Jacobson on artistic realism. Basic Fiction Techniques

Vadim Rudnev

In the twentieth century the term is used in three senses.

The first is historical and philosophical. Realism is a trend in medieval philosophy that recognized the real existence of universal concepts, and only them (that is, not a specific table, but an idea table). In this sense, the concept of realism was opposed to the concept of nominalism, which believed that only single objects exist.

The second meaning is psychological. Realism, realistic - is such an attitude of consciousness that takes external reality as a starting point, and its own inner world considered to be derived from it. The opposite of realistic thinking is autistic thinking or idealism in the broadest sense.

The third meaning is historical and cultural. Realism is a direction in art that most closely depicts reality.

We are primarily interested in this last value. It should be noted right away that ambiguity is extremely negative trait term leading to confusion (see logical positivism, analytic philosophy).

In a sense, R. is an anti-term, or a term of totalitarian thinking. This is what makes it interesting for the study of the culture of the 20th century, because realism, whatever one may say, for the 20th century. is not typical in itself. All culture of the twentieth century. made by autists and mosaics (characterology).

In general, realism in the third sense is such a ridiculous term that this article is written only to convince the reader never to use it; even in the 19th century there was no such artistic direction as realism. Of course, one should be aware that this is the view of a person of the 20th century rewriting history, which is very characteristic of culture as a whole.

How can it be argued that some artistic movement more closely than others reflects reality (see), if we, in fact, do not know what reality is? Yu. M. Lotman wrote that in order to assert about something that you know it, you need to know three things: how it works, how to use it, and what will happen to it next. Our "knowledge" of reality does not satisfy any of these criteria.

Each direction in art seeks to depict reality as it sees it. "That's how I see it," says the abstract artist, and he has nothing to object to. Moreover, what is called realism in the third sense is very often not realism in the second sense. For example: "He thought it best to leave." This is the most common "realistic" phrase. But it comes from the conditional and unrealistic assumption that one person can know what another has thought.

But why, in this case, the entire second half of the nineteenth century. called herself a realist? Because, when they said "Realism and realists", they used the second meaning of the term realism as a synonym for the words "materialism" and "positivism" (in the 19th century, these words were still synonymous).

When Pisarev calls people like Bazarov realists (this is how his article on "Fathers and Sons" is titled - "Realists"), then, firstly, this does not mean that Turgenev is a realist writer, this means that people of a warehouse Bazarov professed materialism and were engaged in natural, positive sciences (real - hence the concept of the nineteenth century "real education", that is, natural science, as opposed to "classical", that is, humanitarian).

When Dostoevsky wrote: "They call me a psychologist - it's not true, I am a realist in the highest sense, that is, I depict the depths of the human soul," he implied that he did not want to have anything in common with the empirical, "soulless", positivist psychology of the nineteenth century. That is, here again the term R. is used in psychological meaning and not in art. (It can be said that Dostoevsky was a realist in the first sense, medieval; in order to write: "Beauty will save the world", one must at least assume that such a universal really exists.)

Realism in artistic value opposed, on the one hand, to romanticism, and on the other hand, to modernism. The Czech culturologist Dmitry Chizhevsky showed that, starting from the Renaissance, the great artistic styles alternate in Europe through one. That is, the Baroque denies the Renaissance and is denied by Classicism. Classicism is denied by romanticism, romanticism by realism. Thus, the Renaissance, classicism, realism, on the one hand, baroque, romanticism and modernism, on the other hand, converge with each other. But here, in this harmonious "paradigm" of Chizhevsky, there is one serious problem. Why do the first three styles live for about 150 years each, and the last three only for fifty? Here is an obvious, as L. N. Gumilyov liked to write, "an aberration of proximity." If Chizhevsky had not been fascinated by the concept of realism, he would have seen that from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century there was in a sense one direction, let's call it Romanticism with a capital letter, - a direction comparable in its 150-year period to Renaissance, Baroque and Classicism. You can call realism in the third sense, for example, late romanticism, and modernism - post-romanticism. This will be much less controversial than realism. This is how the history of culture is rewritten.

However, if the term realism is still used, then it still means something. If we accept that literature reflects not reality, but primarily ordinary language (see philosophy of fiction), then realism is that literature that uses the language of the average norm. So, when people ask about a novel or a film, whether it is realistic, they mean whether it is made simply and clearly, accessible to the perception of the average native speaker, or whether it is full of incomprehensible and, from the point of view of the layman reader, unnecessary "frills" of literary modernism: "techniques of expressiveness", frames with double exposure, complex syntactic constructions - in general, active stylistic artistic content (see the principles of prose of the twentieth century, modernism, neomythologism).

