An outstanding scientist of our time, philologist, historian, philosopher of culture, deservedly considered a symbol of the Russian intelligentsia of the 20th century.

A brief outline of the scientific, pedagogical and social activities of D. S. Likhachev.

The scientific biography of academician Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev began in his student years. He studied simultaneously in two sections of the Department of Linguistics and Literature of the Faculty of Social Sciences of Leningrad State University: Romano-Germanic (specializing in English literature) and Slavic-Russian. The participation of D.S. in the "Nekrasov Seminar" of one of the largest researchers in the work of N.A. Nekrasov, Professor V.E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, served as an impetus for an in-depth study of primary sources, which determined his entire future path in science. Dmitry Sergeevich himself especially notes that it was V.E. Evgeniev-Maksimov who taught him "not to be afraid of manuscripts", to work in archives and manuscript collections. So already in 1924 - 1927. he prepared a study on the forgotten texts of Nekrasov: he found about thirty previously unknown feuilletons, reviews and articles published in a number of publications of the 40s. years of the 19th century, and established their belonging to Nekrasov. Due to circumstances beyond the control of the young researcher, this work was not published.

In those same years, D.S. studied ancient Russian literature in a seminar with Professor D.I. Abramovich. Under the guidance of the latter, he wrote his thesis (unofficial) on the little-studied Tales of Patriarch Nikon. D.S.'s official diploma work in the Romano-Germanic specialty was the study "Shakespeare in Russia in the 18th century."

After graduating from the university, D.S. Likhachev did not immediately manage to concentrate his strength and knowledge on scientific work, only 10 years later he joined the staff of the Sector of Ancient Russian Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the USSR Academy of Sciences. However, D.S. came into close contact with the work of this Sector, editing its printed editions in the Leningrad branch of the Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

In 1937, the Sector prepared a posthumous edition of the extensive work of Academician A. A. Shakhmatov "Review of Russian chronicles of the XIV - XVI centuries." "This manuscript captivated me," recalled Dmitry Sergeevich, who, as editor of the publishing house, had to carefully check its readiness for typesetting. As a result, he developed an interest in other works by A. A. Shakhmatov, and then in a wide range of issues related to the history of ancient Russian chronicle writing. It is with this deeply thought-out theme that he will enter the environment of the "ancients" - literary critics (1938). Research in this area will bring him the degree of Candidate (1941), and then - Doctor of Philology (1947).

D.S. Likhachev approached the chronicle not only as a historian, but also as a literary critic. He studied the growth and change of the very methods of chronicle writing, their conditionality due to the uniqueness of the Russian historical process. This manifested a deep interest in the problem of the artistic mastery of ancient Russian literature, characteristic of all the work of D.S., and he considers the style of literature and fine arts as a manifestation of the unity of artistic consciousness.

The first works of D.S. Likhachev are devoted to the older annals of Novgorod. This topic is devoted to a cycle of his works of the 40s, which immediately attracted readers by the rigor of the method, the freshness and convincing validity of the conclusions.

The study of the Novgorod annals of the XII century. led D. S. to the conclusion that the special style of this chronicle and its social trend is explained by the coup of 1136, the establishment of a "republican" political system in Novgorod. Based on independent research in the field of Novgorod literature, painting and architecture of the XII - XVII centuries. in their entirety, D. S. Likhachev published in the second volume of the History of Russian Literature (1945) a number of informative, completely original articles. They clearly revealed a certain general pattern in the development of medieval Novgorod culture in its various manifestations. The results of these investigations are also reflected in his book "Novgorod the Great" (1945).

These works made it possible to discover another valuable quality of the young scientist - the ability to present his scientific observations in such a way that they would interest a wide range of readers - non-specialists. This attention to the reader, the desire to inspire him with interest and respect for the past of our homeland permeate all the work of D. S. Likhachev, make his popular science books the best examples of this genre.

Expanding the scope of his observations on the history of chronicle writing, Dmitry Sergeevich writes a number of articles concerning the Kyiv chronicle of the 11th - 13th centuries. Finally, he sets himself the task of constructing a systematic history of chronicle writing from its origin to the 17th century. This is how his extensive doctoral dissertation was born, which, unfortunately, was published in a much abridged form. D. S. Likhachev's book "Russian Chronicles and Their Cultural and Historical Significance" (1947) became a valuable contribution to science, its fundamentally new conclusions were accepted by both literary critics and historians.

Dmitri Sergeevich's investigations finally remove any attempts to explain the origin of the Russian chronicle from Byzantine or West Slavic sources, which in reality were only reflected in it at a certain stage of its development. In a new way, he presents the connection between the chronicle of the 11th - 12th centuries. with folk poetry and living Russian; in the chronicles of the XII - XIII centuries. reveals a special genre of "tales of feudal crimes"; notes a peculiar revival in North-Eastern Russia of the political and cultural heritage of the ancient Russian state after the Kulikovo victory; shows the relationship of individual spheres of Russian culture of the 15th - 16th centuries. with the historical situation of that time and with the struggle to build a centralized Russian state.

An in-depth study of the early stage of the Kyiv chronicle of the 11th century, which at the beginning of the 12th century. led to the creation of a classic monument - "The Tale of Bygone Years", underlies the two-volume work of D. S. Likhachev, published in the series "Literary Monuments" (1950). The newly critically tested text of The Tale of Bygone Years was in this work carefully and accurately translated by D. S. Likhachev (together with B. A. Romanov) into the modern literary language, while preserving the original structure of speech.

The cycle of works by D. S. Likhachev devoted to Russian chronicle writing is of value primarily because they gave the right direction to the study of the artistic elements of chronicle writing at different stages of its development; they finally approved for the annals a place of honor among the literary monuments of the historical genre. In addition, a thorough study of the features of chronicle narration allowed D.S. to develop the question of forms of creativity bordering on literature - about military and veche speeches, about business forms of writing, about the symbolism of etiquette, which occurs in everyday life, but significantly affects literature itself.

The study of the history of Russian chronicle writing as the history of a change in the artistic features of the narrative of historical events and figures, a change naturally associated with the general historical process and with the development of Russian culture in all its manifestations, involved related literary monuments in D.S.'s research circle. As a result, the article "Galician Literary Tradition in the Life of Alexander Nevsky" (1947), which was extremely fresh in terms of observations, was published. Based on a large handwritten material, an exemplary textual study of "The Tale of Nikol Zarazsky" was created, continued in the articles of 1961 and 1963, dedicated to one of the works of this cycle - "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu".

Since 1950, D.S. Likhachev has held one of the leading positions among the researchers of The Tale of Igor's Campaign. The results of several years of work on the Slovo were reflected in the book The Tale of Igor's Campaign, published in the "jubilee" for the Slovo in 1950 in the Literary Monuments series. The revision of a number of issues related to the first edition of The Tale of Igor's Campaign determined in this new book the very method of publishing the text, interpreting its "dark" places, revealing the rhythmic structure of the Lay, as well as translating the text into modern literary language, which puts itself to reproduce the rhythm of the original.

Big research work over the largest literary monuments of the XI - XIII centuries. formed the basis of D. S. Likhachev's generalizing article "Literature", which gives a picture of the development of literature of this period. It was published in the collective work "The History of the Culture of Ancient Russia. The Pre-Mongolian Period" (vol. 2, 195I), which received the State Prize of the USSR.

Unlike his predecessors, D.S. Likhachev emphasizes with particular force the "historicism" of the literature of Kievan Rus, its desire to sensitively respond to all political events and reflect the changes taking place in the ideology of society. The author recognizes this historicism as the basis for the independence and originality of the literature of the 11th-13th centuries.

Based on his previous studies, the scientist vividly characterizes the state of the Russian language at the time of the creation of older literary monuments and comes to the conclusion that it is precisely the high level of development of the Russian language that literature of the 11th - 12th centuries. owed its rapid growth.

Concise, but expressive characteristics of all the most important monuments, literature until the beginning of the 13th century. inclusive allowed D.S. to present the main features of the literary process of the studied period.

All these questions were elaborated in his book The Emergence of Russian Literature (1952). In this study, for the first time, the question of the historical prerequisites for the very emergence of literature in the conditions of the early feudal ancient Russian state was raised so broadly. The researcher shows the internal needs that determined the origin and development of literature, reveals its independence and high level of presentation, due to the development of oral poetry. Defining the peculiar features of the literature of the ancient Russian nationality, D.S. rightly assesses the contribution made to its development by the works of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature, assimilated in South Slavic and Russian translations.

The material of literature of the XI - XIII centuries. was once again interestingly used by D. S. Likhachev for a generalizing concept in his extensive sections of the collective work "Russian Folk Poetic Art" (1953) - "Folk Poetic Art of the Heyday of the Old Russian Early Feudal State (X - XI centuries)" and "Folk poetic creativity during the years of feudal fragmentation of Russia - before the Mongol-Tatar invasion (XII - beginning of the XIII century)".

In the new collective work "History of Russian Literature" (1958), Dmitry Sergeevich published a more detailed sketch of the history of literature of the pre-Mongolian period than in 1951 and gave an "Introduction" and "Conclusion" to the section of the first volume devoted to the literature of the 10th - 17th centuries.

From the analysis of the literary skill of individual writers and entire groups of works or certain periods in the history of literature, D.S. Likhachev came closer and closer to the general problem of the "artistic method" of ancient Russian literature in its historical development.

In the artistic method of ancient Russian writers, D.S. Likhachev was primarily interested in ways of depicting a person - his character and inner world. The cycle of his works on this topic opens with the article "The Problem of Character in Historical Works of the Early 17th Century." (1951). As we can see, the scientist began the study of this problem from the end - from the period that completes that segment of the history of Russian literature, which, in general, is called "ancient", opposing it to the "new" time. However, already in Literature XVII in. a turning point is clearly outlined, the appearance of a number of new features that will be fully developed in the 18th century. Among these signs, D.S. especially singled out a new attitude to the image of a person, his inner world.

In 1958, D.S. Likhachev published the book "Man in the Literature of Ancient Russia". In this book, the "problem of character" is explored not only on the material historical genres: from the end of the XIV century. hagiography is involved; "new" in the development of this problem is widely shown in various types of democratic literature of the 17th century. and baroque style. Naturally, the author could not exhaust all the literary sources in one study, however, within the limits of the studied material, he reflected the historical development of such basic concepts as character, type, and literary fiction. He clearly showed what a difficult path Russian literature went through before turning to depicting the inner world of a person, his character, that is, to an artistic generalization leading from idealization to typification.

The book "Man in the Literature of Ancient Russia" is a serious contribution not only to the study of the history of ancient Russian literature. The method of scientific research underlying it and the important generalizations that it contains are of great interest to both the art critic and the researcher of new Russian literature, and to the theorist of literature and aesthetics in the broad sense of the word.

The historical approach to the study of the artistic skill of the literature of Ancient Russia also characterizes the formulation by D. S. Likhachev of other questions of the original poetics of the 11th - 17th centuries.

Steadily following the path of studying the specific connections of literature as part of culture with historical reality, D. S. Likhachev from this position explores the originality of the artistic skill of ancient Russian literature. The so-called "constant formulas" have long been declared one of the characteristic features of ancient Russian poetics. Without denying their presence, D.S. proposed to study these formulas in connection with that "extremely complex ritual - ecclesiastical and secular" that feudalism developed. This "etiquette" also corresponded to the constant forms of verbal expression, which D.S. conventionally proposes to call "literary etiquette."

A generalization of D.S. Likhachev's observations on the artistic specificity of ancient Russian literature was his article "On the Study of the Artistic Methods of Russian Literature in the 11th - 17th Centuries." (1964), and especially the book "Poetics of Old Russian Literature" (1967), awarded the State Prize of the USSR in 1969. D. S. Likhachev's monograph is distinguished by the breadth of the range of phenomena under consideration and the harmony of the composition, which makes it possible to connect, it would seem, the most distant phenomena of artistic life - from the features of stylistic symmetry in the monuments of translated literature of Kievan Rus to the problems of the poetics of time in the works of Goncharov or Dostoevsky. This complex composition of the book is due to the concept of the unity of Russian literature constantly developed by D. S. Likhachev; the principle of analysis of the phenomena of poetics in their development determines the construction of all sections of the monograph.

D. S. Likhachev has long been occupied with the idea of ​​creating theoretical history of ancient Russian literature, which would make it possible to comprehensively analyze the leading tendencies and processes of literary development, to consider literature in its closest ties with the history of culture, to determine the complex relationship of ancient Russian literature with other medieval literatures, and, finally, to clarify the main paths of the literary process. If in his works of the 1950s D.S. concentrated on studying the process of the emergence of ancient Russian literature and the initial stage of its development, then in subsequent studies he turned to the key problems of its history.

His fundamental work "Some tasks of studying the second Yunoslav influence in Russia", presented at the IV International Congress of Slavists in 1958 and giving rise to extensive literature in the form of numerous reviews and responses in our country and abroad, perfectly characterizes the scientist's ability to cover the widest range of interrelated and interdependent phenomena, to find and explain the common thing that brought them to life, to see various aspects of the implementation of the direction that covered all areas of spiritual life: literature (repertoire, stylistic devices), art, worldview, even writing techniques.

A peculiar result of these long-term searches of the scientist was his book "The Development of Russian Literature of the 10th - 17th centuries. Epochs and Styles" (1973). In it, D.S. again draws attention to the phenomenon of "transplantation" as special form communication and mutual influence of medieval cultures.

D.S. Likhachev’s solution to the problem of the Pre-Renaissance in ancient Russian literature is of fundamental importance. D. S. analyzes the humanistic trends typical of Byzantium and the South Slavs during this period, examines in detail the second South Slavic influence that contributed to the penetration of these ideas and sentiments on Russian soil, and reveals the specifics of the Russian version of the Pre-Renaissance, which, in particular, was characterized by the conversion to "their antiquity" - the culture of Kievan Rus; the book reveals the reasons that prevented the rapidly flowing Pre-Renaissance from moving into the "real Renaissance".

The problem of the fate of the Russian Renaissance is also connected with the question of the specifics of the Russian baroque, raised by D.S. in the article "The Seventeenth Century in Russian Literature" (1969). In the book, D.S. sums up his many years of research in this area.

D.S. also turned to the study of the ancient Russian "laughter culture". In the book "The Laughter World" of Ancient Russia (1976), he first posed and developed the problem of the specificity of the laughter culture of Ancient Russia, considered the role of laughter in the public life of that time, which allowed him to highlight some features in behavior and behavior in a new way. literary creativity Ivan the Terrible, in Russian folk satire of the 17th century, in the works of Archpriest Avvakum.

Big interest represents the concept of D. S. Likhachev, according to which there was not and could not be a sharp gap between the “new ancient” and new Russian literature, for already during the entire 17th century. there was a transition from medieval literature to the literature of modern times, and the latter was not born from scratch in the process of fundamental changes in the early 17th century, but naturally completed the long, centuries-old process that had taken place in the literature of Ancient Russia since its formation. This issue was considered in particular detail by D.S. in the section "Pathways to New Russian Literature" in the book "The Artistic Heritage of Ancient Russia and Modernity" (1971), written jointly with V.D. Likhacheva.

