diagrams with them. As a result, now that NASA is planning a new mission to the Moon, large amounts of necessary information remain unavailable or are in a completely chaotic state. In essence, all that remains for NASA in the current circumstances is to turn to reverse engineering, that is, to the analysis of existing ships.

I have 3 or 4 skype accounts. The same number of pages in social networks. And not because I love networking - save and save. I just forget logins or passwords from all kinds of accounts with an enviable frequency. So, over time, a decision was born to record such information: for this purpose, a separate notebook was created with the proud name TXT.txt ... But I even managed to lose it.

Since it is always painful to realize one's inferiority, after such situations one has to urgently raise one's morale. And as you know, nothing raises self-esteem like the mistakes of others: this is how a post appeared about priceless inventions and technologies that mankind managed to lose.

Forgotten technologies

Free thinkers, open to new ideas, would be very comfortable in ancient greece: walking around in sandals and sheets, promoting homosexuality and discussing the next insights of the old man Plato - that's it, real freedom and tolerance. But where were the introverts and sociophobes, who were far from such lofty ideals, going to go at that time? A thing called nepenth or nepentes, the herb of oblivion, helped them escape the harsh reality. It was used in ancient Greece as an opium and antidepressant. This remedy is also mentioned in Homer's Odyssey.

How it was lost. It is possible that the herb of oblivion was not lost: some suggest that it was ordinary opium, while others are inclined to believe that Nepenth is an Egyptian tincture of wormwood, a kind of ancient progenitor of absinthe. But it is impossible to know for sure what was used in the old days as a cure for sadness.

9. Telharmonium

In 1897, a guy named Tadeusz Cahill patented the largest (at that time) musical instrument in the world: the telharmonium. With his help, he created electronic music long before it became mainstream. The Telharmonium consisted of 145 dynamos, with a total weight of approximately 200 tons. The public warmly welcomed the novelty, which quickly gained popularity.

The Telharmonium could imitate various musical instruments, and its sound could be broadcast over ordinary telephone wires. For a fee, anyone could order this or that melody to congratulate his wife on Bastille Day or, with the help of a loudspeaker, please the visitors of his restaurant with a brand new chansonnet.

How was lost. The electronic giant was very voracious and laid a heavy burden on the power grid and the wallet of its owner: the creation of the device cost $ 200,000, which today, taking into account inflation, is comparable to the amount of several million dollars.

Because the telephone communications was far from perfect, the sound quality left much to be desired. Telharmonium melodies could break into someone else's telephone conversation, causing unnecessary trouble for telephone operators. Over time, the general interest in the device faded away, and the electric instruments themselves were sold for spare parts - today there are no Telharmoniums themselves (there were three in total), nor recordings of their sound.

8. Stradivarius violin

At the end of the 17th century, Stradivari was a kind of Steve Jobs in the world of music: together with his family, he launched the production of musical instruments that became famous all over the world due to their high sound quality. As a result, the name of the master has become a real brand: in our time, about 600 of those same Stradivari violins have survived - most of them cost hundreds of thousands of dollars.

How it was lost. The tool-making technique was a family secret, known only to the patriarch of the family, Antonio Stardivari, and possibly to his sons: Omobono and Francesco. After their death, the manufacturing technology was lost. Modern scientists are trying to create exact copies of those tools, how successful is a moot point. However, it has been experimentally proven that most people are not able to notice the difference between the sound of a Stradivarius violin and a modern high-quality copy.

7. Antikythera Mechanism

In 1901, a ship was found near the Greek island of Antikythera, which sank in the 1st century BC. The attention of scientists was attracted by the mechanism, later called Antikythera: it looked like a clock in a wooden case, inside of which there were 37 bronze gears. Only this device did not show time, but calculated the trajectories of the moon, sun and 5 planets solar system. With its help, it was possible to calculate the onset of lunar and solar eclipses. And this is more than 2000 years ago!

How was lost. The accuracy and coherence of the mechanism suggests that it was far from the only one - it does not look like a handicraft craft of a lone genius who was ahead of his time. Nevertheless, archaeologists have not yet discovered other similar devices, and devices similar in functionality appeared only in the 14th century. This means that for unknown reasons, valuable technology was lost for as much as 1400 years.