In this sense, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Chekhov, who did not obey the average language norm, but rather formed a new one, cannot be called realists. Even the novel by N. G. Chernyshevsky cannot be called realistic; rather, it is avant-garde art. But in a sense, it is I. S. Turgenev who can be called a realist, whose art consisted in the fact that he mastered the average language norm to perfection. But it is the exception, not the rule, that such a writer is nonetheless not forgotten. Although, strictly speaking, in terms of his artistic and ideological attitudes, Turgenev was a typical romantic. His Bazarov is a romantic hero, just like Pechorin and Onegin (there is a purely romantic collision: an egocentric hero and a crowd, everyone else).

Bibliography

Jacobson R.O. On artistic realism // Yakobson R. O. Works on poetics. - M., 1987.

Lotman Yu.I., Tsivyan Yu.G. Screen dialogue. - Tallinn, 1994.

Rudnev V. Culture and Realism // Daugava, 1992. - No 6.

Rudnev V. Morphology of reality: A study on the "philosophy of the text". - M., 1996.

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://lib.ru/

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The ghost of realism

Consider the most characteristic definitions of artistic realism.

(1) Realism is an artistic direction, “aiming to convey reality as close as possible, striving for maximum likelihood. We declare realistic those works that seem to us to closely convey reality. Jacobson 1976: 66]. This definition was given by R. O. Yakobson in the article “On Artistic Realism” as the most common, vulgar sociological understanding.

(2) Realism is an artistic movement depicting a person whose actions are determined by the social environment surrounding him. This is the definition of Professor G. A. Gukovsky [ Gukovsky 1967].

(3) Realism is such a trend in art, which, unlike the classicism and romanticism that preceded it, where the author’s point of view was respectively inside and outside the text, implements in its texts a systemic plurality of the author’s points of view on the text. This is the definition of Yu. M. Lotman [ Lotman 1966]

R. Jacobson himself sought to define artistic realism in a functionalist way, at the junction of his two pragmatic understandings:

"one. […] A realistic work is a work conceived by a given author as plausible (meaning A).

2. A realistic work is a work that I, having a judgment about it, perceive as plausible” [ Jacobson 1976: 67].

Jacobson goes on to say that as realistic it can be seen as a tendency to deform artistic canons, and the conservative tendency to preserve the canons [ Jacobson 1976: 70].

Consider the three definitions of artistic realism listed above in sequence.

First of all, definition (1) is inadequate because it is not a definition of an aesthetic phenomenon, it does not affect its artistic essence. “It is possible to follow reality closer” can not so much be art as any ordinary, historical or scientific discourse. It all depends on what you mean by reality. In a certain sense, definition (1) is the most formal and, in this sense, correct if it is understood in the spirit of the ideas set forth in Chapter One, adjusted for Jacobson's ideas. If by the equivalent of "following reality as closely as possible" we mean the closest possible reproduction of the average norms of written speech, then the most realistic work will be the one that will deviate the least from these average norms. But then reality should be understood as a set of semantically correctly constructed statements of the language (that is, reality should be understood as a sign system), and plausibility should be understood as an extensionally adequate transmission of these statements. Roughly speaking, then a statement like:

M. left the room, and unrealistic - a statement like:

M., he, slowly looking around, - and out of the room - swiftly.

The second statement is not realistic in this sense because it does not reflect the average norms of written speech. The sentence lacks a standard predicate; it is elliptic and syntactically broken. In this sense, it is really distorted, "unbelievable" conveys the linguistic reality. We will henceforth call such statements modernist (see also [ Rudnev 1990b]).

However, it is clear that definition (1) has in mind a somewhat different plausibility of a somewhat different reality, such as we considered it above, that is, independent of our experience, "given to us in sensations", opposite to fiction. However, a contradiction immediately arises here. The direction of fiction is determined through the concept of reality, which is opposed to fiction. It is clear that each culture perceives its products as adequately reflecting the reality of this culture. So, if in the Middle Ages they planned to create an artistic direction called realism, then the most believable characters there would be witches, succubi, the devil, etc. And in antiquity, these would be the Olympian gods.

Likelihood criterion is also functionally dependent on culture. A. Greimas writes that in one traditional tribe, discourses were considered plausible (veridictive), in a certain sense equivalent to ours. fairy tales, and implausible - stories that are equivalent to our historical traditions [ Greimas 1986]. R. Ingarden wrote that what is plausible in art is what is appropriate in this genre [ Ingarden 1962].