Another theoretical problem worried D. S. Likhachev and repeatedly attracted his attention - this is the problem genre system Old Russian literature and more broadly - all Slavic literatures of the Middle Ages. This problem was posed and developed by him in reports at international congresses of Slavists - "The system of literary genres of Ancient Russia" (1963), "Old Slavic literatures as a system" (1968) and "The origin and development of genres of ancient Russian literature" (1973). In them, for the first time, the panorama of genre diversity was presented in all its complexity, the hierarchy of genres was identified and studied, and the problem of the close interdependence of genres and stylistic devices in ancient Slavic literatures was posed.

The history of literature faces a special task: to study not only individual genres, but also the principles on which genre divisions are carried out, to study their history and the system itself, designed to serve certain literary and non-literary needs and possessing some kind of internal stability. A broad plan for studying the system of genres of the 11th-17th centuries, developed by D.S., also includes the elucidation of the relationship between literary genres and folklore, connections, literature with other types of arts, literature and business writing. The importance of the works of D.S. lies precisely in the fact that he clearly formulated the main tasks of the study and the originality of the very concept of "genre" as applied to the literature of Ancient Russia.

All theoretical works of D. S. Likhachev strive to direct the study art system Literature XI - XVII centuries. on the path of genuine historicism, to take it beyond the limits of the mechanical accumulation of facts. They call for a comparative study of literary styles different periods of the Russian Middle Ages, to an explanation of changes in styles, due to the new tasks of literature that arose in a new historical situation.

But theoretical problems cannot be solved in isolation from specific historical and literary studies, and above all from studies of individual literary monuments. The range of monuments that D.S. Likhachev himself studied is extremely wide - these are the chronicles and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener" and "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh, the works of Ivan the Terrible and "The Tale of Grief-Misfortune", the story "On the Capture of the City of Torzhok" and "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius, "Shestodnev" by Ionne Exarch and the Izbornik of 1073, etc. These specific studies led D. S. Likhachev to the idea of ​​the need to generalize the accumulated material in the field of Old Russian textual criticism literature. In a number of articles, he discussed specific issues of textual practice, methods of publishing documentary and literary monuments, and finally published an extensive work "Textology. On the Material of Russian Literature of the 10th - 17th Centuries." (1962). This work by D.S. represents the first experience in Russian philology of systematizing all the textual problems facing researchers of Russian literature of the pre-Petrine period, and the methods for their solution.

One thought runs through the entire book of D.S.: textual criticism in general, and, in particular, the textual criticism of the medievalists, is not the sum of more or less successful "methods" of study, it is one of the branches of philological science that has its own tasks, requiring an extremely wide range of knowledge for their solution. It represents a necessary stage in the study of the literary monuments of the Russian Middle Ages, bypassing which we will not receive reliable material for depicting the literary process of that time.

In the second edition of "Textology" (1983), which appeared twenty years later, D.S. Likhachev made a number of significant changes and additions, which was dictated by the emergence of new studies, the revision of some points of view on issues raised in the first edition of the book. D.S. also included new sections in the book, in particular, he thoroughly considered the issue of the author's will in connection with the problems of publishing the author's text.

Turning to many historical, literary and theoretical problems, moving from specific observations on individual monuments to generalizations of the broadest nature, D.S. Likhachev for decades did not leave the topic to which he devoted dozens of his works. This topic is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In the works of the 50s, which were discussed above, D.S. laid the main directions of his future research. One of them is connected with the study of the poetics of the Lay in comparison with the aesthetic system of his time. For the first time this problem was reflected in the article by D. S. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and Features of Russian Medieval Literature" (1962), then, in connection with reflections on the genre of the monument, in the article "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the process of genre formation XI - XIII centuries. (1972) and finally in the generalizing work "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the aesthetic ideas of his time "(1976). Most of these works, with additions and changes made by the author, were included in his book "The Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Culture of His Time" (1978).

Significant place in scientific biography D.S. is occupied by his works devoted to polemics with skeptics. Until now, his work "Study of the Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Question of Its Authenticity" (1962) has not lost its significance. D.S. Likhachev made a great contribution to the creation of the six-volume "Dictionary-Reference book" The Tale of Igor's Campaign "" (1965 - 1984), actively participating in its editing and discussion, supplementing its articles with materials from his own research.

D. S. Likhachev has always strived to ensure that the achievements of scientific thought become the property of the widest readership. In addition to the popular editions of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, D.S. publishes a book of essays on the classic works of literature of Ancient Russia - The Great Heritage (1975). He was the initiator and participant of the monumental series "Monuments of Literature of Ancient Russia", published since 1978 by the publishing house "Fiction" and in 1993 received the State Prize of the Russian Federation. The desire to convey the results of scientific research of recent decades to high school prompted D. S. Likhachev to undertake the publication of the course "History of Russian Literature of the 10th - 17th Centuries" (1980), in which he acts as the author of the introduction and conclusion and as an editor who made a lot of efforts to ensure that this university textbook combines scientific character and methodological integrity with accessibility presentation.

D.S. Likhachev never closed himself in the study of ancient Russian literature. The book "Literature - Reality - Literature" (1981) contains his articles on various problems of literary theory, and among them is a selection of the most interesting observations on the works of Pushkin, Nekrasov, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Leskov, Tolstoy, Blok, Akhmatova, Pasternak, which D. S. unites the concept of "concrete literary criticism."

The ability to link together various spheres of culture and explain them based on the general aesthetic concepts of the time led D.S. to a new topic - the poetics of landscape art. In 1982, his original book "Poetry of Gardens. Toward the Semantics of Garden Styles" was published, based on materials on the history of gardens and parks in Russia and Western Europe from the Middle Ages to the beginning of our century.

D. S. Likhachev attached great value humanities, their social significance, their huge role in the education of patriotism. D. S. put forward a special concept - "ecology of culture", set the task of carefully preserving the environment created by "the culture of his ancestors and himself." This concern for the ecology of culture is largely devoted to the series of his articles included in the book "Notes on Russian" (1981). D.S. repeatedly addressed the same problem in his speeches on radio and television; a number of his articles in newspapers and magazines sharply and impartially raised issues of protection of ancient monuments, their restoration, respectful attitude to the history of national culture.

The need to know and love the history of one's country and its culture is mentioned in many articles by D.S. addressed to young people. A significant part of his books "Native Land" (1983) and "Letters about the Good and the Beautiful" are devoted to this topic; (1985), specifically addressed to the younger generation.

Science and cultural values ​​are created by people. The grateful memory of them should not be forgotten. D.S. created a whole series of essays about his senior comrades - outstanding scientists V.P. Adrianov-Peretz, V.M. Zhirmunsky, P.N. Berkov, I.P. Eremin, N.I. Konrad, N.K. Gudzii, B. A. Romanov and others. These are not only memoirs of a memoir nature, they are also essays on the history of science, they are, as it were, small hymns best qualities scientists - their enthusiasm, diligence, erudition, talent. Naturally adjoining these memoirs about scientists is a selection of aphorisms and judgments named by the author of Thoughts on Science. D.S.'s essays and aphorisms about scientists and science were included in the book Past for the Future (1985).

D. S.'s contribution to various fields of scientific knowledge is enormous - literary criticism, art history, cultural history, and the methodology of science. But D.S. did a lot for the development of science not only with his books and articles. His teaching and scientific-organizational activity is significant. In 1946-1953 Dmitry Sergeevich taught at the Faculty of History of the Leningrad State University, where he taught special courses - "History of Russian Chronicle", "Paleografia", "History of Culture ancient Russia and a special seminar on source studies.

The scientific and organizational talent of D.S. Likhachev was visibly manifested when, in 1954, he headed the Sector of Old Russian Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. An enterprising, energetic and demanding leader, he was able to implement great scientific ideas. Under his leadership, the Sector (in 1986 renamed the Department) firmly occupied the place of a genuine scientific center that unites and directs the study of the literature of the feudal period (from the 11th to the 17th centuries inclusive).

The scientific authority of D.S. Likhachev was also recognized by foreign Slavists. D.S.’s speeches at international congresses of Slavists, at conferences, in scientific societies and universities in a number of foreign countries had a great resonance. In 1985, he took part in the Cultural Forum of the participating States of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) held in Hungary. A full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR since 1970. D.S. is elected a foreign member of the academies - Bulgarian (1963), Hungarian (1973), Serbian (1971, National Academy Dei Lincei (Italy, 1987), corresponding member of the Austrian (1968), British (1976), Göttingen (Germany, 1988) academies, honorary doctor of the universities of Bordeaux (1982), Budapest (1985) Oxford (1967), Sofia (1988), Zurich (1983), Edinburgh (1971), Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun (1964) The State Council of the People's Republic of Bulgaria twice awards D.S. with the Order of Cyril and Methodius of the 1st degree (1963, 1977), the international prizes named after the brothers Cyril and Methodius (1979) and the name of Evfimy Tarnovskiy (1981), and in 1986 D.S. Likhachev was awarded the highest award of the NRB - the Order of Georgy Dimitrov.

Many books and articles by D.S., published in Soviet editions, were translated into Bulgarian, Polish, German, English, French and other languages. Published in Bulgarian, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, German, English, Japanese are the books by D. S. Likhachev "A Man in the Literature of Ancient Russia", "The Culture of Russia in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise", "Textology. Brief Essay "," The development of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries. Epochs and styles "," Poetics of ancient Russian literature "," The laughter world "of Ancient Russia" (together with A. M. Panchenko), "The artistic heritage of Ancient Russia and modernity" (together with V. D. Likhacheva), "The Great Heritage", "Letters about the Good and the Beautiful", "Poetry of the Gardens"; his books "Russian Chronicles and Their Cultural and Historical Significance" (1966), "The Culture of Russia in the Era of the Formation of the Russian National State. (The End of the 14th - the Beginning of the 16th Century)" (1967), "The National Self-Consciousness of Ancient Russia. Essays" were phototypically republished abroad. from the field of Russian literature of the XI - XVII centuries "(1969)

One of the very important areas of D.S.'s scientific and organizational activity is his editorial work. She was not limited to the publications of the Department of Old Russian Literature: D.S. was the chairman of the editorial board of the Literary Monuments series, the editorial board of the annual Cultural Monuments. New Discoveries, a member of the editorial board of the journal Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Department of Literature and Language, the Literature", published by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a member of the editorial board of the publication of the Leningrad branch of the Institute of History of the USSR "Auxiliary Historical Disciplines". D. S. was a member of the editorial boards and many other publications; he was also a member of the editorial board of the Concise Literary Encyclopedia. D. S. took an active part in the life of a number of institutions and organizations. He was a member of the Leningrad Scientific Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Chairman of the Pushkin Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a member of the Academic Council of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Leningrad Branch of the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a member of the Bureau of the Scientific Council on the complex problem "History of World Culture" of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Academic Council of the State Russian Museum, Academic Council of the Museum of Ancient Russian Art. Andrei Rublev, member of the Criticism Section of the Union of Writers of the USSR.

In 1961 - 1962 D. S. Likhachev - Deputy of the Leningrad City Council of Workers' Deputies of the VIII convocation. In 1987, D.S. was again elected a deputy of the Leningrad City Council of People's Deputies. In 1966, for services to the development of Soviet philological science and in connection with the 60th anniversary of his birth, D.S. was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor; in 1986, Dmitry Sergeevich was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor for his great services in the development of science and culture, the training of scientific personnel and in connection with his 80th birthday. In 1986, D.S. was elected chairman of the board of the Soviet Culture Fund.

In the last decade of the life of D.S. Likhachev, his social demand is of particular importance. But it is one thing when, as chairman of the Cultural Foundation, he is involved in a huge variety of ideas and projects of representatives of national culture seeking financial support, and quite another when he withstands the onslaught of newspaper, radio and television journalists day after day. One and only words are expected from him. Which will be understandable in their open-mindedness and intellectual authority. Society trusts his assessments, but this is already a rapidly stratifying society, trying to free itself from the dogma and official phraseology of previous decades. It is wary and with a degree of mistrust perceives what it hears and reads. But D. s. This society believes Likhachev, because he does not fawn either before the time or before society. He lives in it and he believes in the enduring value and unifying power of national and world culture, he is convinced and convinces others of the moral and spiritual strength of man, his high mission to do good and create beauty. Even the way D.S. Likhachev speaks and writes, his style of communication with the audience turns out to be significant. The culture of speech, the persuasiveness of intonation, the excellent sense of the native language and the logically strict movement of thought made readers and listeners involved in the ideas, problems, anxieties of D.S. Likhachev in his reflections on the historical role of Russia, on the fate of world culture.

The name of D.S. Likhachev becomes in these years the property of the international community. His works on the history of ancient Russian literature and culture were, of course, known to Slavists all over the world, translated into foreign languages, but the possibilities of personal presence of D.S. Likhachev abroad were limited. Now he represents at many international meetings of the highest level, and he is a kind of revelation for countries Western Europe, for America and Japan, that in "mysterious" Russia there are, it turns out, people who are involved in everything, reflecting on the fate of the world, who have retained the idea of ​​​​eternal values. In addition, this "guardianship" is not at all retrospective, since it was D.S. Likhachev who, in 1995, proposed to the world community for discussion and approval the "Declaration of the Rights of Culture", which formulated the main results of his own reflections on topics relevant to the existing world.

New books by D.S. Likhachev continue to be published every year. These are most often works of a generalizing nature, such as "Notes and Observations: From Notebooks of Different Years" (1989), "On Philology" (1989), " Russian art from antiquity to the avant-garde" (1992), "Essays on the philosophy of artistic creation" (1996). Scientific research on the history of ancient Russian literature is brought together, supplemented and refined: "Historical poetics of ancient Russian literature. Laughter as a worldview" (1996), "The Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Culture of His Time. Works recent years"(1998). A significant place in these years belongs to D. S. Likhachev's reflections on the past and future of Russia, memories of teachers and contemporaries, autobiographical notes: "The Book of Anxiety" (1991), "Reflections" (1991), "Memoirs" (1995, reprinted 1997, 1999).

Per outstanding achievements in the field of humanities, the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences awards D.S. Likhachev in 1993 with the Big Gold Medal named after M.V. Lomonosov, in the same year he was awarded the title of First Honorary Citizen of St. Petersburg. In 1996 he was awarded the Order "For Services to the Fatherland" of the second degree, in 1997 the International Literary Fund awards him the prize "For the Honor and Dignity of Talent". In 1998, for his contribution to the development of national culture, D.S. Likhachev became the first holder of the Order of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called established by the Russian government "For Faith and Loyalty to the Fatherland", in the same year he was awarded the International Silver Commemorative Badge "Swallow of Peace" (Italy) for his great contribution to the promotion of the ideas of peace and the interaction of national cultures. The public authority of D. S. Likhachev in these years is great and he tries to use it to the maximum to protect libraries, museum values, cultural institutions from encroachments on their integrity and dignity. He still has many scientific and creative plans, but his strength is gradually leaving him. Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev died on September 30, 1999 in St. Petersburg. He was buried at the cemetery in Komarovo on October 4.