The erudite reader will notice that the Library of Alexandria is not a technology, but, oddly enough, a library. And the attentive reader (probably a friend of this erudite nerd) will remember that not so long ago we argued that the main problem was not a fire, but a lack of funding. However, this does not change the fact that the Library of Alexandria was an invaluable repository of ancient knowledge. According to some estimates, in better times it contained about a million different scrolls.

How it was lost. Due to the reduction of funding under different rulers, the library gradually fell into disrepair. The control shot to the head was a fire that occurred as a result of regular military operations in 273.

5. Damascus steel

It's pretty cool to have a sword that can cut rocks, metal, and giant squid to pieces. Unfortunately, this is only possible in the Star Wars universe. Or not?.. Damascus steel, from which bladed weapons were made in the Middle East for centuries, is shrouded in glorious stories. The special properties of this steel gave it unprecedented strength and sharpness. Damascus steel blades are said to cut through heavy armor like butter. It was not for nothing that Walter Scott awarded the protagonist of his novel just such a blade.

How was it lost? There are several versions of this. Some scientists are skeptical about the stories about the extraordinary properties of Damascus steel: firstly, these stories are not confirmed by anything, and secondly, Damascus has never been famous as a center of metallurgy. Others argue that Damascus steel was made from a special ore that was exhausted over time, which is why the production of such blades ceased by 1750.

4. Roman cement

The fairy tale "Three Little Pigs" clearly demonstrates important role cement and masonry in ensuring personal safety. The mixture that is used to create concrete in our time appeared in 1700 and has remained a reliable companion to this day. But this is far from the first appearance of cement to the people: a similar mixture was used in the construction of buildings in ancient egypt, Persia, Assyria and Rome.

The most durable is concrete, which was made by the Romans by mixing burnt lime, crushed stone and water. Sometimes they added milk and even blood to the solution. Small air bubbles appeared in the concrete, which allowed the substance to expand and contract at different times of the year without collapsing. As a result, many buildings of that era, including the Colosseum, have survived to this day, having stood for about 2000 years - modern buildings cannot boast of such strength.

How it was lost. This probably happened at the beginning of the Middle Ages, when Rome began to fall into disrepair. It is not known exactly why such a valuable technology was lost, but here is the most popular version: the masons strictly kept the secret of concrete preparation as a trade secret. Since only a limited number of artisans possessed such information, it is quite possible that during the next raid of the barbarians this knowledge was lost.

3. Greek fire

The Library of Alexandria, the Nepenthos, the Antikythera Mechanism… The Greeks are the most underrated nation that has amazing ability lose valuable knowledge. Therefore, if you need some information to be forgotten by everyone, entrust this secret to the Elliots.

Greek fire is another proof of this. This mysterious weapon twice saved Constantinople from the Arabs - even the Kyiv prince Igor Rurikovich managed to feel his power on himself. Greek fire was poured into jugs to throw them at the enemy from catapults. Later, the combustible mixture began to be used on ships: copper pipes were installed on them, from which, under air pressure, fire erupted at a distance of up to 30 meters. This made it possible to crush any enemy fleets of that time. Greek fire burned even in water, and since powder fire extinguishers were in short supply in the Middle Ages, enemy ships were afraid of this weapon ... like fire 🙂

How was lost. Although superiority at sea allowed Constantinople to remain secure for a long time, without a strong land army, the conquest of this magnificent city was a matter of time. With the fall of Constantinople, the secret of Greek fire was lost. Although various historical documents suggest that the method of preparing a combustible liquid was discovered in other countries, this did not save him from oblivion.

By the time the secret was revealed, and this happened around the 15th century, gunpowder attracted everyone's attention - against its background, Greek fire seemed no longer so cool and general interest in it faded. And when they remembered it, it was too late - the technology was forgotten. It was not until the 1940s that an effective combustible mixture was reinvented; napalm is the direct heir to Greek fire.

How it was lost. Alas, good once again won the loot: after the first tests, the main shareholder and sponsor of this project, John Morgan, realized that the wireless world was unprofitable for him - after all, Morgan was the owner of the Niagara hydroelectric power station and copper plants. Since he did not want to distribute his electricity to everyone in a row, he convinced other investors to stop funding and Tesla was forced to stop his research in this area.