It is extremely difficult to rely on the criterion of plausibility when the very concept of truth survives better times after the paroxysm of plausibility in neopositivism. Karl Popper already in the 30s put forward the principle of falsificationism, according to which a scientific theory is considered true if it can be refuted, that is, if its refutation is not meaningless [ Popper 1983].

But the most important thing is that if we take a number of statements from some discourse that is considered obviously realistic, for example, from a story by Turgenev, then there will be too many extremely improbable, purely conventional, conventional features. For example, consider the usual statement in realistic prose, when the hero's direct speech is given and then it is added: "so-and-so thought." If we use the likelihood criterion, then such a statement is completely unrealistic. We can't know what someone thought until they tell us about it themselves. In this sense, such a statement, strictly speaking, cannot be considered well-formed from the point of view of ordinary language. The most important thing is that such statements do not occur outside the purely “realistic” artistic discourse. They can be marked with *. For example, it would be strange to hear the following statement in a court testimony:

* After that, M. thought that the best thing to do in this situation was to hide.

Statements with "thought" can only occur in a modal context or in the context of an explicit propositional attitude:

I guess he thought the best thing to do in this situation was to hide,

or in the modalized context of a simple sentence:

He probably thought the best thing to do in this situation was to hide.

In a sense, the literature of the “stream of consciousness” is more plausible, since it, without claiming to be an ontologically plausible reflection of reality, quite plausibly reflects the norms of non-written speech, that is, some generalized ideas about inner speech as elliptical, folded, stuck together, agglutinated , purely predicative, as Vygotsky understood it [ Vygotsky 1934].

Thus, realism is the same conditional art as classicism.

Gukovsky's concept, of course, is more attractive than the semi-official one. But this definition of realism is also not a definition of the aesthetic essence of artistic discourse, but only of its ideological orientation. Gukovsky wanted to say that in the period of development literature XIX century, the formula of the determinism of individual behavior by the social environment was popular, and that fiction somehow reflected this formula. For example, the bourgeoisie began to emerge - and immediately appeared the money-grubber Chichikov, who buys dead souls, or Hermann, who thinks primarily about enrichment. Of course, now it is difficult to take such an understanding of the artistic direction seriously, although it is a less rough approximation to the essence of things compared to the official definition of realism.

The most attractive is the definition of Yu. M. Lotman. It defines realism not only as an aesthetic phenomenon, but in a number of other aesthetic phenomena, systematically. But the success of this definition lies in the fact that it does not extensionally outline those texts that are traditionally considered to be realistic. Lotman's definition is very well suited to Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, but does not fit Turgenev, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Leskov, Gleb Uspensky at all. These writers hardly considered reality stereoscopically, as given in Lotman's definition of realism. And most importantly, this definition fits too well with the texts of the beginning of the 20th century, with Bely's Petersburg, Sologub's The Little Devil, and indeed with all the literature of European modernism - Joyce, Faulkner, Thomas Mann. This is where stereoscopic viewpoints really reign.

Realism according to Lotman coincides with modernism. The concept of R. O. Jacobson is the most functional and dynamic. Each direction replaces some other and declares itself to be realistic. Jacobson just did not put an end to his reasoning. Namely, that the notion of artistic realism is controversial, that it does not describe any specific area of artistic experience, and is best abandoned. We have to put this point.

Before proceeding directly to the description of the facts of Russian literature of the 19th century sub specie realisticae, let us consider the semantics of the very concept of "realism" and "realistic". What semantic oppositions does this word include?

1. Realism - nominalism. This is the oldest philosophical opposition, where realism means such a direction in scholastic thought that allows for the real existence of general genera, universal concepts. It is important to note here that the word "realism" appears in a meaning that is rather opposite to the modern one, and the ambiguity of the term in itself may raise doubts about its validity.

2. Realism - idealism. This second pair of concepts roughly corresponds to the more familiar Russian language opposition "materialism - idealism." Since the time of Wittgenstein, who showed in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus that the realistic and idealistic points of view on the object are only additional languages for describing the object, and they coincide if strictly thought out [ Wittgenstein 1958], this opposition can be considered obsolete. However, the ideologized theory of literature in many respects imposed precisely this opposition on the aesthetic opposition of artistic realism to artistic non-realism, for example, romanticism or modernism. A realist writer should be a materialist, and a romantic is almost a synonym for an idealist.