The essay is based on an article by V.P. Adrianov-Peretz and M.A. Salmina, published in the book: D.S. Likhachev. 3rd ed. M.: Nauka, 1989. S. 11-42. The abridged edition and additions to the article were made by V. P. Budaragin.

List of major publications of academician D.S. Likhachev. Page

Russian chronicles and their cultural and historical significance. - M.; L.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1947. - 499 p. (Republished 1966, 1986).

The book is based on the doctoral dissertation of D.S. Likhachev, defended by him in 1947. The result of his scientific work was the construction of a systematic history of chronicle writing from its origin to the 17th century. “The purpose of the book,” wrote D.S. Likhachev, “is to supplement the genealogy of chronicling with a general history of the work of chroniclers, to give a history of the methods of chronicling, the methods of chronicling - always different depending on the conditions in which chronicling was conducted, to give the history of chronicling, as the history of Russian historical and political thought.

Man in the Literature of Ancient Russia. - M.; L.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1958. - 186 p. (Republished 1970, 1987).

In this book, D.S. Likhachev for the first time made an attempt to analyze how a person was seen in ancient Russian literature and what were the artistic methods of depicting him. The author of the book came to the conclusion that there were several styles in the depiction of a person, which successively replaced each other, but sometimes coexisted in parallel, covering different genres.

Textology: On the material of Russian literature of the 10th - 17th centuries. - M.; L.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1962. - 605 p. (Republished 1983, republished 2001: with the participation of A. A. Alekseev and A. G. Bobrov).

As rightly noted by V.P. Adrianov-Peretz and M.A. Salmina in "A Brief Essay on the Scientific, Pedagogical and Social Activities of D.S. Likhachev", this book by the scientist "represents the first experience in Russian philology of systematizing all the textological tasks facing researchers of Russian literature of the pre-Petrine time, and methods for their solution.

Textology: Brief. feature article. - M.; L.: Nauka, 1964. - 102 p.

This book is a short essay on textual criticism, i.e. on the study of the history of the text of a work, whether it is a historical document or a literary work. The main thesis for the author remains the position that textual criticism is an independent philological science, designed to first study the text, and then publish it.

Poetics of ancient Russian literature. - L.: Nauka, 1967. - 372 p. (Republished 1971, 1979, 1987).

D.S. Likhachev for the first time considered the ancient Russian literature as a special literature, revealed the aesthetic value of the monuments of the verbal art of medieval Russia. He not only singled out artistic features individual works or genres (this was observed in the works of A.S. Orlov, V.P. Adrianov-Peretz, I.P. Eremin), but presented poetics as an integral system. Based on a huge "real commentary", the scientist debunked the myths about the isolation and isolation of ancient Russian literature, its isolation. He noted the "extremely high Europeanism" of the literature of Ancient Russia; her youth and ability to develop.

Artistic heritage of Ancient Russia and modernity. - L.: Nauka, 1971. - 120 p. (Jointly with V. D. Likhacheva).

The book "The Artistic Heritage of Ancient Russia and Modernity" was written by a literary critic (D.S. Likhachev) and an art critic (V.D. Likhacheva, daughter of D.S. Likhachev), which is not accidental, because literary criticism and art criticism, as stated in the book, - "these are the sciences that fight against the death of culture, ... they link times, link peoples, strengthen the unity of mankind." At the same time, a deep assimilation of the artistic heritage of the past, "introducing it to modern culture requires a deep and comprehensive study." The authors showed that as a result of discoveries and research, especially in the 20th century, Ancient Russia appeared "not as an unchanging and self-limiting seven-century unity, but as a diverse and constantly changing phenomenon."

The development of Russian literature in the 10th - 17th centuries: Epochs and styles. - L.: Nauka, 1973. - 254 p. (Republished 1987, 1998).

Such books by D.S. Likhachev, as "Man in the Literature of Ancient Russia", "Culture of Russia in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise", "Poetics of Old Russian Literature", as well as "The Development of Russian Literature of the 10th-17th Centuries. Epochs and Styles", dedicated to the historical poetics of Old Russian literature, this is a new direction not only in domestic, but also in world literary criticism.

Great heritage: Classical works of literature of Ancient Russia. - M.: Sovremennik, 1975. - 368 p. - (For lovers of Russian literature). (Republished 1980, 1987, 1997).

In the book "The Great Legacy" by D.S. Likhachev characterizes the literary monuments of Ancient Russia, which can be called classical, i.e. works that are examples of ancient Russian culture, known throughout the world and which everyone should know educated person.

"Laughing World" of Ancient Russia. - L.: Nauka, 1976. - 204 p. (Sir. "From the history of world culture"). Joint with A. M. Panchenko. (Republished 1984: "Laughter in Ancient Russia - jointly with A. M. Panchenko and N. V. Ponyrko; re-ed. 1997: "Historical Poetics of Literature. Laughter as a World View").

In this book, the authors tried to characterize laughter as a system, the anti-world in its entirety, the worldview of laughter in itself and, at the same time, only one culture - the culture of Ancient Russia. The urgent need for the appearance of this study is quite understandable: the "laughter world" of Ancient Russia was not studied. As the authors of the book rightly wrote, "no attempts were made to determine its features - national and epochal".

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the culture of his time. - L.: Art literature, 1978. - 359 p. (Republished 1985).

Book by D.S. Likhachev "The Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Culture of His Time" is a monographic study summing up the results of the author's many years of work on the study of one of the most significant works of ancient Russian literature. Separate observations of the scientist on the text of the monument, his discoveries, set forth in a number of works published earlier, acquired in this monograph a form of generalization that arose at the junction of various methods and approaches in studying the work, which, in turn, allowed D.S. Likhachev to build a concept that describes both the nature of the monument itself and reveals the specifics of the aesthetic structure of the entire Russian Middle Ages.

Notes about Russian. - M.: Sov. Russia, 1981. - 71 p. (Writer and time). (Republished 1984, 1987).

We write a lot about our roots, the roots of Russian culture, but very little is done to really tell the general reader about these roots, and our roots are not only ancient Russian literature and Russian folklore, but also all of our neighbors. culture.

Literature - reality - literature. - L.: Owls. writer, 1981.- 215 p. (Republished 1984, 1987).

The book "Literature - Reality - Literature" is clearly divided into two parts, two sections. The first section is devoted to particular explanations of particular literary phenomena - what the author calls "concrete literary criticism." "One of the tasks of the book," writes D.S. Likhachev, "is to show various aspects of specific literary criticism, specific in the analysis of style, specific in the interpretation of works, specific in commenting on certain places. Explanations are sought in historical reality, in everyday life and customs, in realities cities, even in the most previous literature, taken as a kind of reality.

Poetry of gardens: Toward the semantics of landscape gardening styles. - L.: Nauka, 1982. - 341 p. (Republished 1991, 1998).

The popularity of D.S. Likhachev's "Poetry of Gardens", expressed not only in the reprints of this work of the scientist, but also in its translations into other languages ​​(Polish, Italian, Japanese), is understandable. D.S. Likhachev considered the garden as some kind of aesthetic system, "a system of content, but the content of which requires its own very special definition and study." The validity of this approach to landscape gardening culture lies in the fact that the garden always expresses some philosophy, aesthetic ideas about the world, the relationship of man to nature.

Letters about the good and the beautiful. - M.: Det. lit., 1985. - 207 pp. (Republished 1988, 1989, 1990, 1994, 1999).

Book by D.S. Likhachev "about the good and the beautiful", compiled in a conditional form - 46 letters, addressed and addressed to the younger generation, she talks about the Motherland, patriotism, the greatest spiritual values ​​​​of mankind, the beauty of behavior and the world around.

Selected works: in 3 volumes. - L .: Hood. literature., 1987. T. 1. - 656 p. T. 2. - 656 p. T. 3. - 656 p.

In the three-volume D.S. Likhachev collected his main books and works devoted not only to ancient Russian literature, but also to Russian culture in general.

Notes and observations: From notebooks of different years. - L.: Owls. writer, 1989. - 608 p.

In the book of D.S. Likhachev included a wide variety of notes, memoirs, thoughts, observations extracted by the author from his notebooks, as well as interviews from the 80s. The genre of this book is interesting - these are notes: there are no links in the memoirs, discussions about literature, architecture, culture and science in general are fragmentary and not systematized - in a word, "little things", maybe not everything is clear and not everything is finished. But this is precisely the charm and spirit of this book - its "calm flow", and at the same time depth and wisdom. The reader can and should draw his own conclusions, think for himself.

Russian art from antiquity to the avant-garde. - M.: Art, 1992. - 408 p.

The entire book "Russian Art from Antiquity to the Avant-Garde", all the essays placed and selected by the author for it, are permeated with a comprehensive and all-consuming pride in Russian culture, for the creations it created. Admiration, worship and words of gratitude are uttered in this book by a person who has been studying this culture all his life, interpreting it and highlighting it, and therefore he has the right to appreciate and evaluate it.

Memories. - St. Petersburg: Logos, 1995. - 519 p. (Republished 1997, 1999, 2001).

"Memories" D.S. Likhachev, perhaps, go beyond the traditional memoir genre. Of course, they reflect the milestones and events of his own life, his personal fate: childhood, teaching at the university, student scientific circles, arrest, Solovki, the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal, liberation, the difficult hungry days of the blockade, work at the Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences, Pushkin House.

Essays on the philosophy of artistic creativity / RAS. In-t rus. lit. - St. Petersburg: Rus.-Balt. information blitz center, 1996. - 159 p. (Republished 1999).

The book "Essays on the Philosophy of Artistic Creativity" is dedicated to the 90th anniversary of Academician D.S. Likhachev. This is a collection of some previously published reflection articles by D.S. Likhachev about the nature of artistic creativity, but supplemented with completely new chapters and lined up in a single logical chain.

About the intelligentsia: Sat. articles. (Supplement to the almanac "Eve", issue 2). - St. Petersburg, 1997. - 446 p.

The book contains articles, speeches, newspaper publications, interviews with Academician D.S. Likhachev of different years. All of them are united by one theme - the role and importance of the intelligentsia in society. "On the Russian Intelligentsia" and "The Intelligentsia - an Intellectually Independent Part of Society" are two articles in the collection, which set out the main thoughts of the author on this topic.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the culture of his time. Works of recent years / Ed. T. Shmakova. - St. Petersburg: Logos, 1998. - 528 p.

The first edition of the book "The Tale of Igor's Campaign and the Culture of His Time" was published in 1978. The book is a monographic study summing up the results of the author's many years of work on the study of one of the most significant works of ancient Russian literature.

Thinking about Russia. - St. Petersburg: Logos, 1999. - 666 p.

This book, the last published during the life of D.S. Likhachev, combines works devoted to the problems of the history of Russian culture, its place in the history of world civilization, myths about it, its national characteristics and most characteristic features.

Editing and introductory articles for each volume in the editions of ancient Russian monuments: "Izbornik" (1969, 1986), "Monuments of literature of Ancient Russia" (in 12 volumes, 1978-1994), "Library of literature of Ancient Russia" (in 20 volumes ; publication has been carried out since 1997; during the life of D.S. Likhachev, 7 volumes were published, by 2002 - 10 volumes).

D.S. Likhachev wrote ten prefaces to the publication "Monuments of Literature of Ancient Russia".

Russian culture. - M.: Art, 2000. - 438 p.

This book is a posthumous edition of D.S. Likhachev's essays, written by him at different times and on different occasions, but invariably containing the author's independent personal view of the problems of Russian culture throughout its thousand-year existence. The principle of considering culture as an integral environment is combined with the assertion that Russian culture belongs to universal European culture, arguing with ideas about the "Eurasianism" of Russia.

sayings

Feeling yourself in history is extremely important. Monuments of culture and history help this feeling in history. A special role in this feeling is played by the historical appearance of our cities, the historical landscape, ordinary buildings of entire regions.

Literature, art, traditions, customs help to feel oneself in history.

No wonder children are so drawn to old customs, they love stories about antiquity. This is a healthy and extremely important instinct.

To feel like an heir to the past means to be aware of one's responsibility to the future.

“How little of what happened was written down, how little of what was written was saved” (Goethe). But there is one more step in relation to the past: misunderstanding of it, distortion, creation of a kind of myths that are completely inconsistent with what was. Even historical personalities and historical events of half a century ago are turned into a kind of "mythologemes". And what is interesting is that there are completely different ideas about the same event or person, each of which adds up to an integral image. An example is the image of Stalin (there are more than two of them).

Fashion very often runs after something serious, superficially reflects some deep phenomena. Now there is a fashion for history: for historical novels, for memoirs, for Klyuchevsky, Solovyov and Karamzin. Interest in history (albeit often shallow) is basically a very important, significant and necessary phenomenon for our time. Interest in history is connected with the need (spiritual need) to look for one's roots, to feel stability, strength, one's place and purpose in our shaky world. And this also teaches respect for other peoples, other cultures and at the same time self-respect. History teaches us to appreciate modernity as the result of thousands of years of efforts, exploits, and sometimes martyrdom of our ancestors. History shows how many mistakes were made in the past "for the happiness of subjects." It fosters a sense of responsibility for the future.

It's amazing how wrong they can be. smartest people. This must always be kept in mind when referring to "authorities". Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov wrote in earnest in his book The National Question in Russia (St. Petersburg, 1888): “As for contemporary writers, with the most benevolent assessment, it still remains undoubted that Europe will never read their works” (p. 140). But now, in the global plan, Russian literature is the most widely read! Further: “It is necessary to expose growing talents and geniuses more significant than Pushkin, Gogol or Tolstoy. But our new literary generations, which, however, had time to show their strength, could not produce a single writer approximately equal to the old masters. The same must be said about music and historical painting: Glinka and Ivanov did not have successors of the same magnitude as them. It seems difficult to deny the obvious fact that literature and art in Russia are on a downward path...” (pp. 140 - 141). Solovyov says the same about Russian "scientific creativity." The prejudice of his time? But how many more prejudices we have inherited from the 19th century and cultivated by ourselves and about ourselves!

In the same book Vl. Solovyov, there is such a place (p. 139, note): “Only in architecture and sculpture, nothing significant created by the Russians can be indicated. Our ancient cathedrals were built by foreign architects; the foreigner owns the only (emphasis mine. - D.L.) highly artistic monument that adorns the new capital of Russia (the statue of Peter the Great).

O. E. Mandelstam said about Klyuchevsky: “Klyuchevsky, a kind genius, a domestic spirit-patron of Russian culture, with whom no disasters, no trials are terrible.” This is in a note about Blok "Badger Time". This is surprisingly true, but why? I think that events, no matter how terrible they are, are illuminated and sanctified by their inclusion in history, in meaningful history, in storytelling, well written. In general, any humanitarian concept, whether it concerns history, art, literature, an individual work or an individual creator (writer, sculptor, painter, architect, composer), makes life “safe”, justifies the existence of misfortunes, smooths out all their “pricklyness” in them.

"The present is the last day of the past." For Ancient Russia, this was how it was: “front” (beginning) and “back” (the very last in the time series). We are behind, in the “wagon train” of past and ongoing events. The present is the result, the result of the past. So a bad past can never lead to a good present unless... unless we realize all the mistakes of the past. As we move into the future, we ourselves become the past. No sacrifice and destruction in the name of a "beautiful future" is invalid and immoral.