Despite the fact that modern science has finally grown up to Tesla's ideas, charging for phones is not at all the scale on which the great scientist thought.

1. Starlight is a unique material

To be honest, the information about the starlight looks like another urban legend This story sounds too unrealistic. But, since I recently figured out how to use Google, it was not difficult to verify the reality of the starlight.

In 1993, amateur chemist Maurice Ward claimed to have found a material that could withstand extreme temperatures: several times the melting point of diamonds. Starlight, as Maurice called this material, could really change our world - capable of withstanding thousands of degrees, it transmitted little to no heat. The creator of the material was confident that it could even withstand the temperature of a nuclear explosion.

Starlight's capabilities were demonstrated on various TV channels using the experiment shown in the video above. The egg, on which starlight was applied, was heated for 5 minutes with a gas burner with a fire temperature of up to 1000°C. After that, the egg was broken and inside it turned out to be absolutely raw!

How was lost. Starlight was interested in NASA and other large companies. But Maurice Ward turned out to be that miser - the chemist wanted a 51% stake in the company, which would receive commercial benefits from Starlight. It is not surprising that no one could agree with the old man. In May 2011, he died without revealing his secret to anyone: he was very distrustful and never provided samples of starlight for any research, so that no one would know its composition.

It’s time to suspect some kind of scam, but if he were a charlatan, it would be much more logical to sell a fake recipe for a decent amount, and not make excessive demands that no one will agree to. It remains to be hoped that someday Starlight will be rediscovered: Morgan admitted that this material consists of polymers and copolymers. It contains 21 elements, including boron and a small amount of ceramics.

The inhabitants of Finland have an attitude towards the child from the moment of his birth - as a full-fledged citizen of the country. Immediately after birth, he receives a passport.

There are no homeless children in Finland - vagrant children left without fathers and mothers.

Spouses bear more or less equal care for the upbringing of children, although raising babies is still considered a woman's duty.

A family

Complete families with both parents make up more than 80% of the total number of families with children, another 17% of families are incomplete, as a rule, these are families without fathers (15%).

When creating a family, the Finns are guided by two or three children.

Finnish boys prefer to get married a little later: at 24-30 years old, the most preferable age is 25 years and a little older. Finnish girls prefer 26-28 years.

Almost all Finnish youth perceive single-parent families, where the child is raised by one mother or one father, as full-fledged families and treat them positively.

All Finnish girls who are going to start a family are set up for partnerships, which implies the responsibility of both spouses for material support families, raising children, joint participation in solving everyday issues.

Finnish young people not inclined consider your opinion indisputable in the family.

The main family problem in Finland, according to students, is that young people are very interested in their careers, and there is simply no time left for a family.

There is no place for jealousy and suspicion in the Finnish family. French and Italian comedies, in which the plot is built around real or imaginary infidelity, do not even make Finns smile.

Society

Everyone in Finland lives economically. Modesty and economy in everything - in design, clothes, furniture. Especially protect and save heat.

Finns tend clearly separate work and family, personal and general. According to some reports, many Finns are prone to isolation, are wary of attempts at emotional rapprochement, and do not like scandals.

Finns are law-abiding to the point of absurdity. Schoolchildren here do not cheat and do not suggest. And if they see that someone else is doing it, they will immediately tell the teacher.

preschool education

children in early childhood they practically do not educate, they allow them to "stand on their ears." (According to some reports, there are still prohibitions, but I did not find what they are).

All babies in the country have the right to kindergarten when they reach 10 months of age. Children food free in kindergarten.

AT conventional gardens They also accept children with disabilities. Children with impaired health are drawn to their peers, and as a result, many of them manage to restore vital functions at an early age.

From the age of 6 children are taught in a playful way all the necessary knowledge and skills that he will need to master school curriculum at the first stage.

It is assumed that children, talented beings, at preschool age should naturally learn both languages.

Features of the education system

Principles

All children are equal. Commerce is not allowed in the school.

School books and supplies are free.

School lunches are free.

The transport costs of students are covered by the municipality.

There are no school inspectors in the country. Teachers are trustworthy. Paperwork is kept to a minimum.

Children with a deficit of natural opportunities work with peers, in the general team.

Teachers, according to accepted norms, do not have the right to expel or send a ward to another school.