3. Realistic consciousness - non-realistic (autistic) consciousness. This psychological opposition, presented in the works of E. Bleuler [ Bleuler 1927], E. Kretschmer [ Kretschmer 1930, Kretschmer 1956] and developed by modern psychologist M. E. Burno [ Stormy 1991], in a sense, seems to be the most significant and relevant. Realistic (or syntonic) consciousness is one that thinks of itself as part of nature, it is harmonious outside world. Autistic (schizoid) consciousness is a consciousness that is immersed in itself, in its own rich and sometimes fantastic inner world. To some extent, it can be said that a realist in the psychological sense is, as a rule, a materialist in the philosophical sense, and an autist is an idealist in the philosophical sense. AT aesthetically this phenomenon is also superimposed on the realism-non-realism pair (modernism, romanticism). A realistic psychological make-up of character inclines a person to everyday perception and reflection of reality, to an average language norm, that is, to that realism of an average hand, which in general makes sense to talk about in relation to artistic practice. An autistic person is almost always a modernist or a romantic.

The fourth opposition does not exist, but logically it should exist if the line of artistic realism is pursued consistently and honestly. If we say that realism is a direction in art that in one way or another seeks to reflect reality, then since from a semiotic point of view reality is opposed to the text (the first chapter of this study is devoted to this), then the direction opposite to realism should be called “textism” . The absurdity of this term "from the opposite" highlights the absurdity of the term "realism".

So, let's try to describe the movement of Russian literature of the 19th century without using the term "realism" or actively criticizing its application to it (cf. alternative concepts of Russian literature of the 19th century in the books [ Weil - Genis 1991; Smirnov 1994], in which the term "realism" itself is not subject to reflection).

First a classic Russian realism is considered a novel in verse by Pushkin "Eugene Onegin". The very fact that Russian realism began in the solid 14-line strophic form of iambic 4-foot allows one to wonder how V. G. Belinsky could have come up with the idea of calling the most artificial, sophisticated formal construction in an aesthetic sense realistic. The only justification for this is that Pushkin's poetic novel was written during the years of the crisis of romanticism, and in a certain sense it was a novel about the crisis of romantic thinking, a novel about how novels are written and perceived (see [ Gukovsky 1967; Lotman 1966, 1976]). On the other hand, this Onegin meta-literary quality alone is the fact that the characters think in terms of images from novels, write poetry, and the whole novel is literally “lined” with allusions from previous literature [ Lotman 1980], - says that in no sense, except for Lotman's, this work cannot be classified as realistic; and Lotman's understanding, as has been shown, does not differentiate, but rather, on the contrary, identifies realism with modernism (as well as Jacobson's understanding [ Jacobson 1976]). From a typological point of view, Onegin is undoubtedly a modernist work, with a sharp play on the internal and external pragmasemantics of the text, with conversations between the author and the reader, with digressions in the spirit of Stern and quotation technique that precedes the quotation technique of Russian symbolism and acmeism, as well as European neomythologism. The same applies to other works by Pushkin. last period: "Tales of Belkin" ("new patterns on the old canvas"); to The Captain's Daughter, which parodies the poetics of the 18th century and introduces the image of a pragmatically active storyteller; to the "Queen of Spades", one of the most complex works world literature, numerical symbolism and sophisticated philosophy of fate; to " Bronze Horseman”with its biblical associations in the first part and Dante’s in the second (see [ Nemirovsky 1988]). The famous "Pushkin's path to realism" was in fact the path to modernism. Pushkin was one of the first to embark on this path and therefore went unnoticed in the European tradition; there, Dostoevsky, who was a student of Pushkin, is considered the founder of modernism.

The most complex compositional structure of the main prose work Lermontov, "The Hero of Our Time", - his reflexive mediation and quotation, genre polyvalence (travel essay, secular story, exotic short story, diary and philosophical story in one work) - all this speaks for itself. Of course, it is rather a work of "textism". Incidentally, it is characteristic that the protagonist- one of the brightest images of an autistic schizoid in world culture [ Stormy 1991].

Gogol's work was already partly assessed through the prism of romanticism in the insightful article by B. M. Eikhenbaum "How Gogol's Overcoat" was made. Eichenbaum 1969]. Three-member compositional structure " dead souls”, referring to the tripartite nature of Dante’s “Divine Comedy” - the first and second (written) parts exactly correspond to “Hell” and “Purgatory”, the third (unwritten) - “Paradise”, also allows us to safely attribute this work to pre-modernist. The very deeply religious-autistic personality of Gogol makes in general blasphemous (as the notorious “Letter of Belinsky to Gogol” was blasphemous) the idea that Gogol is a realist writer.