I’m walking from the cemetery in Komarov - the road “I won’t tell you where” in a pine forest. Two cut down a pine tree. They clumsily saw further - into balans (in Solovetsky - long logs), so that they could take the pine home for the firebox.

- "Where are the firewood from?"

The “summer resident” (semi-responsible worker) gloomily answers (without stopping, without thinking - literally “on the move”):

- "From the forest, of course."

Everything is in this scene: both the power of Russian poetry (it has ingrained itself in the consciousness, serves as a language), and the vulgarity, heaviness, sadness of our life. After all, the scene repeats Nekrasov caricature. There, at Nekrasov's, there is a boy, alive, moral, engaged in moral work. And here - a poacher, a "violator", a semi-responsible worker, a summer resident, unaccustomed to work, engaged in physical labor for the sake of theft.

Over time, Russia will stand on the boy. He is an assistant to his father, and then he will go to his father’s grave, he will be a peasant, he will feed Europe. Or become a soldier.

And this one? There is no future. The present is theft, "cottage comfort." There is no cemetery behind - he probably does not go to "native graves". He heats the stove, and then - a bad one, folded by the hands of hacks.

R. G. Skrynnikov in his book on Grozny gives a good quotation from Engels, explaining the mood of Grozny, his fear of death. Skrynnikov writes that the “epoch of terror” cannot be identified with the domination of people who inspire horror. “On the contrary (here the quotation from Engels begins), it is the domination of people who themselves are frightened. Terror is for the most part useless cruelties committed for their own comfort by people who themselves experience fear ”(Letter from F. Engels to Karl Marx dated September 4, 1870 - K. Marx and F. Engels. Works, vol. 33, p. 45 ).

Well said by S. M. Solovyov: “The attachment of the peasants is a cry of despair emitted by the state, which is in a hopeless economic situation” (S. M. Solovyov. Public readings about Peter the Great. M., 1984, p. 23). It is well said further: “The past, present and future belong not to those who leave, but to those who remain, remain on their land, with their brothers, under their national banner” (p. 27).

"Russia, Poor Russia". And this is absolutely true. But what wealth in the palaces of the nobility, the imperial family. It is enough to compare the suburbs of St. Petersburg with Franz Josef's Schönbrunn Palace near Vienna. And the wealth of monasteries, libraries! And yet Russia is poor, because wealth or poverty is the wealth or poverty of the people, the general standard of living.

And here is the false, hackneyed, hackneyed statement, repeated several times with bragging in reports at general meetings of the USSR Academy of Sciences by its president, academician Aleksandrov: "Our country comes from a country of almost complete illiteracy under the tsarist government ..." Where did this statement come from? From old statistics? But then all the Old Believers who refused to read books of the civil press were recorded as illiterate. And these "illiterates" loved the book, they knew their books better than the collectors of information - their own. And read more.

Our ideas about history and the past are mostly myths. One of the myths is "Potemkin villages". And Prince Potemkin populated Novorossia and built Mariupol, Nikolaev and many other cities exactly where he supposedly built his "villages".

Nevertheless, the truth in this myth about the "Potemkin villages" was: in Russia they were very fond of building for the "boss's eye".

It is typical for the West and for us to exaggerate the specificity of Russian history. One should look for specificity, but only where it can really be scientifically established. Everyone is poking Grozny in our noses. However, at the time when Grozny was raging in our country, the Duke of Alba was bloodily cracking down on his enemies in Holland, and in Paris there was St. Bartholomew's night.

Vl. Solovyov said, paraphrasing the Gospel: "Love all other peoples as your own." For the development of culture, sympathetic familiarization with the culture of other peoples is extremely important.

Household democracy has always been stronger in Russia than in the West. Despite serfdom! The landlords, especially their children, were often friends with the courtyards. There were also nannies and uncles from the peasants - Arina Rodionovna, Savelichi. Against this background, Leo Tolstoy was not surprising either.

The Englishman Graham wrote in his book “Unknown Russia”: “Russian women always stand before God; thanks to them, Russia is strong.”

They say that in the slave markets of the Mediterranean, Russian women were especially valued as nannies. And after all, serf nannies remained with us the most cordial and intelligent educators. In addition to Arina Rodionovna, see: Shmelev, Nanny from Moscow; book. Evgeny Trubetskoy, "Memoirs". Sofia, 1921; book. S. Volkonsky, “The Last Day. Roman Chronicle, etc.

Every nation has its own advantages and disadvantages. You need to pay more attention to your own than to others. It would seem the simplest truth.

Man, his personality is at the center of the study of the humanities. That is why they are humanitarian. However, one of the main humanities - historical science - has moved away from the direct study of man. The history of man turned out to be without a man ...

Fearing an exaggeration of the role of the individual in history, we have made our historical writings not only impersonal, but also impersonal, and as a result of little interest. Readers' interest in history is growing unusually, historical literature is also growing, but meetings between readers and historians as a whole do not work, because readers, naturally, are primarily interested in man and his history.

As a result, there is a great need for the emergence of a new direction in historical science - the history of the human person.

Education should not be confused with intelligence.

Education lives on the old content, intelligence lives on the creation of the new and the awareness of the old as new.

More than that ... Deprive a person of all her knowledge, education, deprive him of his very memory, but if, with all this, he retains susceptibility to intellectual values, love for acquiring knowledge, interest in history, taste in art, respect for the culture of the past, the skills of an educated a person, responsibility in solving moral issues and the richness and accuracy of his language - spoken and written - this will be intelligence.

People at the lowest levels of social and cultural development have the same brain as people who graduated from Oxford or Cambridge. But it is "not loaded" completely. The task is to give full opportunity for cultural development to all people. Do not leave people with an "unoccupied" brain. For vices, crimes lurk in this part of the brain. And also because the meaning of human existence lies in the cultural creativity of all.

Of course, education cannot be confused with intelligence, but it is education that is of great importance for the intelligence of a person. The more intelligent a person, the greater his craving for education? And here one important feature of education attracts attention: the more knowledge a person has, the easier it is for him to acquire new ones. New knowledge easily “fits” into the stock of old ones, is remembered, and finds its place.

Let me give you the first examples that come to mind. In the twenties I was acquainted with the artist Ksenia Polovtseva. I was amazed by her acquaintances with many famous people of the beginning of the century. I knew that the Polovtsy were rich, but if I were a little more familiar with the history of this family, with the phenomenal history of their wealth, how many interesting and important things I could learn from her. I would have a ready-made "package" to recognize and remember.

Or an example from the same time. In the 1920s we had a library of the rarest books that belonged to I. I. Ionov. I once wrote about it. How much new knowledge about books I could have acquired if at that time I knew at least a little more about books.

The more a person knows, the easier it is to acquire new knowledge.

They think that knowledge is crowded and the circle of knowledge is limited by some amount of memory. Quite the opposite: the more knowledge a person has, the easier it is to acquire new ones.

The ability to acquire knowledge is also intelligence.

And besides, an intellectual is a person of a “special fold”: tolerant, easy in the intellectual sphere of communication, not subject to prejudices, including those of a chauvinistic nature.

Many people think that once acquired intelligence then remains for life. Delusion! The spark of intelligence must be maintained. To read, and to read with choice: reading is the main, although not the only, educator of intelligence and its main "fuel". "Do not quench the spirit!"

A nation that does not value intelligence is doomed to perish.

Each person is obliged (I emphasize - is obliged) to take care of his intellectual development. This is his duty to the society in which he lives and to himself.

The main (but, of course, not the only) way of intellectual development is reading.

Reading should not be random. This is a huge waste of time, and time is the greatest value that cannot be wasted on trifles. You should read according to the program, of course, without strictly following it, moving away from it where there are additional interests for the reader. However, with all deviations from the original program, it is necessary to draw up a new one for yourself, taking into account the new interests that have appeared.

Reading, in order to be effective, must interest the reader. Interest in reading in general or in certain branches of culture must be developed in oneself. Interest can be largely the result of self-education.

Composing reading programs for yourself is not easy, and this must be done with the advice of knowledgeable people, with various types of reference books that exist.

The danger of reading is the development (conscious or unconscious) in oneself of a tendency to "diagonally" view texts or to different kind speed reading methods.

"Speed ​​reading" creates the appearance of knowledge. It can be allowed only in certain types of professions, being careful not to create in oneself the habit of speed reading, it leads to a disease of attention.

The compiler of the famous English dictionary, Dr. Samuel Johnson, stated: “Knowledge is of two kinds. We either know the subject ourselves, or we know where to find information about it.” This adage played a huge role in English higher education, because it was recognized that the most necessary knowledge in life (in the presence of good libraries) is the second. Therefore, examinations in England are often held in libraries with open access to books. It is checked in writing: 1) how well the student is able to use literature, reference books, dictionaries; 2) how logically he argues, proving his thought; 3) how well he can express his thoughts in writing.

All Englishmen are good at writing letters.

The words of Blessed Augustine: “The only sign of nobility will soon be the knowledge of literature!” Now - knowledge of poetry, anyway.

Will the book cease to exist? Will it be replaced by instruments that display or read text?

Of course, devices (devices) are very necessary. It would be great if a geologist could take with him a hundred, a thousand reference books on an expedition in a matchbox, or a winterer could take a large library with him just for reading.

But these devices will not be able to completely replace the book, just as the cinema could not replace the theater (and predicted), the horse - the car, the living flower - the most skillful fake.

The book can be stroked, loved, returned to what was read. I like to read Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol - in those same one-volume books that my parents gave me in childhood, even though the text in them is inaccurate. Blok's poems in the very collections that were published during his lifetime are special.

The apparatus (instrument) can be extremely convenient, but still the book is alive.

My favorite thing about the book is the font in which it is printed, the typesetting title, the clear printing, the lovingly made binding.

If the book did not give rise to a single independent thought in you, then it was read in vain (except for reference books, but they are not read in a row).

Be Columbus - open good books in an ocean of unimportant things.

Books, according to Karl Popper, are the "third reality"; the first is objectively existing, the second is subjective.

Some thoughts from the Izbornik of 1076, intended for the princes.

“When they slander you, understand: when there is someone before you in that slander; if you don’t have it, then I’ll slander the smoke.”

“If it’s weak to live, then don’t bring it to light.”

"Let the sun not rise in your anger."

“Say much to God, but little to man.”

"It's good for a man to be condemned, rather than condemn."

And here is a thought from the great book "Cheti-Minei":

“It is fitting for the feeder (helmsman) with the rowers to have a single thought, if they start to have a strife in themselves, then the ship will become mired.”

One Pomor said to Ksenia Petrovna Gemp: “There is one sky above us, and one earth below us.” Otherwise: we are all equal under heaven and on earth.

I also remember the saying: "Prudence is the best part of valor."

Somewhere in Belinsky's letters, I remember, there is this idea: scoundrels always gain the upper hand over decent people because they treat decent people like scoundrels, and decent people treat scoundrels like decent people.

Mickiewicz said somewhere: "The devil is a coward, he is afraid of loneliness and always hides in the crowd." And again: "The devil is looking for darkness, and we must hide from him in the light."

Many sayings are known to us in a shortened form. At first, everyone knew them in full and therefore understood them from the initial words, and then the saying seemed understandable and without continuation: a saying - and that's it. So, for example: “Dashing trouble is the beginning ...” Why trouble? And here is what Peter said, according to legend, when in 1702 he was the first to drive a pile in a particularly stormy river, transferring his frigates from the White Sea to Lake Onega: “It’s hard for the first deer to rush into the fire, the rest will still be there.” And here is another saying: “Do not sweep rubbish out of the hut”, its full form: “Do not sweep rubbish out of the hut to someone else's fence.”

A long tongue is a sign of a short mind.

English proverb: "People who live in a glass house shouldn't throw stones."

The destroyed churches along the banks of the Volga "gradually pass into the jurisdiction of nature." Someone said something similar about the ruins in Athens.

Nature is an amazingly gifted artist. It is worth leaving it without human intervention for ten years, and it creates beautiful landscape. The trees planted in the "boxed" city quickly ennoble it.

Let's ask ourselves - in what style does this "artist" work? Classicism? No! Baroque? No! Romanticism is closer. Landscape romantic parks are closest to the aesthetic aspirations of nature, and nature is closest to landscape romantic parks.

In romantic parks, the nature of different countries, different landscape zones of nature can be most naturally expressed.

In poetry, romanticism did the most to "discover" nature. Romantic poetry is richer than any other in descriptions of nature. In all this, much speaks in favor of romanticism and in favor of its role in the history of literature and painting.

For me, a mystery in nature is the aesthetic consistency of colors: for example, the color of a flower and its leaves, the colors of wildflowers growing in the same clearing, the color of autumn leaves. On a maple tree - always different, but consistent. If color is vibrations that have nothing to do with what the human eye sees, then how are the colors of colors calculated for their perception by a person?

Where nature is left to itself, its colors are always coordinated in shades.

Nature is a great landscape painter.

The most beautiful trees are old olives. I saw amazing, two-thousand-year-old olive trees full of health in 1964 in the Primorsky part of Montenegro near Budva and Sveti Stefan. In the book of Hosea in the Bible: "... and it will be beauty like the beauty of an olive tree," that is, there is no higher. The olive heals itself. She heals the hollows that form in her trunk, and these trunks look like huge bones of her fruits.

Old trees are the subject of increased care and reverence in the Baltic States, the Caucasus, the Balkans...

In Montenegro, two-thousand-year-old olive trees are amazing in beauty (near the city of Budva). In Bulgaria, images of “an old tree” growing near a place are circulating ... I forgot which one. The year of his "birth" - 16... I also forgot - I clearly remember the 17th century. And here in the village of Kolomenskoye, trees (oaks) are 500 years old and do not enjoy due respect and attention. They are dying. Maybe this phenomenon is generally typical for us Russians, when old people are not given a seat in transport?

What a contrast with the Caucasus! In 1987, we traveled along the Volga on a motor ship, on which there were many Georgian passengers with children. A Georgian boy of about 13, whom everyone on the ship considered a big naughty, was one of the first to get off at each pier and helped me, my wife and other elderly people get off at the gangway!

One Canadian told me that they have old trees, old ones, they get medals, and these medals are attached to them. There are champion trees: the oldest in their area, the tallest, the thickest in the trunk. In Estonia, Latvia, all old trees are registered.

Qur'an: "Be sure to plant a tree - even if the world ends tomorrow."

My father (an engineer) told me. When they built a brick factory chimney in the old days, they looked, most importantly, to ensure that it was correctly, that is, placed absolutely vertically. And one of the signs was the following: the pipe should have swayed a little in the wind. This meant that the pipe was placed vertically. If the pipe was tilted even a little, it did not oscillate, it was completely motionless, and then it was necessary to disassemble it to the ground and start all over again.

Any organization, in order to be strong, must be elastic, "sway a little in the wind."

Surprisingly correct thought: "A small step for a man is a big step for mankind." Thousands of examples can be cited: it costs nothing to be kind to one person, but it is incredibly difficult for humanity to become kind. You can't fix humanity, it's easy to fix yourself. Feed a child, take an old man across the street, give way to a tram, do a good job, be polite and courteous... and so on and so forth. - all this is simple for a person, but incredibly difficult for everyone at once. That's why you need to start with yourself.