Finns do not use selection children in a nine-year school. Here, from the beginning of the 1990s, they decisively abandoned the tradition of sorting students into groups (classes, streams, educational institutions) according to abilities and even career preferences.

Studying proccess

The academic year consists of 190 working days. Education is conducted only in the day shift, and on Saturdays and Sundays schools do not work.

All Finnish schools work in one shift. The working day of the teacher lasts from 8 to 15 hours.

graduation exams from school optional. Control and intermediate exams are at the discretion of the teacher.

Wonderful architecture of buildings, external and internal view. The furniture is silent: the legs of chairs, bedside tables, cabinets are lined with soft fabric patches, or equipped with sports rollers for “driving around the class”.

The dress code is free.

The parties are single. In the school cafeteria, it is also customary for everyone to eat at a separate table.

Parents accept Active participation in school life. Parents' Day is held on Wednesdays every week. Parents receive invitations in advance, in which they must indicate on what Wednesday and at what time they will come to school. Along with the invitation, parents receive a questionnaire in which they are asked to answer the questions: “How does the student feel at school?”, “What topics bring him joy?”, “What causes anxiety?”, “What are the relationships with classmates?”.

In Finland all children, from toddler to adulthood, consist registered with social services. Her representative (and not a teacher or class teacher) visits the wards at home every month and conducts a kind of monitoring of families - it enters the age, education of parents, the way of the family and the problems it experiences into the computer.

Teacher

The teacher is here as a service worker. Finnish children are indifferent to school, they have no concept of "favorite teacher".

The average salary of a school teacher in Finland is (quietly, reader) 2,500 euros per month (teacher full day). Mobile teachers - about 2 times less.

Among the 120,000 school teachers in the country, there is not one who does not have a master's degree in science or the academic title of professor in his subject.

At the end of the school year all teachers are fired and they don't work in the summer. In the new academic year, teachers by competition hired and work under contract. Several teachers apply for one place (sometimes up to 12 people per place), young people are preferred. At the retirement age, which for women and men starts at the age of 60, no one is already working.

In addition to conducting lessons, teachers spend two hours a day on consultations with students, meetings with parents, preparation for tomorrow's classes, creative projects shared with children, teachers' councils.

My qualification teacher raises on one's own by self-education.

School principles

On the exam you can bring any reference books, books, use the Internet. It is not the number of memorized texts that matters, but can you use a directory or the Network - that is, to attract all the resources you need to solve current problems.

"More useful knowledge!". Finnish children from the school bench really understand, for example, what taxes, banks, certificates are. In schools they teach, say, that if a person receives an inheritance from a grandmother, mother or aunt, then he will have to pay varying degrees of taxes.

Counts shameless stay in the second year, especially after the 9th grade. You need to prepare seriously for adulthood.

In every Finnish school, at a special rate, there is such teacher who helps students decide on the future. It reveals the inclinations of the child, helps to choose further educational institution according to taste and possibilities, disassembles various options the future of each student. Children come to such a teacher, as well as to a psychologist, not by force, but by themselves - voluntarily.

In Finnish schools, you can not listen to the teacher during the lessons and do your own thing. For example, if an educational film is shown at a literature lesson, but the student does not want to watch it, he can take any book and read. It is important not to interfere with others.

The main thing, according to teachers, is "to motivate, not force to learn."

Once a month, the curator sends a leaflet to parents purple that reflects student progress. diaries students do not.

Every fourth student in Finland needs personal support from teachers. And they get it on average two or three times a week. Each child is individual.

Principles of education at school

If "project", then, means, together. Plan, implement and discuss the result.

Schoolchildren, principal and teachers, including a nurse, eat with us. And just like any ordinary student, both we and the director clean up after ourselves from the table, laying out the dishes in specially designated places.

Everyone is praised and encourage. There are no bad students.

Children's complete trust in teachers, a sense of protection from encroachments on personal freedom are the foundations of the local pedagogy.

Children's health

Finns (adults and children) love jogging. And also to heat up.

The mental and physical health of children, as well as the social problems of students, are the most important issues.

Culture, holidays and ceremonies

Much has not been done on this subject. Holidays for Finns are about the same as in other European countries. According to some reports, at the end of the school year, the Finns arrange a big holiday. On May 1, a carnival is held in Finland.