The unfinished talented book of G. A. Gukovsky about Gogol in this sense bears in its title - "Gogol's Realism" [ Gukovsky 1959] - the idea of literary "illocutionary suicide" [ Vendler 1985].

The literature of the natural school, which existed actively and not too brightly for about ten years, strove for sketchiness and plot reduction; it was really the literature of realists in the psychological sense. But since the philosophical slogan of this literature was the first positivism, a new fashionable trend of thought, this literary school rather, it was perceived not as realistic (in the eyes of contemporaries, "realism", that is, literature of the average language norm, was a secular story), but as avant-garde. Undoubtedly, the novel by N. G. Chernyshevsky “What is to be done?” Should be considered an avant-garde performance, if we understand the avant-garde as the art of active pragmatic orientation [ Shapir 1990a], - the common definition of this book as a "textbook of life" speaks of this. The very active involvement of the novel What Is to Be Done? in a revolutionary nihilistic context makes it legitimate to compare it with rebellious poems and speeches by Russian futurists of the early 20th century.

Normal speech is rhythmically neutral. Correspondingly, mass prose is rhythmically neutral.

Normal average literary speech almost does not use exotic vocabulary. So does realism. Modernism is the realm of neologisms and lexical periphery - barbarisms, exoticisms, vernacular, etc.

Normal speech (and with it the average prose) canonizes the complete utterance. Modernism can tear sentences apart, "agglutinate" statements, imitating inner speech, leave statements unfinished, imitating oral speech.

In normal prose, as well as in normal speech activity, the principle of semantic-syntactic coherence of two adjacent statements is mandatory (this is the main principle of the linguistic theory of the text). Modernist discourse can make neighboring statements deliberately unrelated.

Normal speech activity of the written plan is neutral in the sphere of pragmatics; modernism is pragmatically active, it piles up a chain of narrators, building pragmatically polyfunctional constructions.

In this sense, Turgenev's prose is really closest to "linguistic realism". But this was also the main aesthetic and social orientation of the writer (otherwise he would have been an ordinary third-rate fiction writer): to show this average consciousness in its entirety. It can be said that any writer from late XIX century to the present day, whom we can psychologically call a realist, will have "no style", and this will be Turgenev's style. Such is the paradoxical role in Russian literature of this remarkable writer, who managed to make perfection out of mediocrity.

Since the second half of the 1970s, after the publication famous works V. N. Toporova about "Crime and Punishment" and "Mr. Prokharchine" [ Toporov 1995a, 1995c], in which he saw the works of Dostoevsky under the influence of M. M. Bakhtin in a completely new light: as echoes of the most ancient archaic ideas, researchers of Russian literature of the 19th century actually discarded the myth of realism and began to consider works of XIX century from the point of view of the culture of the XX century. Perhaps the objection that researchers have built a new myth instead of the myth of realism is appropriate here, but this is not surprising, since the entire history of science, especially the humanities, is in some sense a process of myth-making, whether we call these myths "patterns" or "paradigms". Then in the famous "school" poem by N. A. Nekrasov " Railway"would see not only the oppression of the people, but the extremely consistent mythological idea of a building sacrifice [ Boots 1988], in Goncharov's Oblomov - not just a lazy Russian master, but the incarnation of Ilya Muromets, sitting on the stove for thirty years and three years, but in a worn school curriculum Tolstoy's story "After the Ball" - features of the archaic rite of initiation [ Zholkovsky 1990].

Even in such works of Russian literature of the 19th century, which seemed to have been buried forever by the mediocre Soviet school curriculum and mediocre ideologized literary criticism, one can find features that do not fit at all into the framework of mediocre literature. An example is the "Thunderstorm" by A. N. Ostrovsky (see [ Rudnev 1995a]).

Ironically, the innovative essence of L. N. Tolstoy’s work, using the example of the early Sevastopol Tales, was already emphasized by N. G. Chernyshevsky, who spoke in this connection about the “dialectic of the soul”, which is nothing more than an image of the inner speech and inner spiritual life of the hero . And it was Leo Tolstoy who first gave a sample of the "stream of consciousness" in the novel "Anna Karenina" in the scene when Anna is going home, and then to the station:

“We all want something sweet and tasty. No candy, then dirty ice cream. And Kitty too: not Vronsky, then Levin. And she's jealous of me. And hates me. And we all hate each other. I'm Kitty, Kitty me. This is the truth. Tyutkin, coiffeur… Je me fais coiffeur par Tyutkin… I will tell him when he arrives” […] “Yes, what was the last thing I was thinking about so well? she tried to remember. Tyutkin, coiffeur? No, not that.