November 28, 2009 marks the 103rd anniversary of the birth of the great Russian scientist and thinker of the 20th century, Academician D.S. Likhachev (1906-1999). Interest in the scientific and moral heritage of the scientist is not weakening: his books are republished, conferences are held, and Internet sites are opened dedicated to the scientific activities and biography of the academician.

The Likhachev Scientific Readings became an international phenomenon. As a result, the ideas about the range of scientific interests of D.S. Likhachev, many of his works, which previously belonged to journalism, were recognized as scientific. It is proposed to attribute academician Dmitry Sergeyevich Likhachev to the number of encyclopedic scientists, a type of researchers that is practically not found in science since the second half of the 20th century.

In modern reference books you can read about D.S. Likhachev - philologist, literary critic, cultural historian, public figure, in the 80s. "created a culturological concept, in line with which he considered the problems of humanizing people's lives and the corresponding reorientation of educational ideals, as well as the entire education system as determining social development at the present stage." It also speaks of his interpretation of culture not only as the sum of moral guidelines, knowledge and professional skills, but also as a kind of "historical memory".

Comprehending the scientific and journalistic heritage of D.S. Likhachev, we are trying to determine: what is the contribution of D.S. Likhachev into national pedagogy? What works of the academician should be attributed to the pedagogical heritage? These seemingly simple questions are not easy to answer. The absence of a complete academic collection of works by D.S. Likhachev, undoubtedly, complicates the search for researchers. More than one and a half thousand works of the academician exist in the form of separate books, articles, conversations, speeches, interviews, etc.

More than a hundred works of the academician can be named, which fully or partially reveal topical issues education and upbringing of the young generation of modern Russia. Other works of the scientist, devoted to the problems of culture, history and literature, in their humanistic orientation: appeal to a person, his historical memory, culture, citizenship and moral values, also contain a huge educational potential.

Valuable ideas for pedagogical science and general theoretical provisions are presented by D.S. Likhachev in the books: “Notes on Russian” (1981), “Native Land” (1983), “Letters about the Good (and Beautiful)” (1985), “The Past to the Future” (1985), “Notes and Observations: from Notes books of different years” (1989); “School on Vasilevsky” (1990), “Book of Anxiety” (1991), “Reflections” (1991), “I Remember” (1991), “Memories” (1995), “Reflections on Russia” (1999), “Treasured "(2006) and others.

D.S. Likhachev considered the process of upbringing and education as introducing a person to the cultural values ​​and culture of his native people and humanity. According to modern scientists, the views of academician Likhachev on the history of Russian culture can be a starting point for further development of the theory of pedagogical systems in their general cultural context, rethinking the goals of education, pedagogical experience.

Education D.S. Likhachev did not think without education.

“The main goal of secondary school is education. Education must be subordinated to education. Education is, first of all, the instillation of morality and the creation of students' skills of life in a moral atmosphere. But the second goal, closely connected with the development of the moral regime of life, is the development of all human abilities, and especially those that are characteristic of this or that individual.

In a number of publications of Academician Likhachev, this position is specified. “Secondary school should educate a person who is able to master a new profession, be capable enough of various professions and above all be ethical. For the moral basis is the main thing that determines the viability of society: economic, state, creative. Without a moral basis, the laws of the economy and the state do not work ... ".

According to the deep conviction of D.S. Likhachev, education should not only prepare for life and work in a certain professional field, but also lay the foundations for life programs. In the works of D.S. Likhachev, we find reflections, explanations of such concepts as human life, the meaning and purpose of life, life as the value and values ​​​​of life, life ideals, the life path and its main stages, the quality of life and lifestyle, the success of life, life-creation, life-building, plans and life projects, etc. Moral problems (development in the younger generation of humanity, intelligence, patriotism) are specially devoted to books addressed to teachers and youth.

“Letters about kindness” occupy a special place among them. The content of the Good Letters is a reflection on the purpose and meaning of human life, about its main values ​​.. In letters addressed to the younger generation, Academician Likhachev talks about the Motherland, patriotism, the greatest spiritual values ​​of mankind, and the beauty of the world around. Appeal to every young person with a request to think about why he came to this Earth and how to live this, in fact, a very short life, makes D.S. Likhachev with the great humanist teachers K.D. Ushinsky, Ya. Korchak, V.A. Sukhomlinsky.

In other works (“Native Land”, “I Remember”, “Reflections on Russia”, etc.) D.S. Likhachev raises the question of the historical and cultural continuity of generations, which is relevant in modern conditions. In the national doctrine of education in the Russian Federation, ensuring the continuity of generations is highlighted as one of the most important tasks of education and upbringing, the solution of which contributes to the stabilization of society. D.S. Likhachev approaches this task from a cultural point of view: culture, in his opinion, has the ability to overcome time, to connect the past, present and future. Without the past there is no future, one who does not know the past cannot foresee the future. This provision should become the conviction of the younger generation. For the formation of personality is extremely important social cultural environment created by the culture of his ancestors, the best representatives of the older generation of his contemporaries and himself.

The surrounding cultural environment has a huge impact on the development of the individual. “The preservation of the cultural environment is a task no less important than the preservation surrounding nature. If nature is necessary for a person for his biological life, then the cultural environment is no less necessary for a person for his spiritual, moral life, for his spiritual settled way of life, for his attachment to his native places, following the precepts of his ancestors, for his moral self-discipline and sociality. Monuments of culture Dmitry Sergeevich refers to the "tools" of education and upbringing. "Ancient monuments educate, as well-groomed forests educate a caring attitude towards the surrounding nature."

According to Likhachev, the entire historical life of the country should be included in the circle of human spirituality. “Memory is the basis of conscience and morality, memory is the basis of culture, the “accumulations” of culture, memory is one of the foundations of poetry – an aesthetic understanding of cultural values. Preserving memory, preserving memory is our moral duty to ourselves and to our descendants.” “That is why it is so important to educate young people in a moral climate of memory: family memory, national memory, cultural memory.”

The education of patriotism and citizenship is an important direction of pedagogical reflections of D.S. Likhachev. The scientist connects the solution of these pedagogical problems with the modern aggravation of the manifestation of nationalism among the youth. Nationalism is a terrible scourge of our time. Its cause D.S. Likhachev sees in the shortcomings of education and upbringing: peoples know too little about each other, do not know the culture of their neighbors; there are many myths and falsifications in historical science. Addressing the younger generation, the scientist says that we have not yet learned to truly distinguish between patriotism and nationalism (“evil disguises itself as good”). In his works, D.S. Likhachev clearly distinguishes between these concepts, which is very important for the theory and practice of education. True patriotism consists not only in love for one's Motherland, but also in enriching oneself culturally and spiritually, enriching other peoples and cultures. Nationalism, fencing off its own culture with a wall from other cultures, dries it up. Nationalism, according to the scientist, is a manifestation of the weakness of the nation, and not its strength.

“Reflections on Russia” is a kind of testament of D.S. Likhachev. “I dedicate it to my contemporaries and descendants,” Dmitry Sergeevich wrote on the first page. “What I will say on the pages of this book is my purely personal opinion, and I do not impose it on anyone. But the right to tell about my most general, albeit subjective, impressions gives me the fact that I have been studying Russia all my life, and there is nothing more dear to me than Russia.

According to Likhachev, patriotism includes: a feeling of attachment to the places where a person was born and raised; respectful attitude to the language of their people, concern for the interests of the motherland, the manifestation of civic feelings and the preservation of loyalty and devotion to the motherland, pride in the cultural achievements of their country, upholding its honor and dignity, freedom and independence; respect for the historical past of the motherland, its people, its customs and traditions. “We must preserve our past: it has the most effective educational value. It brings up a sense of responsibility to the Motherland.

The formation of the image of the Motherland occurs on the basis of the process of ethnic identification, that is, attributing oneself to representatives of a particular ethnic group, people, and the works of D.S. Likhachev, in this case, can be very useful. Teenagers are on the verge of moral maturity. They are able to feel the nuances in the public assessment of a number of moral concepts, they are distinguished by the richness and variety of experienced feelings, emotional attitude to various aspects of life, the desire for independent judgments and assessments. Therefore, the education of the younger generation of patriotism, pride in the path that our people have traveled, is of particular importance.

Patriotism is a vivid manifestation of the national, national identity. The formation of genuine patriotism, according to Likhachev, is associated with the conversion of thoughts and feelings of the individual to respect, recognition not in words, but in deeds of cultural heritage, traditions, national interests, and the rights of the people.

Likhachev considered personality as a carrier of values ​​and a condition for their preservation and development; in turn, values ​​are a condition for preserving the individuality of the individual. One of Likhachev's main ideas was that a person needs to be educated not from outside - a person must educate himself from himself. He should not assimilate the truth in a finished form, but with his whole life be brought closer to the development of this truth.

Turning to the creative heritage of D.S. Likhachev, we identified the following pedagogical ideas:

The idea of ​​Man, his spiritual powers, the ability to improve along the path of kindness and mercy, his desire for an ideal, for harmonious coexistence with the outside world;

The idea of ​​the possibility of transforming the spiritual world of man through Russian classical literature, art; the idea of ​​Beauty and Goodness;

The idea of ​​a person's connection with his past - centuries of history, present and future. Awareness of the idea of ​​the continuity of a person's connection with the heritage of his ancestors, customs, way of life, culture, develops in schoolchildren an idea of ​​​​the Fatherland, duty, patriotism;

The idea of ​​self-improvement, self-education;

The idea of ​​forming a new generation of Russian intellectuals;

The idea of ​​fostering tolerance, focusing on dialogue and cooperation

The idea of ​​mastering the cultural space by the student through an independent, meaningful, motivated learning activity.

Education as a value determines the attitude of the younger generation to the most important aspect of our life - continuous education, which is necessary for everyone in the era of rapid development of scientific and technical information. For Likhachev, education has never been reduced to learning to operate with a sum of facts. In the process of education, he singled out the inner meaning that transforms the consciousness of the individual in the direction of "reasonable, good, eternal" and the rejection of everything that undermines the moral integrity of a person.

Education as a social institution of society is, according to Likhachev, precisely the institution of cultural continuity. To understand the “nature” of this institution, an adequate assessment of the teachings of D.S. Likhachev about culture. Likhachev closely associated the concept of intelligence with culture, the characteristic features of which are the desire to expand knowledge, openness, service to people, tolerance, and responsibility. Culture appears as a unique mechanism of self-preservation of society, is a means of adaptation to the surrounding world; the assimilation of its samples is a basic element of personality development, focused on the moral and aesthetic values ​​of a person.

D.S. Likhachev connects morality and cultural horizons, for him this connection is something taken for granted. In Letters about Kindness, Dmitry Sergeevich, expressing “his delight in art, in front of its works, in front of the role that it plays in the life of mankind,” wrote: “... The greatest value that art rewards a person is the value of kindness. ... Awarded through art with the gift of a good understanding of the world, the people around him, the past and the distant, a person is easier to make friends with other people, with other cultures, with other nationalities, it is easier for him to live. ... A person becomes morally better, and therefore happier. ... Art illuminates and at the same time sanctifies a person's life.

Each era found its prophets and its commandments. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, a man appeared who formulated the eternal principles of life in relation to new conditions. These commandments, according to the scientist, represent a new moral code of the third millennium:

1. Do not kill or start wars.

2. Do not think of your people as an enemy of other peoples.

3. Do not steal or appropriate your brother's labor.

4. Seek only the truth in science and do not use it for evil or for the sake of self-interest.

5. Respect the thoughts and feelings of your brothers.

6. Honor your parents and grandparents and preserve and honor everything they have created.

7. Honor nature as your mother and helper.

8. Let your work and thoughts be the work and thought of a free creator, and not a slave.

9. Let all living things live, let the conceivable be thought.

10. Let everything be free, for everything is born free.

These ten commandments serve as "Likhachev's testament and his self-portrait. He had a pronounced combination of mind and goodness. For pedagogical science, these commandments can be the theoretical basis for the content of moral education.

“D.S. Likhachev plays a role that is similar in many respects to the role of not only a theoretician who has modernized moral precepts, but also a teacher-practitioner. Perhaps it is appropriate here to compare him with V.A. Sukhomlinsky. Only we do not just read a story about our own pedagogical experience, but, as it were, we are present at the lesson of a wonderful teacher leading a conversation, amazing in terms of pedagogical talent, choice of subject, methods of argumentation, pedagogical intonation, mastery of the material and the word.

The educational potential of the creative heritage of D.S. Likhachev is unusually great, and we tried to comprehend it as a source of formation of the value orientations of the younger generation, having developed a series of moral lessons based on the books “Letters about kindness”, “Treasured”.

The formation of adolescents' value orientations on the basis of Likhachev's pedagogical ideas included the following guidelines:

Purposeful formation of the Russian identity in the minds of the modern young generation as the creator of the state and the custodian of its great scientific and cultural heritage, the desire to increase the intellectual and spiritual potential of the nation;

Education of civil-patriotic and spiritual-moral qualities of a teenager's personality;

Respect for the values ​​of civil society and an adequate perception of the realities of the modern global world;

Openness to interethnic interaction and intercultural dialogue with the outside world;

Education of tolerance, focus on dialogue and cooperation;

Enrichment of the spiritual world of adolescents by introducing them to self-examination, reflection.

The “image of the result” in our case assumed the enrichment and manifestation of the value-oriented experience of adolescents.

Reflections and individual notes of Academician D.S. Likhachev, short essays, philosophical poems in prose, collected in the book "Treasured", an abundance interesting information of a general cultural and historical nature is valuable for a teenager. For example, the story "Honor and Conscience" allows teenagers to talk about the most significant internal human values, introduces them to the code of knightly honor. Teenagers can offer their own code of morality and honor (schoolchild, friend).

We used the technique of “reading with stops to answer questions” when we discussed with teenagers the parable “The People About Themselves” from the book “Treasured”. A deep philosophical parable gave rise to a conversation with teenagers about citizenship and patriotism. The questions for discussion were:

• What is the true love of a person for the Motherland?
• How does a sense of civic responsibility manifest itself?
• Do you agree that “in the condemnation of evil, love for good is necessarily hidden”? Prove your opinion, illustrate with examples from life or works of art.

Schoolchildren in grades 5-7 compiled Dictionaries of Ethics based on the book by D.S. Likhachev "Letters about kindness". The work of compiling a dictionary gave adolescents not only an idea of ​​moral and spiritual values, but also helped to realize these values ​​in their own lives; contributed to effective interaction with others: peers, teachers, adults. Older teenagers compiled a Citizen's Dictionary based on the book by D.S. Likhachev "Reflections on Russia".