Celebrations are held periodically at work. It is not customary to invite the family to such holidays.

Other

Each diaspora has the right to rent a room and organize its own kindergarten, where children are taught their native language.

Finnish schoolchildren, on average, showed the highest level of knowledge in the world.

Links

• How they study in Finnish schools
• The Japanese are cheating from the Finns
• Family relations as seen by Finns and Russians
• Everything about everything in Finland - Education system
• Finnish social intelligence

Another article:

“Either we prepare for life, or for exams. We choose the first."

According to international studies, which are carried out every 3 years by the authoritative organization PISA, Finnish schoolchildren showed the highest level of knowledge in the world. They are also the most reading kids on the planet, ranked 2nd in science and 5th in math. But even this is not so admired by the pedagogical community. It is incredible that with such high results, students spend the least amount of time studying.

Secondary general education compulsory education in Finland includes a school of two levels:

Lower (alakoulu), from grades 1 to 6;

Upper (yläkoulu), from 7th to 9th grade.

In the extra 10th grade, students can improve their grades. Then the children go to a professional college or continue their studies at the lyceum (lukio), grades 11-12 in our usual sense.

7 principles of the "middle" level of Finnish education:

1. Equality

There are neither elite nor "weak". The largest school in the country has 960 students. In the smallest - 11. All have exactly the same equipment, capabilities and proportional funding. Almost all schools are public, there are a dozen private-public ones. The difference, in addition to the fact that parents make a partial payment, is in the increased requirements for students. As a rule, these are original “pedagogical” laboratories following the chosen pedagogy: Montessori, Frenet, Steiner, Mortana and Waldorf schools. Private institutions also include institutions teaching in English, German, French.

Following the principle of equality, Finland has a parallel system of education "from kindergarten to university" in Swedish. The interests of the Sami people are not forgotten either, in the north of the country you can study in your native language.

Until recently, the Finns were forbidden to choose a school, they had to send their children to the "nearest". The ban was lifted, but most parents still send their children "closer", because all schools are equally good.

All items.

An in-depth study of some subjects at the expense of others is not welcome. It is not considered here that mathematics is more important, for example, than art. On the contrary, the only exception to the creation of classes with gifted children may be aptitude for drawing, music and sports.

Who by profession (social status) are the parents of the child, the teacher will find out last, if necessary. Questions from teachers, questionnaires regarding the place of work of parents are prohibited.

Finns do not sort students into classes according to ability or career preference.

There are also no “bad” and “good” students. Comparing students to each other is prohibited. Children, both brilliant and severely mentally deficient, are considered "special" and learn along with everyone else. In the general team, children are also trained on wheelchairs. A regular school may set up a class for students with visual or hearing impairments. The Finns try to integrate as much as possible into society those who need special treatment. The difference between weak and strong students is the smallest in the world.

“I was outraged by the Finnish education system when my daughter studied at school, who by local standards can be classified as gifted. But when my son, who has an abundance of problems, went to school, I immediately liked everything very much, ”the Russian mother shared her impressions.

There are no "loved" or "hated grimz". Teachers also do not stick with their souls to "their class", do not single out "favorites" and vice versa. Any deviations from harmony lead to the termination of the contract with such a teacher. Finnish teachers have only to do their job as mentor. All of them are equally important in the labor collective: both "physicists", and "lyricists", and teachers of labor.

Equality of rights of an adult (teacher, parent) and a child.

Finns call this principle " respectful attitude to the student." Children from the 1st grade are explained their rights, including the right to “complain” about adults to a social worker. This stimulates Finnish parents to understand that their child is an independent person, which is forbidden to offend both with a word and with a belt. Teachers cannot humiliate students due to the peculiarities of the teaching profession, adopted in the Finnish labor legislation. The main feature is that all teachers enter into a contract for only 1 academic year, with a possible (or not) extension, and also receive a high salary (from 2,500 euros - an assistant, up to 5,000 - a subject teacher).

2. Free

In addition to the training itself, free of charge:

excursions, museums and all extracurricular activities;

transport that picks up and returns the child if the nearest school is more than two kilometers away;

textbooks, all stationery, calculators and even tablet laptops.

Any collection of parental funds for any purpose is prohibited.