It can hardly be considered a realistic work of "War and Peace", built on the falsification of Russian history and perceived by contemporaries who did not accept Tolstoy's pre-modernist huge syntactic periods and perceived the largest size of the work as something incongruous, incorrectly constructed, like an absurd monster [ Shklovsky 1928].

To talk about the realism of Dostoevsky after the works of M. M. Bakhtin and V. N. Toporov [ Bakhtin 1963; Axes

1995a], as well as books by A. L. Bem [ Bem 1936], which shows the quotation technique of Dostoevsky's novels, is not necessary at all.

It is more interesting to emphasize that even those odious works of Russian, and then Soviet literature of the early 20th century, which made up the corpus of the so-called socialist realism, were largely built on the neo-mythological scheme worked out in the "fundamental", contemporary literature of modernism. So, at the center of Gorky's novel "Mother" is undoubtedly the gospel myth of the God-man, the Savior, and the Mother of God. In such a seemingly thoroughly Soviet work. like the “Iron Stream” by Serafimovich, the features of biblical mythology are clearly visible - the events of the withdrawal of the Taman army from the encirclement under the leadership of the strong leader Kozhukh are superimposed on the events of the exodus of the Jews from Egyptian captivity under the leadership of Moses.

Realism is most likely not a real designation of a literary movement, but a kind of socio-ideological label, behind which there are no facts.

How, then, can this period of Russian literature be described using generally accepted terminology? I think we can say that it was the literature of late romanticism. For this was precisely the case in other arts, most indisputably in music, which, however, in Soviet time also stuck a "realistic" label.

The following argument speaks in favor of the latter solution. At one time, Dmitry Chizhevsky built a universal scheme for the alternation of artistic trends in Europe, the so-called "Chizhevsky paradigm" [ 1952] (see also [ Chernov 1976]). According to this scheme, since the XIV century European art developed according to the principle of alternation of two opposite directions. One of them was turned outward, into the world, and the content in it dominated the form. The first such direction was the Renaissance. When this type of art exhausted its possibilities, it was replaced by the opposite one, the texts of which were directed inward, introverted, and the form dominated the content. The first type of such art was the Baroque. Then the cycle resumes - the “art of the top” reappears, which naturally gives way to the “art of the bottom”. In the classical form, the Chizhevsky paradigm is represented as the following curve:

Realism found here a natural place in the same "rise" with the Renaissance and classicism. But at the same time, in the second half of this scheme, an aberration of proximity is clearly detected: the first three directions last 100-150 years each, occupying an average of 4 centuries - from the 14th to the 18th centuries. What happens next?

Romanticism has been actively developing for a maximum of 50 years (the first half of the 19th century); so-called realism - also about 50 years old (second half of the 19th century), the same - classical modernism: before the Second World War (post-war literature, starting with the "new novel", is something new, a harbinger of modern postmodernism).

Isn't it easier and more logical to assume that with early XIX century and until the middle of the 20th century, some one large trend lasted, which can be called Romanticism with a capital letter, and the border of which ends in the middle of our century. And then this direction will naturally fit into the "standard" format of 150 years. The same concepts as sentimentalism, romanticism with a small letter, naturalism, realism, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, etc. in this case will be the designation of currents within this large direction.

If so, then the term "realism" is naturally withdrawn from the history of culture, remaining a relic of the history of cultural studies.

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The ghost of realism

Consider the most characteristic definitions of artistic realism.

(2) Realism is an artistic movement depicting a person whose actions are determined by the social environment surrounding him. This is the definition of Professor G. A. Gukovsky [ Gukovsky 1967].

R. Jacobson himself sought to define artistic realism in a functionalist way, at the junction of his two pragmatic understandings:

"one. […] A realistic work is a work conceived by a given author as plausible (meaning A).

2. A realistic work is a work that I, having a judgment about it, perceive as plausible” [ Jacobson 1976: 67].

Further, Jacobson says that both the tendency to deform artistic canons and the conservative tendency to preserve canons can be considered as realistic [ Jacobson 1976: 70].

Consider the three definitions of artistic realism listed above in sequence.

M. left the room, and unrealistic - a statement like:

M., he, slowly looking around, - and out of the room - swiftly.

Likelihood criterion is also functionally dependent on culture. A. Greimas writes that in one traditional tribe, discourses were considered plausible (veridictive), in a certain sense equivalent to our fairy tales, and implausible - stories that are equivalent to our historical traditions [ Greimas 1986]. R. Ingarden wrote that what is plausible in art is what is appropriate in this genre [ Ingarden 1962].