"Philosophical table" - this form of communication was used by us with older teenagers on issues of an ideological nature ("The meaning of life", "Does a person need a conscience?"). Before the participants of the "Philosophical Table" a question was posed in advance, the answer to which they were looking for in the works of Academician D.S. Likhachev. The art of the teacher was manifested in the timely connection of the pupils' judgments, in supporting their bold thought, in noticing those who had not yet acquired the determination to say their word. The atmosphere of an active discussion of the problem was also facilitated by the design of the premises where the “Philosophical Table” was held: tables arranged in a circle, portraits of philosophers, posters with aphorisms on the topic of the conversation. We invited guests to the "Philosophical Table": students, reputable teachers, parents. The participants did not always come to a unified solution to the problem, the main thing is to stimulate the desire of adolescents to analyze and reflect on their own, to look for answers to questions about the meaning of life.

When working with the book by D.S. Likhachev "Treasured" it is possible to conduct business games as a variant of a combination of situational and role-playing games, providing for many combinations of solving the problem.

For example, the business game "Editorial Board" is the release of the almanac. The almanac was a handwritten publication with illustrations (drawings, cartoons, photographic materials, collages, etc.).

In the book "Treasured" there is a story by D.S. Likhachev about traveling along the Volga "Volga as a reminder". Dmitry Sergeevich proudly says: "I saw the Volga." We invited one group of teenagers to remember a moment in their lives, about which they can proudly say: “I saw ...” Prepare a story for the almanac.

Another group of teenagers was asked to “make” a documentary film with views of the Volga based on the story of D.S. Likhachev “Volga as a reminder. Referring to the text of the story allows you to “hear” what is happening (the Volga was filled with sounds: the ships were buzzing, greeting each other. The captains shouted into the mouthpieces, sometimes just to convey the news. The loaders sang).

“The Volga is known for its cascade of hydroelectric power stations, but the Volga is no less valuable (and perhaps even more) as a “cascade of museums”. The art museums of Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov, Plyos, Samara, Astrakhan are a whole "people's university".

Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev in his articles, speeches, and conversations repeatedly emphasized the idea that “local history instills love for the native land and gives the knowledge without which it is impossible to preserve cultural monuments on the ground.

Cultural monuments cannot simply be kept - outside of people's knowledge about them, people's care for them, people's "doing" next to them. Museums are not storerooms. The same should be said about the cultural values ​​of a particular area. Traditions, rituals, folk art require to a certain extent their reproduction, performance, repetition in life.

Local history as a phenomenon of culture is remarkable in that it most closely allows you to connect culture with pedagogical activity, the unification of young people in circles and societies. Local history is not only a science, but also an activity.

The story “About Monuments” from D.S. Likhachev’s book “Treasured” became an occasion for a conversation on the pages of the almanac about unusual monuments that exist in different countries of the world and cities: a monument to Pavlov’s dog (St. Leningrad region), a monument to a wolf (Tambov), a monument to Bread (Zelenogorsk, Leningrad region), a monument to geese in Rome, etc.

On the pages of the almanac were "reports on a creative trip", literary pages, fairy tales, short stories about travel, etc.

The presentation of the almanac was carried out in the form of an "oral journal", a press conference, and a presentation. The educational goal of this technique is to develop creative thinking adolescents, finding the optimal solution to the problem.

Excursions to museums, sightseeing places in the native city, sightseeing trips to another city, trips to monuments of culture and history are of great educational value. And the first trip, Likhachev believes, a person must make through his own country. Acquaintance with the history of one's country, with its monuments, with its cultural achievements is always the joy of the endless discovery of something new in the familiar.

Multi-day trips introduced students to the history, culture and nature of the country. Such trips-expeditions made it possible to organize the work of students for the whole year. At first, teenagers read about the places they were going to, and on the trip they took pictures and kept diaries, and then they made an album, prepared a slide presentation or a film, for which they selected music and text, and showed it to those who were not on the trip at the school evening. The cognitive and educational value of such trips is enormous. During the campaigns, they conducted local history work, recorded memories, stories of local residents; collected historical documents, photographs.

The upbringing of adolescents in the spirit of citizenship based on the development of moral feelings and guidelines is, of course, a difficult task, the solution of which requires special tact and pedagogical skill, and this is the work of D.S. Likhachev, the fate of a great contemporary, his reflections on the meaning of life can play an important role.

Proceedings of D.S. Likhachev are of undoubted interest for understanding such an important and complex problem as the formation of a person's value orientations.

Creative heritage of D.S. Likhachev is a meaningful source of enduring spiritual and moral values, their expression, enriching the spiritual world of the individual. In the course of perception of the works of D.S. Likhachev and their subsequent analysis, there is an awareness, and then a justification of the significance for society, for the individual of this heritage. Creative heritage of D.S. Likhachev serves as the scientific base and moral support that creates the prerequisites for the correct choice of axiological guidelines for education.

10. Triodin, V.E. Ten commandments of Dmitry Likhachev // Very um. 2006/2007 - No. 1 - special issue for the 100th anniversary of the birth of D.S. Likhachev. P.58.

All books of the author: Likhachev D. (35)

Likhachev D. The development of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries

INTRODUCTION

In this work, I strive to give some generalizations for constructing a future theoretical history of Russian literature in the 10th-17th centuries.
The term "theoretical history" may raise objections. It may be assumed that all other histories of literature are thus, as it were, declared "non-theoretical." Therefore, I need to determine my attitude towards the traditional histories of various literatures.
It goes without saying that there can be no history of literature without theoretical generalizations. Even the very absence of generalizations is in some respects a generalization - an expression of one's attitude to the literary process. Periodization, and the arrangement of material by chapters, and the assignment of works to one or another period or genre, and the sequence of material arrangement, and the very selection of material (authors, works, etc.), and much more, without which any courses are impossible, are generalizations. textbooks and history of literature.
However, the presentation by the authors of their understanding of the process of development or simply the flow of literature is combined in traditional histories of literature with a retelling of well-known factual material, with the communication of elementary information regarding the authors and their works. Such a combination of both is necessary for educational purposes, it is necessary in order to popularize literature and literary criticism, it is necessary for those who would like to replenish their knowledge, to understand authors and works in a historical perspective. Traditional histories of literature are necessary and will always remain necessary.
The purpose of theoretical history is different. The reader is supposed to have a certain necessary minimum of knowledge, information and some erudition in ancient Russian literature. Only the nature of the process, its driving forces, the causes of the emergence of certain phenomena, the features of the historical and literary movement of a given country in comparison with the movement of other literatures are investigated.
All seven centuries of ancient Russian literature were presented for a long time in a weakly dissected form. The chronology of many works has not been established, the features of individual periods have not been identified. Therefore, very often ancient Russian literary works were more readily considered in general courses of ancient Russian literature by genre than in chronological order.
A decisive transition to a historical examination of ancient Russian literature became possible when advances in the study of the history of Russian chronicle writing made it possible to clarify not only the dating of chronicles and chronicle codes, but also the chronology of the many and many contained in them. literary works. The history of chronicle writing has placed distinct chronological milestones.
That is why the initiative of V.P. Adrianov-Peretz, who widely included in the history of Russian literature of the XI-XVII centuries. Russian annals, turned out to be very fruitful for the historical consideration of the entire vast seven-century literary material. The first volumes of the thirteen-volume "History of Russian Literature", published in 1940-1948, and their original preliminary summary in the first volume of the textbook on the history of Russian literature, edited by V. A. Desnitsky (M., 1941) (both of these editions were inspired by the theoretical thought by V.P. Adrianov-Peretz) were, in essence, the first histories of Russian literature in which the historical principle was carried out consistently and deeply.
Why is it necessary to return to the question of the historical meaning of individual epochs in the history of Russian literature of the 10th-17th centuries?
Oddly enough, in the history of Russian literature of the XI-XVII centuries. the differences from each other of small periods appear before us more clearly than the originality and significance of entire epochs.
Thus, for example, the features of the twelfth and first quarter of the thirteenth century stand out relatively clearly. compared with the peculiarities of the literature of Kievan Rus - XI century; features of the second half of the XVI century. compared to the first; features of individual decades of the 17th century.
And so on. In general, the meaning of the changes that took place within decades and half a century is also understandable, but the nature and meaning of literary phenomena inherent in larger periods is much less clearly revealed, and the significance of these periods is not specified. It is no coincidence that they are usually treated not with literary characteristics, but with purely historical ones.
Approaches to defining changes within decades and within several centuries are fundamentally different. In the first case, the dependence of historical and literary changes on historical events comes to the fore, in the second, the dependence of literature on the characteristics of historical development as a whole. To determine the first differences, it is necessary to observe individual phenomena of literature, to determine the second - broad generalizations of vast material and summing them up in the characteristics of eras, based largely on a sense of style - the style of the era. However difficult the definitions of epochs may be compared with the definition of short periods, they must be made even in order to ascertain the historical meaning of changes over short distances.
This paper examines the historical and literary meaning of four eras in their entirety: the era of the style of monumental historicism (X-XIII centuries), the Pre-Renaissance (XIV-XV centuries), the era of the second monumentalism (XVI century) and the century of transition to the literature of modern times (XVII century).
Only the Baroque problem turned out to be singled out. Why? * This will be explained in the relevant chapters, but already now it must be said that, while examining the process, one cannot blindly follow this process and place all the material in a strictly chronological order. Sometimes the roots of a new phenomenon go deep into the past, and then the researcher must go back. Much more often, a phenomenon that clearly manifested itself at a certain time remains in the future, as it were, “stuck” in literature and continues to live in it and undergo various changes. This is due to the fact that the history of culture is not only the history of changes, but also the history of the accumulation of values ​​that remain living and effective elements of culture in subsequent development. So, for example, Pushkin's poetry is not only a phenomenon of the era in which it was created, the completion of the past, but also a phenomenon of our time, our culture. We can say the same about all the works of ancient Russian literature, to the extent that they are read and participate in the cultural life of our time or are the result of previous development.
Cultural phenomena do not have strict chronological boundaries.
The construction of a theoretical history of Russian literature requires the improvement of the very methodology for studying literature as a kind of macroobject. The development of this technique is a matter for the future.
Statistical physics has recently been created to study macroobjects in physics. As you know, Norbert Wiener considered statistical physics the most important of the sciences, more important even than the theory of relativity or quantum theory.
The history of literature, which is supposed to describe epochs and periods, deals with millions of facts and phenomena.
It refers not to micro-objects, but to entire ensembles of micro-objects. The study of the history of individual micro-objects and macro-objects is different. To find out the history of macroobjects, one must sacrifice the detail of information about the history of each object separately.
Like statistical physics, theoretical, "statistical literary criticism" of the future must solve the problem of macrocharacteristics, bypassing too detailed descriptions. In the theoretical history of literature, a method of "approximate descriptions" must be worked out.
The literature of each period is a system of separate works with strong interaction and strong influence of tradition. This makes studying it as a whole especially difficult.
The technique of "statistical literary criticism" has not yet been created (of course, "statistical literary criticism" should not be understood in the primitive sense of the simple use of statistical information and approximate calculation in literary criticism), and therefore in this book one inevitably has to deal with very generalized phenomena: to characterize only the most major eras in the development of Russian literature X-XVII centuries.
Between ancient Russian literature and the new there is a decisive difference in the pace and type of development.
It has long been pointed out that medieval literature develops more slowly than modern literature. One of the reasons is that writers and readers do not aspire to the new as such.
What is new for them is not in itself some value, as is typical for the 19th and 20th centuries. Writers and readers of modern times are looking for novelty - novelty of ideas, themes, ways of expression, etc. A work of new literature is perceived by its readers in time. For the reader of modern times, it is far from indifferent - when the work was created: in what century and in what year, under what circumstances. For the reader of our modern, new literature, the value of a work increases if it has just appeared, is a novelty. This attitude towards novelties is maintained in modern times by criticism, magazines and the means of modern fast information, as well as fashion.
If we adhere to the common division of epochs - into epochs of habit and epochs of fashion, then Ancient Russia certainly belongs to the epochs of habit.
In fact, in the Middle Ages there is no historical relation to literature: the work exists in itself, regardless of when it was created. For the medieval reader, what matters most is what the work is dedicated to and by whom it was created: what position the author occupied or occupies in the first place, how authoritative he is in church and state relations. Therefore, all works are located, as it were, on the same plane - old and new. "Modern literature" for every time in the Middle Ages is what is read now, old and new, translated and original. Therefore, the starting point for the movement of literature forward is not the “latest” works that have just appeared, but the entire sum of literary works that are present in the reader's everyday life. Literature does not move forward from itself; it grows like fruits grow, feeding on the juices of all the literature that already exists in the reader's everyday life. New editions of old works are participating in this growth.
The “immobility” of the ways of depiction corresponds to the belief in the immobility and immutability of the world. The creation of a new would testify to the imperfection of the world. The task of the author is to reveal in the world the eternal, the unchanging. In causal connections for the medieval author, a different plan shines through, deeper and unchanging. artistic method new time, in which the author strives for clarity, concreteness and individuality, requires the renewal of artistic means, their "individualization". The abstracting method of the Middle Ages, which strives to extract the general, to remove the individual and the concrete, does not require renewal and is content with the general, which has always been.
It is customary to say that medieval literature is traditional. By traditional means adherence to old forms and old ideas. But for the Middle Ages, as I said, there is no "old" and "new" at all. Here the point is different: in the commitment of medieval literature to literary etiquette, to the desire to clothe the content in forms appropriate to this content, a kind of ceremonial literature.
That is why, in the Middle Ages, forward movement takes place in the depths of each genre separately. The genre of lives develops both together and separately from the genre of chronicles, the genres of oratorical works develop both together and separately from the lives, etc. Therefore, some genres are ahead of the development of others, have in their development individual differences from others.
All this must be taken into account when considering the historical significance of certain literary epochs. Not only the results of development are peculiar, but also the very “laws of development”, they also develop and change as reality itself changes. There are no "eternal" rules and laws by which development takes place.
Only by studying the movement of literature can we understand its national identity.
The national originality of literature consists not only in some permanent features of content and form that distinguish it from other national literatures, but also in some unchanging ideas, moods, emotional structure or moral qualities that accompany all the works of this literature.
The national character is also the features of the historical path of literature, the features of its developing relationship with reality, the features of the changing position of literature in society - its social “position” and the role that it plays in life [--- ] destva. Consequently, in order to determine the national [originality] of literature, not only constant, un[changeable] moments, its general characteristics as a single[------]oro, are important, but also the very nature of development, the nature of the relationships in which literature enters , - not only the features inherent in literature as such, but also its position in the culture of the country, its relationship with all other spheres of human activity. Distinctive features historical path of literature explain a lot in its national originality and are themselves part of this originality.
So, the features of national identity should be sought in a much broader sense than is customary.
Usually, the features of national identity serve as evaluating and “weighing” moments of literature.
But, revealing the origin and explaining the features of originalities, we can no longer subject them to an abstract assessment.
Every feature has a precise meaning in its origin and in its function, and therefore cannot serve as material for an abstract, abstract judgment about the merit of literature. The determinism of these features excludes them from the sphere of general assessments and abstract moralization.
Concrete scientific assessments in the history of literature are impossible where the origin, conditioning and functions of facts, their connection with the rest of the world are not sufficiently revealed, where indeterminacy is assumed to one degree or another, where facts are absolutized and withdrawn from the historical process and historical explanation.
Russian literature is part of Russian history. It reflects Russian reality, but it also constitutes one of its most important aspects. Without Russian literature, it is impossible to imagine Russian history and, of course, Russian culture.
And here's what you should pay special attention to. Human history is one. The path of each nation "in its ideal" is similar to the paths of other peoples. It is subject to the general laws of the development of human society. This position is one of the most significant achievements of Marxism.
The historian of culture cannot pass by the harmonious and simple concept of the laws of development of world culture, set forth by N. I. Konrad in his book “West and East” and in the article “On the Renaissance”. According to
(1) Konrad N. I. West and East. M., 1966, Ed. 2nd. M., 1972.
(2) Konrad N. I. About the Renaissance // Literature of the Renaissance and Problems of World Literature. M., 1967.
This concept, which firmly connected the development of world culture with the doctrine of the change of historical formations, the peoples who completely passed through the stages of the slave-owning formation and feudalism had the culture of their antiquity, related to the slave-owning period, the culture of their Middle Ages, associated with feudalism, and the Renaissance, which arose with the appearance in the feudal era of the first sprouts of capitalism. The appearance of the cultures of antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is, therefore, not a historical accident, but a historical regularity, a phenomenon of the "normal" development of peoples. It is essential that each of these stages of cultural development has its own major cultural achievements, and there is no reason to regard them unequally, to belittle some and put forward the importance of others. The attribution of certain epochs to the Renaissance is not an act of their evaluation.
For example, N. I. Konrad writes about the culture of the Middle Ages in Europe: “Marxist historical science shows that the transition from the slave-owning formation to feudalism at that historical time had a profoundly progressive significance. This circumstance makes us treat the "Middle Ages" differently than the humanists treated them. This attitude was known to be negative. The humanists saw in the Middle Ages "a time of darkness and ignorance" from which, as they thought, the appeal to the radiant "antiquity" could lead mankind. We cannot help but see in the onset of the "Middle Ages" a step forward, not backward. The Parthenon, the temples of Ellora and Ajanta are great creations of human genius, but no less great creations of human genius are the Milan Cathedral, the Alhambra, the Temple of Horyuji in Japan " *.
The idea of ​​the presence of the Renaissance in a particular country, in a particular century, has been repeatedly expressed in science.
They wrote about the Renaissance in Georgia, Armenia, Asia Minor, among the southern and western Slavs, among the Hungarians, etc. The fundamentally important side of the concept of N.I. only part of a broader picture of the world historical process, in which world antiquity and the world Middle Ages take their place. Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance are a single chain of cultural types, associated not only with the change of formations, but also with the laws of cultural development, in which the Renaissance comes as an appeal to antiquity, throwing a bridge to antiquity through an intermediate cultural type - the Middle Ages.
Of course, not all peoples had each of the three stages in the development of culture. Not all peoples have passed, for example, through the slaveholding formation or through all the stages of feudalism. N. I. Conrad considers the Greeks, Italians, Persians, Indians, and Chinese to be the peoples who have completely gone through the stages of the slave-owning system and feudalism. At the same time, N. I. Konrad argues that even among these peoples, the cultural phenomena of antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance have their own specific features in each individual case. Speaking about the Chinese and Central Asian Renaissance, N. I. Konrad emphasizes: “Of course, in no case can all these phenomena be completely identified. If we conditionally call them "revival", then both the "Tang revival" and the "Central Asian revival" have their own deeply specific features that distinguish them from each other and each of them from the "European revival". But do we have the right to see only these differences, not paying attention to similarities, especially since these similarities lie in the historical essence of phenomena? .
The unity of the world development of culture is expressed, in particular, in the fact that peoples, if they miss one or another “natural” stage of cultural development, can accelerate their development using the experience of neighboring peoples. At the same time, as N. I. Konrad writes, there is “a kind of “equalization” of the lagging behind (cultures. - D. L.) to the advanced ones, and not a mechanical transfer of the social forms of an advanced state to a lagging one” [*].
From this it is clear that only regrettable inattention can be caused by what N.I. Konrad writes about the concept of world cultural development in his last book, V.N. This is how N. I. Konrad uses it in his very interesting works.
N. I. Konrad raised the question “about the forms and levels of the Renaissance in individual countries”, about the typological similarities and differences of individual Renaissances, about the position of each of the Renaissances in the world historical process. One of the most important tasks of this book is a feasible attempt to answer this question for Russia, in which the Renaissance was only being prepared, but due to a number of circumstances it did not materialize, acquiring a long and “spilled” character, transferring some of its problems to the literature of the new time - XVIII century in particular.
Thus, in studying and revealing the originality of Russian literature along the entire path of its development, it is necessary not only to compare it with other literatures, but also to take into account the existence of a “normal” historical development of countries and peoples.
To characterize an era, the characterization of the style dominant in this era is of great importance. I understand by the dominant style not only the style of the language, the style in the narrow literary or linguistic sense, but also the style in the broad art criticism sense of the word. When we talk about the "style of the era", this concept includes, as an incoming and subordinate phenomenon, also the literary style; the literary style, on the other hand, has not only the style of the language of literature, but also the whole style of reflecting the world: the style of describing a person, understanding his internal and external properties, his behavior, the style of relating to social phenomena - their vision and reflection of reality close to this vision in literature , a style of understanding nature and attitudes towards nature.
But the characterization of style in the broadest sense of the word requires special means of art history description that do not fit with the type of reasoning and presentation adopted in this book. This is a special task. Attempts to resolve it were made by me in another work - "Man in the literature of ancient Russia". It is to this book that I refer the reader.
(1) “Konrad N. I. West and East. P. 36. Ed. 2nd. S. 32.
(2) Ibid. S. 95. Ed. 2nd. S. 82.
(3) Ibid. P. 35. Ed. 2nd. S. 31.
(1) Lazarev VN Russian Medieval Painting. M., 1970.
(2) Konrad N.I. About the 6th Renaissance. S. 45.
(3) Likhachev D.S. Man in the literature of ancient Russia. M.; L., 1968. Ed. 2nd. M., 1970. See also present. ed. T. 3.
I return to what I said at the beginning of this introduction.
Soviet literary criticism faces a responsible task - the creation of a theoretical history of Russian literature of the 10th-17th centuries, closely connected with the historical and literary development of other countries, and primarily Slavic ones. Only the creation of a general history of the Slavic literatures of their most ancient period can determine the differences in the character and development of each of the Slavic literatures. The task of creating such a theoretical history cannot be solved if the facts of similarities and differences in the development of literatures are considered in isolation from the history of the cultures of individual peoples and from their history as a whole. "A broad historical approach, taking into account all the changes in the life of peoples, is absolutely necessary in such kind of literary history. This study to a certain extent, he seeks to prepare material for creating a theoretical history of Russian literature of the 10th-17th centuries, based on taking into account simultaneous phenomena in other Slavic countries, although the construction of such a theoretical history is not included in the immediate task of this work.
Individual chapters are of different types in construction. The first and second chapters deal with the general problems of constructing the history of literature and the features of the historical path of Russian literature of its most ancient period, therefore, in them
scientific controversy occupies a large place. Chapter three, devoted to the 16th century, is relatively short - development during this period is retarded and disrupted. This century creates a style largely artificial. This chapter is more descriptive than the preceding ones. Chapters four and five are devoted to the 17th century. This century, which is characterized by many transitional phenomena (transitional to the new time). It does not lend itself to characterization under the sign of a single great style. Baroque is no longer the style of the era. This is one of the styles and one of the directions in Russian art and literature of the 17th century, however, the Baroque trend is perhaps the most important at the stage of transition to modern literature. The appeal to the Baroque forced me to discuss in the most brief and preliminary form the nature of the development of styles in general. From other phenomena of the 17th century. I take only one thing - the development of the personal principle in literature - an extremely important phenomenon in connection with the problem of the "inhibited Renaissance" - the main key to understanding the features of the historical and literary process of Ancient Russia.
The failure of the Renaissance in Russian literature did not remove the very problems of the Renaissance. They had to be solved anyway and were solved in Russian literature - more slowly, but more stubbornly, more painfully and therefore in a sharper form, longer, and therefore more diverse and deeper. The problem of the Renaissance turned out to be relevant for Russian literature for several centuries, and the theme of the value of the human personality and humanism - a topic that is typically national and socially valuable for its entire complex and difficult path.