3. Individuality

An individual plan of education and development is drawn up for each child. Individualization concerns the content of the textbooks used, exercises, the number of class and homework assignments and the time allotted for them, as well as the material taught: to whom the “roots” are a more detailed presentation, and from whom the “tops” are required - briefly about the main thing.

In the lesson in the same class, children perform exercises of different levels of complexity. And they will be evaluated according to the personal level. If you perfectly completed “his” exercise of initial complexity, get “excellent”. Tomorrow they will give you a higher level - if you can't do it - it's okay, you'll get a simple task again.

In Finnish schools, along with regular education, there are two unique types of educational process:

Supportive education for “weak” students is what private tutors do in Russia. In Finland, tutoring is not popular, school teachers voluntarily cope with additional help during the lesson or after it.

Remedial education - associated with persistent general problems in the assimilation of the material, for example, due to a lack of understanding of the non-native Finnish language in which the training is conducted, or due to difficulties with memorization, with mathematical skills, as well as with antisocial behavior of some children. Correctional training is carried out in small groups or individually.

4. Practicality

The Finns say: “Either we prepare for life, or for exams. We choose the first." Therefore, there are no exams in Finnish schools. Control and intermediate tests - at the discretion of the teacher. There is only one mandatory standard test at the end of secondary secondary school, moreover, teachers do not care about its results, they do not report to anyone for it, and they do not specially prepare children: what is good is good.

The school teaches only what you may need in life. The device of a blast furnace, for example, will not be useful, and they do not study it. But the local kids know from childhood what a portfolio, a contract, a bank card are. They know how to calculate the percentage of tax on the inheritance received or income earned in the future, create a business card website on the Internet, calculate the price of a product after several discounts, or draw a “wind rose” in a given area.

5. Trust

Firstly, to school workers and teachers: there are no inspections, rono, methodologists teaching how to teach, and so on. The educational program in the country is unified, but it is only general recommendations, and each teacher uses the teaching method that he considers appropriate.

Secondly, trust in children: in the classroom you can do something of your own. For example, if an educational film is included in a literature lesson, but the student is not interested, he can read a book. It is believed that the student himself chooses what is more useful for him.

6. Voluntariness

The one who wants to learn learns. Teachers will try to attract the attention of the student, but if he has absolutely no interest or ability to study, the child will be oriented to a practically useful in the future, “simple” profession and will not be bombarded with “twos”. Not everyone builds airplanes, someone has to drive buses well.

The Finns also see this as the task of the secondary school - to find out whether it is worth continuing education in a lyceum for a given teenager or a minimum level of knowledge is enough, for whom it is more useful to go to a vocational school. It should be noted that both ways are equally valued in the country.

A full-time school specialist, the “teacher of the future”, is engaged in identifying the inclinations of each child to a certain type of activity through tests and conversations.

In general, the learning process in the Finnish school is soft, delicate, but this does not mean that you can “score” on the school. School supervision is required. All missed lessons will be "served out" in the literal sense. For example, for a 6th grade student, the teacher can find a "window" in the schedule and put him in a lesson in the 2nd grade: sit, be bored and think about life. If you interfere with the younger ones, the hour will not be counted. If you don’t fulfill the task set by the teacher, you don’t work in the classroom - no one will call your parents, threaten, insult, referring to mental disability or laziness. If the parents are also not concerned about their child's studies, he will not quietly move on to the next grade.

Remaining in Finland for the second year is disgraceful, especially after the 9th grade. You need to prepare seriously for adulthood, so Finnish schools have an additional (optional) 10th grade.

7. Self-reliance

The Finns believe that the school should teach the child the main thing - an independent future. successful life. Therefore, here they teach to think and gain knowledge themselves. The teacher does not tell new topics - everything is in the books. It is not memorized formulas that are important, but the ability to use a reference book, text, the Internet, a calculator - to attract the necessary resources to solve current problems.

Also, school teachers do not interfere in the conflicts of students, giving them the opportunity to prepare for life situations comprehensively and develop the ability to stand up for oneself.

The educational process in the "same" Finnish schools, however, is organized very differently.

When and how much do we study?

The academic year in Finland starts in August, from the 8th to the 16th, there is no single day. And ends at the end of May. In the autumn half-year there are 3-4 days of autumn holidays and 2 weeks of Christmas. The spring semester includes a week of February - "ski" holidays (Finnish families, as a rule, go skiing together) - and Easter.