It is extremely difficult to rely on the criterion of plausibility when the very concept of truth is going through hard times after the paroxysm of plausibility in neopositivism. Karl Popper already in the 30s put forward the principle of falsificationism, according to which a scientific theory is considered true if it can be refuted, that is, if its refutation is not meaningless [ Popper 1983].

* After that, M. thought that the best thing to do in this situation was to hide.

Statements with "thought" can only occur in a modal context or in the context of an explicit propositional attitude:

I guess he thought the best thing to do in this situation was to hide,

or in the modalized context of a simple sentence:

He probably thought the best thing to do in this situation was to hide.

Thus, realism is the same conditional art as classicism.

Gukovsky's concept, of course, is more attractive than the semi-official one. But this definition of realism is also not a definition of the aesthetic essence of artistic discourse, but only of its ideological orientation. Gukovsky wanted to say that in the period of the development of literature of the 19th century, the formula of the determinism of individual behavior by the social environment was popular, and that fiction somehow reflected this formula. For example, the bourgeoisie began to emerge - and immediately appeared the money-grubber Chichikov, who buys dead souls, or Hermann, who thinks primarily about enrichment. Of course, now it is difficult to take such an understanding of the artistic direction seriously, although it is a less rough approximation to the essence of things compared to the official definition of realism.

35.Basic methods fiction. Realism. Variety of approaches to the problem of realism in literary criticism. Enlightenment realism.

(1) Realism is an artistic movement that “has the goal of conveying reality as close as possible, striving for maximum likelihood. We declare realistic those works that seem to us to closely convey reality” [Yakobson 1976: 66]. This definition was given by R. O. Yakobson in the article “On Artistic Realism” as the most common, vulgar sociological understanding. (2) Realism is an artistic direction depicting a person whose actions are determined by the social environment surrounding her. This is the definition of Professor G. A. Gukovsky [Gukovsky 1967]. (3) Realism is such a trend in art, which, unlike the classicism and romanticism that preceded it, where the author’s point of view was respectively inside and outside the text, implements in its texts a systemic plurality of the author’s points of view on the text. This is Yu. M. Lotman's definition [Lotman 1966].
R. Jacobson himself sought to define artistic realism in a functionalist way, at the junction of his two pragmatic understandings:
1. [...] By a realistic work is meant a work conceived by a given author as plausible (meaning A).
2. A realistic work is a work that I, having a judgment about it, perceive as plausible” [Yakobson 1976: 67].
Further, Yakobson says that both the tendency towards the deformation of artistic canons and the conservative tendency towards the preservation of canons can be considered realistic [Yakobson 1976: 70].
Realism as a literary movement was formed in the 19th century. Elements of realism were present in some authors even earlier, starting from ancient times. The immediate forerunner of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spiritual and emotional terms, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other trends of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against idealization. public relations, for national-historical originality artistic images(color of place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism in the first half of the 19th century; in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged into one - the works of Balzac, Stendhal, Hugo, and partly Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of Pushkin and Lermontov (Pushkin's southern poems and Lermontov's A Hero of Our Time). In Russia, where the foundations of realism were still in the 1820s - 30s. laid down by the work of Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov" Captain's daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by Griboyedov, fables by I. A. Krylov), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. The realism of the 19th century is usually called “critical”, since the defining principle in it was precisely the socio-critical. Heightened socio-critical pathos is one of the main distinguishing features Russian realism - "Inspector", "Dead Souls" by Gogol, the activities of writers of the "natural school". The realism of the second half of the 19th century reached its heights precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, who at the end of the 19th century became the Central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing human psyche in its deep layers.

Signs of realism:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.

2. Literature in realism is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.

3. Cognition of reality comes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality (typical characters in a typical setting). The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.

4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even in the tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, unlike, for example, romanticism.

5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

As you can see, linguistics alone is not enough for Zhirmunsky to develop principles for the study of poetic art.

R.O. Jacobson(1896-1982) Famous Russian, then American theorist of literature and language, one of the founders of the Russian "formal school". It was with his active participation that OPOYAZ was created in 1916. In his study “The Newest Russian Poetry. The first draft: Approaches to Khlebnikov” (written in 1919 and printed in 1921 in Prague) were developed by the basic principles “ formal method". The first of them is the priority of language in the poetics of literature.