3. Comparative-historical school. Scientific activity of A.N. Veselovsky.

4. "Historical Poetics" by A.N. Veselovsky. The idea and general concept.

5. The theory of the origin of literary genres in the understanding of A.N. Veselovsky.

6. The theory of plot and motive put forward by A.N. Veselovsky.

7. Problems of poetic style in the work of A.N. Veselovsky "Psychological parallelism in its forms and reflections of poetic style."

8. Psychological school in literary criticism. Scientific activity of A.A. Potebnya.

9. The theory of the internal form of the word A.A. Potebnya.

10. The theory of the poetic language of A.A. Potebnya. The problem of poetic and prose language.

11. The difference between poetic and mythological thinking in the works of A. Potebnya.

13. The place of the Russian formal school in the history of literary criticism.

14. The theory of poetic language put forward by the formalists.

15. The difference in the understanding of the language of A.A. Potebnya and the formalists.

16. Understanding by representatives of the formal school of art as a technique.

17. The Theory of Literary Evolution Substantiated by the Formalists

18. The contribution of the formal school to the study of the plot.

20. Scientific activity of M. M. Bakhtin. New cultural meaning of philology: the idea of ​​"text-monad".

21. M. M. Bakhtin's work "Gogol and Rabelais". Big time idea.

22. M. M. Bakhtin's discovery of Dostoevsky: the theory of the polyphonic novel.

23. Understanding M.M. Bakhtin of the essence of carnival culture and its specific forms.

24. Scientific activity of Yu.M. Lotman. Tartu-Moscow semiotic school. Its ideas and participants.

25. Basic concepts of structural poetics by Yu.M. Lotman.

26. Yu.M.Lotman on the problem of the text. Text and artwork.

27.M.Yu.Lotman's works on Pushkin and their methodological significance.

28. Justification of the semiotics of literature in the works of Yu.M. Lotman.

29. Scientific activity of D.S. Likhachev. The methodological significance of his works on the "Tale of Igor's Campaign".

30. The concept of the unity of Russian literature by D.S. Likhachev.

31. Doctrine of d.S. Likhachev about the inner form of a work of art.

32. D.S. Likhachev on the principles of historicism in the study of literature.

34. Hermeneutical approach to the study of literary text.

36. Receptive aesthetics. Substantiation of the subjectivity of the perception of a literary text (V.Izer, M.Riffater, S.Fish).

37. R. Barth as a theorist of culture and literature.

39. Narratology as a new literary discipline within the framework of structuralism and post-structuralism.

41. Modern interpretation of the function of archetypes in literature

42. Motive analysis and its principles.

43. Analysis of a literary text from the standpoint of deconstruction.

44. M. Foucault as a classic of post-structuralism in literary criticism. The concepts of discourse, episteme, history as an archive.

30. The concept of the unity of Russian literature by D.S. Likhachev.

Likhachev managed to prove that Russian literature was able to fulfill its great mission of shaping, uniting, uniting, educating, and sometimes even saving the people in difficult times of devastation and decay. This happened because it was based on and guided by the highest ideals: the ideals of morality and spirituality, the ideals of the high, measured only by eternity, the destiny of man and his equally high responsibility. And he believed that this great lesson of literature could and should be learned by everyone.

31. Doctrine of d.S. Likhachev about the inner form of a work of art.

Sixties of the XX century. marked by the expansion of literary horizons, the involvement of new methods of analysis of a work of art. In this regard, the interest in the problem of "literature and reality" has increased. A return to this most important problem of poetics is marked by a well-known article by D.S. Likhachev "The inner world of a work of art". The meaning of the article lies in the assertion of the "self-legality" of life depicted in a work of art. According to the researcher, the "artistic world" differs from the real one, firstly, by a different kind of system (space and time, as well as history and psychology, have special properties in it and obey internal laws); secondly, its dependence on the stage of development of art, as well as on the genre and the author.

32. D.S. Likhachev on the principles of historicism in the study of literature.

Thanks to Likhachev's brilliant research, the history of ancient Russian literature appears not as a sum of literary monuments on a certain time scale, but as a life-continuous growth of Russian literature, surprisingly accurately reflecting the cultural, historical, spiritual and moral path of many generations of our ancestors.

34. Hermeneutical approach to the study of literary text.

Hermeneutics is the theory and art of "profound interpretation of texts". The main task is to interpret the primary sources of world and national culture. "Movement to the origins" as a peculiar method of hermeneutics - from the text (drawing, musical work, academic subject, act) to the origins of its occurrence (needs, motives, values, goals and objectives of the author).

35. The concept of a hermeneutic circle.

The circle of “whole and part” (hermeneutical circle) serves as a guideline for the semantic understanding of the text (to understand the whole, it is necessary to understand the elements, but the understanding of individual elements is determined by the understanding of the whole); the circle gradually expands, revealing wider horizons of understanding.

36. Receptive aesthetics. Substantiation of the subjectivity of the perception of a literary text (V.Izer, M.Riffater, S.Fish).