Training - five days, only in the day shift. Friday is a short day.

What are we learning?

1st-2nd grade:

The native (Finnish) language and reading, mathematics, natural history, religion (according to religion) or life understanding (for those who do not care about religion), music, fine arts, work and physical education are studied. Several disciplines can be studied at once in one lesson.

3rd–6th grade:

Study begins of English language. In 4th grade - one more foreign language to choose from: French, Swedish, German or Russian. Additional disciplines are being introduced - subjects of choice, each school has its own: typing speed on the keyboard, computer literacy, the ability to work with wood, choral singing. Almost in all schools - the game on musical instruments, for 9 years of training, children will try everything from a pipe to a double bass.

In grade 5, biology, geography, physics, chemistry, and history are added. From grades 1 to 6, teaching is conducted by one teacher in almost all subjects. A PE lesson is any sports game 1–3 times a week, depending on the school. After the lesson, a shower is required. Literature, in the usual sense for us, is not studied, it is rather reading. Subject teachers appear only in the 7th grade.

7th–9th grade:

Finnish language and literature (reading, regional culture), Swedish, English, mathematics, biology, geography, physics, chemistry, fundamentals of health, religion (life understanding), music, fine arts, physical education, subjects of choice and work that is not divided separately " for boys and for girls. Together they learn to cook soups and cut with a jigsaw. In the 9th grade - 2 weeks of acquaintance with "working life". The guys find any “workplace” for themselves and go “to work” with great pleasure.

Who needs grades?

The country has adopted a 10-point system, but up to grade 7 a verbal assessment is used: mediocre, satisfactory, good, excellent. From 1st to 3rd grade, there are no marks in any options.

All schools are connected to the state electronic system "Wilma", something like an electronic school diary, to which parents receive a personal access code. Teachers give grades, write down gaps, inform about the child's life at school; a psychologist, a social worker, a “teacher of the future”, a paramedic also leave information that parents need there.

Grades in the Finnish school do not have an ominous color and are required only for the student himself, they are used to motivate the child in achieving the goal and self-examination so that he can improve knowledge if he wishes. They do not affect the reputation of the teacher in any way, schools and district indicators do not spoil.

Little things about school life

The territory of the schools is not fenced, there is no security at the entrance. Most schools have an automatic lock system on the front door, you can only enter the building according to the schedule.

Children do not necessarily sit at desks, tables, they can also sit on the floor (carpet). In some schools, classes are equipped with sofas and armchairs. Premises of elementary school are covered with carpets and rugs.

There is no uniform, as well as some requirements regarding clothing, you can even come in pajamas. A change of shoes is required, but most junior and intermediate children prefer to run with socks on.

In warm weather, lessons are often held outdoors near the school, right on the grass, or on benches specially equipped in the form of an amphitheatre. During breaks, elementary school students must be taken outside, even if only for 10 minutes.

Homework is rarely assigned. Children must rest. And parents should not do lessons with their children, teachers recommend instead a family trip to a museum, forest or pool.

Blackboard teaching is not used, children are not called to retell the material. The teacher briefly sets the general tone for the lesson, then walks between the students, helping them and controlling the completion of tasks. The assistant teacher does the same (there is such a position in the Finnish school).

In notebooks, you can write with a pencil and erase as much as you like. Moreover, the teacher can check the assignment with a pencil!

This is what Finnish secondary education looks like in a very brief summary. Maybe it will seem wrong to someone. The Finns do not pretend to be ideal and do not rest on their laurels, even in the best you can find cons. They are constantly examining how their school system is in line with the ongoing changes in society. For example, reforms are currently being prepared to divide mathematics into algebra and geometry and increase teaching hours for them, as well as highlight literature and social science as separate items.

However, the Finnish school definitely does the most important thing. Their children do not cry out at night from nervous strain, do not dream of growing up quickly, do not hate school, do not torment themselves and the whole family, preparing for the next exams. Calm, reasonable and happy, they read books, easily watch films without translation into Finnish, play computer games, drive on rollers, bikes, bikes, compose music, theatrical plays, sing. They enjoy life. And in between all this, they still have time to learn.