Since its inception, receptive aesthetics, represented by the names of R. Ingarden, H.-R. Jauss, V. Iser, has brought to literary criticism the ability to reflect the diversity of types of reception, differing, however, in the duality of its attitudes. In receptive aesthetics, on the one hand, the thesis is postulated, and on the other hand, the meaning of the message is made dependent on the interpretive preferences of the recipient, the perception of which is determined by the context, which implies the individualization of each specific act of reading. The interpretation of a work, on the one hand, is obviously determined by the paradigm settings of the reader, on the other hand, M. Riffaterre points to the possibility of author's control over decoding by forming the necessary context in the space of the text itself. The plurality of readings and the ambiguity of meaning, which Y. Lotman urged not to confuse, thus arise at the intersection of the author's intention and the reader's competence, provided that the author is also the recipient of his own work.

about the author

Likhachev Boris Timofeevich(1929-1999) - a well-known Russian teacher and educational psychologist, full member of the Russian Academy of Education, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor. Graduated from the Pedagogical Faculty of the Moscow Pedagogical State University. IN AND. Lenin. From 1952 to 1968 - teacher of pedagogy and psychology at the Vologda State Pedagogical Institute, director of a basic school. He led the North-Western Council on the problems of spiritual and moral education, studied the issues of organizing a children's team and personality development. From 1970 to 1985 - Director of the Research Institute of Artistic Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. The main attention of the scientist was focused on the problems of the theory and practice of aesthetic education. After 1985, he has been successively in charge of the laboratories: of the staff and personality of the Institute of Theory and Methods of Education and Ecological Culture of the Personality of the Institute for the Development of the Personality of the Russian Academy of Education. He published more than 250 works on theoretical and methodological problems of pedagogy. In 1993, his work “Pedagogy. A course of lectures”, summarizing scientific research.
This book examines new approaches to the problems of the spiritual and moral development of the individual in a new socio-cultural situation for Russia.
2010

FROM THE AUTHOR

Chapter I
EDUCATION AS A NECESSITY AND FREEDOM

The upbringing of the rising generations as a socio-historical and objectively natural phenomenon has as its purpose the preparation of the productive forces of society, its livelihood, the formation of a certain social type of personality. The formation of the human personality is predetermined by the laws of the development of the organism and the functioning of the external natural environment, the formation public relations and forms of social consciousness. In order to provide the child with the conditions for survival and existence in society, education introduces him into the world of inevitable objective realities.
The child is not a passive object of formation by socio-historical conditions and influences. By nature, he is an actively active being and in this sense creates himself as a human person. Education exists simultaneously as a socio-historical necessity and as a phenomenon of subjective self-manifestation, as a self-formation of personality and individuality. A person is able to make a free choice, make independent decisions, bear full responsibility for them. He can be free, convinced, rebelling against everything that is contrary to his thoughts, feelings, conscience and will. In the upbringing of a person, two personality-forming tendencies collide, oppose, intertwine, promote or oppose each other. On the one hand, education manifests itself as a social necessity, on the other hand, as freedom, a phenomenon of active creative, personal and individual self-management of a person. The struggle, confrontation, interaction, complementarity or harmony of these tendencies constitute the very essence of the main pedagogical contradiction, the driving force behind the formation of the human personality.
Depending on concrete historical conditions, the tendencies of education as a necessity and as a freedom are in opposite, unequal positions. In some historical situations, the ruling class forces usurp and monopolize the content and organization of education, manipulate the minds of children, suppress personality and individuality in a person, reduce the spiritual life in society to unanimity, persecute thought crimes, achieve automatism, thoughtlessness in the implementation of guidelines. In other unstable social situations, social foundations are destroyed, traditions are destroyed, the connection of times breaks up, and disorganization occurs in education. The carriers of explosive ideas, individualistic moods, irresponsible relationships, actions, accomplishments are some adults, and adolescents, boys, girls, who actively and freely assert their personality and individuality in the system of relations through thoughtless actions. Education as a phenomenon of subjective self-development of a person is manifested in spontaneous, anarchic freedom. However, public life does not tolerate uncertainty, imbalance, destabilization. Out of the chaos of unorganized events, ideas and relationships, a new tendency to educate social necessity is gradually taking shape.
Sustainable social situations are those that create conditions for the harmonious and full-blooded interaction of education as a necessity and freedom. Such situations are characterized by the fact that the tendencies of social development are progressive and coincide with the interests of the individual. A society that carries out education as a necessary function of training the productive forces is interested in a person, contributes to the most complete, holistic self-manifestation of the personality, development, individuality, active manifestation of the creative spirit, i.e., the implementation of education as freedom. Under such conditions, a person is liberated, cognizes and searches for himself, acquires a field of application and deployment of his forces within the framework of a vital conscious necessity.
The movement of society from one situation of the correlation of education as a necessity and freedom to another, from harmony to disharmony and crisis, from organization to chaos and vice versa is determined by the laws of social development. Pedagogical science is called upon to adequately reflect and explain what is happening, correctly assess the current historical situation, find ways and means of overcoming the contradiction between education as a necessity and freedom, and influence the stabilization of their interaction.
At the same time, life has repeatedly proved and confirmed that in any socio-historical situation, in any socio-political system, education as freedom exists and is realized in individuals. In politics, science, religion, art, people have always appeared who freely and independently carried out and realized their upbringing and life. They made titanic breakthroughs, feats of the spirit in the intellectual and moral spheres, breaking through the thickness of ignorance and prejudice, rooted patterns and stereotypes of thought, overcoming suffering, benefited humanity, enriched it with new ideas about social life, people, nature. This rare phenomenon of subjective-educational free realization of oneself by a person in the interests of the individual and society must be supported by teachers, educators, and parents. They are designed to help children gain beliefs, independent thinking and decision-making, a sense of freedom and a sense of responsibility. Pupils need to develop in themselves moral immunity from any attempts to manipulate their consciousness, the ability to overcome the state of constraint and slavery of consciousness.
This requires a deep pedagogical awareness of the goal of education as freedom. Goal-setting in upbringing as a necessity is determined by the requirements for the child on the part of society. Depending on specific historical circumstances, they either contribute to the normal manifestation and development of human nature, or fetter, oppress, suppress it. The goal of upbringing as freedom is self-revealing, self-manifestation, self-realization by a child, an active-active being, of the physical and spiritual essential forces initially laid down in him by nature. This is achieved by meeting the growing needs of the individual, involving these forces, abilities, talents in activities, communication, relationships. It is important that the child, in the course of individual-personal maturation, gradually becomes aware of this process of self-development, self-formation, and actively contributes to its implementation. And the educational function of adults is to contribute in every possible way to this self-consciousness and the self-formation of the child as a free and responsible being.
However, it is obvious that there is no isolated and separate goal-setting separately in education as a necessity and as freedom. In the conditions of a socially stratified, class society, the goals of socially necessary education infringe and suppress the goals of education as freedom. They are taken into account only insofar as they do not affect the political, economic interests of the ruling class, do not contradict its ideas about the socially just structure of society. An absolutely valuable ideal and goal of education in unity as a necessity and freedom, its categorical imperative is the idea of ​​a comprehensive development of a creative personality and individuality, achievable in fair for all socio-political and economic, optimally developed conditions that ensure full self-formation, self-disclosure of all physical and spiritual the nature of the child. The task is to ensure that the social, economic, social, cultural life turn it into an environment of free self-realization and full sovereignty of the human personality and individuality.
However, the contradictions between the goals of education as a necessity and freedom will never be completely overcome. Society will always make demands on the individual, ensure and protect its interests. A person in social relations always faces freedom and lack of freedom, democracy and discipline, permissiveness and impermissibility. In what position are the goals of education as freedom in relation to external socio-political freedoms and restrictions?
By itself, democracy as an external socio-political freedom does not automatically ensure the internal freedom of the individual. Even in the absence of any kind of political control, a person can remain shackled, internally enslaved, subject to manipulation of his consciousness by various democratic, pseudo-democratic, reactionary, anti-democratic public amateur or state political forces. Yielding to the hypnosis of demagogic speeches, meeting passions, he turns into a victim of anarchist freedom, into an elementary particle of the crowd, internally unfree and spiritually enslaved. And, on the contrary, in the snares of external restrictions, persecution and even persecution, a person can preserve and develop in himself inner spiritual freedom, the ability to make a free moral choice, make fundamental decisions and, conscious of responsibility, defend them to the end. Often, resisting pressure and harassment, the spirit of an internally free person matures and grows stronger in the struggle, gives him the moral strength to endure hardships and gain courage.
But this does not mean that external and internal freedom always oppose each other. A situation is possible when the influence of the external social environment strengthens the inner spiritual strength of the child, develops his ability for independence and responsibility. At the same time, free internal stimuli of children can induce them to defend high moral ideals, to work to strengthen the external order. The coincidence of the requirements of social discipline and internal free conviction is realized by the child as a gradual understanding of himself, his place among other people, helps him master himself, overcome himself, subordinate emotions, instincts, passions to his will, direct his forces to self-development and self-education. Inner freedom manifests itself as self-discipline, a clear and unquestioning fulfillment of the requirements that a person makes to himself.
Thus, the implementation in the unity of education as freedom and necessity presupposes such an organization of children's life, which, developing civic self-awareness, would simultaneously contribute to the exercise of freedom of choice of life prospects and behavior, the formation of a sense of responsibility for one's actions, thoughts and deeds. In the process of self-development of the child, the implementation of education as freedom, the teacher teaches him to think critically, make independent decisions, stand firm for his convictions, consider other people as an end, not a means, resist the temptations and temptations of the flesh, power, wealth, selfishness, actions to the detriment of another person, be responsible to conscience and people. This is the essence of the target categorical imperative, the ultimate and absolute goal of educating a socially valuable and internally free personality.
What is the content essence of education as freedom? How high, far and deep does the inner freedom of man extend? What is false freedom? What is necessary for unlimited self-expression, self-development, self-formation of a personality?
External socio-political freedom limits the arbitrary actions of the individual by laws, law, moral norms, principles, instructions. There is no public freedom without restrictions that protect the interests of the majority. The inner freedom of spontaneous manifestation in the psyche of imagination, thought, feeling, word, will, conscience, choice, based on convictions, moral and aesthetic imperatives, cannot be limited by anything in a spiritual person. Not allowing inner freedom to develop in a person is much more terrible than depriving outer freedom. Opposition to the development of inner freedom in children plunges them into a state of lack of spirituality, reduces them to the level of animal-social consumption, thoughtless functioning, psychophysiological response. This is what is happening today in various societies, when spirituality and inner freedom, which was not yet born in a child, are being replaced, replaced by pseudo-spiritual surrogates of mass culture, poisoning consciousness, destroying artistic taste, paralyzing the will, preventing the existence of any spiritual isolation and independence. The normal functioning and existence of a free society is threatened by indifference, inner lack of freedom, conformity, emptiness, lack of spirituality of the younger generation. Only criminal and anti-social social strata, groups, individuals are vitally interested in people who are deprived of inner spirituality and moral free will.
In the arsenal of means of suppressing moral freedom and spirituality in children, the onslaught of ignorance stands out, taking root under the flag of democratization, humanization, the lack of demand for education, and the peasantization of rural schools. But in essence, a full-fledged, meaningful general education is being curtailed. It ignores the fact that the essence of true democracy public education in providing to all children a real opportunity and conditions for familiarization with science, art, culture. As well as humanization is not in the impoverishment and emasculation of the content of education for the sake of an imaginary facilitation of teaching, but in the spiritual and personal demand for all the riches of culture for the development of inner freedom in a person.
It was not difficult to foresee that the stimulation of democratic processes in society, accentuated on external freedom to the detriment of responsibility and civic obligations, would lead to curbing the development of spirituality in people, to undisguised disregard for discipline, rampant anarchy, demagogy, permissiveness, unwillingness to work, impunity, the pursuit of profit, political and moral instability, to a sharp increase in crime among the younger generation.
The unhindered and intrusive denigration of the history of the people, the rehabilitation of capitalism, contributes to the manipulation of the minds of young people, to curbing the development of their inner spiritual freedom; awakening and warming up the mood of national exclusivity; opposition of the collective and the individual; affirmation of the naturalness and necessity of the social stratification of society; complete surrender to religion, supposedly capable of correcting the morality of the people and reviving their spirituality.
Pedagogy, in alliance with all the healthy forces of society, will have to win span by span in a soul struck by lack of spirituality. young man space for inner, spiritual, intellectual freedom. Inner freedom in a child matures gradually in contradictions and doubts, in the hardships of self-overcoming, in the struggle to deepen knowledge and broaden one's horizons. The identity of the individual arises, is strengthened at various age stages, as a result of the involvement of children in creative activities.
A child of preschool age manifests and realizes his intellectual freedom in the game, in the free choice of types of cognitive, labor, aesthetic activities. In the game, children themselves come up with a plot, distribute roles in accordance with their desires, agree on the rules and implement decisions, copy the social and social environment that is close to them. family life acquire a positive social experience. Game situations create ideal conditions for the spontaneous manifestation of personality. They are a universal means of creative self-manifestation and self-affirmation of human essential forces throughout life. Many adults, living in bureaucratic snares, show their free spiritual and physical powers with great satisfaction and pleasure by playing chess, basketball, football, volleyball, tennis, participating in performances and amateur performances.
As they grow older, as a result of upbringing and self-development, the child acquires the ability of introspection and self-esteem. In interactions and collisions with the external environment, the guys strive to understand themselves, comprehend their place in this world, the purpose and meaning of their existence. Young people are faced with the problems of selfishness and collectivism, honor and human dignity, pride and selfishness, pride and arrogance, humiliation and insult, the choice of ways and means of existence. Thanks to this inner spiritual work, a young person becomes capable of free reflection, responsible choice, firm decision, unshakable volitional action.
The inner intellectual freedom of the child is actively manifested in rich fantasies and dreams, in the choice of life prospects, in the daily planning of one's life. In their imagination, children, adolescents, boys and girls see themselves as performers of various social roles who have achieved success in life. The sphere of manifestation and formation of the inner freedom of schoolchildren is also the process of learning and personal amateur creativity. Students freely choose one or more subjects, a line of activity in science, technology or art for a deeper study. They do so in accordance with impulses and inclinations, spontaneously manifesting abilities and natural gifts. The world of freedom in the field of education and amateur creativity is the wider and more qualitatively valuable, the more it relies on the knowledge, skills and abilities that are mandatory for learning at school.
Amateur creativity occupies a particularly important place in the formation of a free inner spiritual world of a young person. The child's imagination and thinking in the field of cognition, art, technology, social relations are free from generally accepted, canonized patterns, stereotypes, and established dogmas that fix the consciousness of adults and put limits to their imagination. Unburdened by the fetters of prejudices, prohibitions and myths, the child sets off in search of his own ways, approaches and moves, discovering for himself, and sometimes expressing original ideas and hypotheses in science, creating new images and approaches in art. It is no coincidence that L.N. Tolstoy believed that adults should learn from children to make artistic discoveries in literary creativity. In order to expand and assert the inner spiritual freedom of the child, it is necessary to equip him with the initial skills of creativity and in every possible way stimulate the urges to literary, musical, technical, fine art, and organizational activities. The world of free creativity, the achievement of success, even if only individually significant, to the greatest extent contribute to self-understanding and self-understanding, the establishment of free-thinking and self-reliance of a person.
For the formation of the spirituality of the child, his inner intellectual freedom, special meaning has a sphere of moral and aesthetic attitude to reality, the sphere of love, friendship, empathy, antipathy, hatred, as well as the beautiful and the ugly. All these feelings settle in children much earlier than they are able to recognize and control them. With the growth of consciousness and the accumulation of life experience, the children more and more consciously and freely manifest themselves in the moral and aesthetic sphere. In their feeling of love, there is a movement from an unconscious emotional attraction to an emotionally meaningful choice of an object of affection, a free intimate feeling that satisfies the need for communication with the ideal. In friendship, the guys also seek and find a field for the free manifestation of their personality, meeting the needs for confidential communication, for providing mutual assistance and support, for showing feelings of loyalty, devotion, self-sacrifice, responsibility and duty. True friendship is always based on free affection, selflessness and mutual respect. It develops in the child's personality a consciousness and a sense of inner freedom, backed up by the same free personality, deserving full trust, providing support and assistance. In feelings of hostility, hatred, disgust, contempt for people, some children show unbridled instincts stimulated by the social environment. At the same time, through them, the educated child realizes inner freedom, directing him against evil. Faced with the ugly and disgusting, he discovers in himself natural negative moral and aesthetic feelings that prompt him to protest, resent, hate, despise and resist, act in accordance with his convictions. Finally, the area of ​​internal pseudo-freedom of a young person is the choice between life and death. With young people, the choice to die is essentially never made freely. A teenager, a young man, a girl chooses death, makes and implements a fatal decision not under the influence of mature reflections on the futility of life and the collapse of life's hopes, but, as a rule, in a temporary crisis situation of a narrowed consciousness, an illusory idea of ​​the hopelessness of the situation. Such pseudo-freedom of choice of adolescents and young men should be foreseen and prevented by educators, comrades, and people around them.