Jakobson directly and decisively states: "Poetry is language in its poetic function." Meanwhile, he says, literary historians "instead of the science of literature" are creating a "conglomeration of home-grown disciplines" - life, psychology, politics, philosophy, history. As a result, the subject of literature is "not literature, but literariness." Jacobson strikes here at the broad scientific principles of academic literary criticism, and above all of the cultural-historical school. In fact, according to Yakobson, "if the science of literature wants to become a science," it must recognize "device" as its only "hero." As an example, he points to the poetry of Russian Futurism, which was the "founder" of the poetry of the "self-sufficient, intrinsically valuable word" as "canonized naked material."

The "renewal" of form through the destruction and replacement of old systems with new ones represents, according to Jacobson, the historical and literary process, its main regularity. So, any trope in the form " poetic device» can exit in « artistic reality”, turning into a “poetic fact of plot construction”. The choice of techniques, their systematization lies in the fact that the “irrational poetic construction” in symbolism is “justified” by the state of the “restless titanic soul”, “the poet’s willful imagination”.

Thus, in advancing the principles of the "formal method", it is clear that Jakobson also acts as a Futurist theorist.

Yakobson believes that “science is still alien to the question of time and space as forms of poetic language” and language should not be forced by adapting it to the analysis of “spatially coexisting parts” of a work that are built in a consistent, chronological system.

"Literary" time, according to Yakobson, is analyzed in the "method of time shift": for example, "time shift" in "Oblomov" is "justified by the dream of the hero." Anachronisms unusual words, parallelisms, associations act as means of updating language forms.

Then, in 1919, Yakobson wrote a short article "Futurists" (published in the newspaper "Iskusstvo" in the same year signed "R. Ya."). He writes here about the methods of "deformations": hyperbole in literature; chiaroscuro, specularity, tripling in the "old" painting; "colour decomposition" among the Impressionists; caricature in humor and, finally, the "canonization of the plurality of points of view" among the Cubists. The futurists have pictures-slogans.

With the Cubists, the technique is "uncovered" without any "justification": asymmetry, dissonance become autonomous, "cardboard, wood, tin are used." The "basic tendency" in painting is to "divide the moment of movement" "into a series of separate static elements."

Futurist Manifesto: "Running horses do not have four legs, but twenty, and their movements are triangular." If the Cubists, according to Jacobson, “constructed” a picture based on the simplest objects - a cube, a cone, a ball, giving a “primitive of painting”, then the Futurists “introduce a curved cone, a curved cylinder into the picture ... destroy the walls of volumes.” Both cubism and futurism use the technique of "difficult perception", opposing the "automatism of perception".

In the same 1919, Yakobson's note "The Tasks of Artistic Propaganda" was published in the newspaper "Iskusstvo" under the signature "Alyagrov". At this time, he was already working in various Soviet structures. Here he again puts forward the idea of "deformation" of the old form as topical, reinforcing it with the need for a "genuinely revolutionary artistic enlightenment." Supporters of the conservation of the old forms, Yakobson writes, "shout about religious tolerance in art, like the zealots of 'pure democracy', who, in Lenin's words, take formal equality for actual."

From the summer of 1920, Yakobson worked in the Soviet permanent mission in Czechoslovakia and traveled between Moscow and Prague. It was at this time, in 1920, in the journal "Artistic Life" signed "R ... Ya." Jacobson's article was published, dedicated to painting - "New Art in the West (Letter from Revel)". Jacobson writes here about expressionism, by which, as he says, in Europe they understand "all the novelties in art." Already impressionism, characterized as a rapprochement with nature, came out, according to Yakobson, "to color, exposed a brushstroke." Van Gogh is already “free” with paint, “color emancipation” is taking place. In expressionism, “unnaturalness”, “rejection of plausibility” is canonized. Jacobson defends the "new" art from the "White Guard persecution", which, in his opinion, represents critical article I. Repin.

Another article of this period is “Letters from the West. Dada” (on Dadaism) was published by Jacobson under the initials “R.Ya.” in 1921 in the journal "Bulletin of the Theater". Dadaism (from fr.

dada - wooden horse; baby talk) - arose in 1915-1916. in many countries there is a protest current in art based on an unsystematic, random combination of dissimilar materials and factors; extra-national, extra-social, often theatrical outrageous, out of tradition and out of the future; lack of ideas, eclecticism and variegation of the "cocktail" of abstruseness. According to Yakobson, “dada” is the second “cry” against art after futurism. "Dada," says Jacobson, is governed by the so-called "constructive laws": "through assonance to setting to any sound ratio," then "to the announcement of the laundry bill as a poetic work. Then letters in random order, randomly scribbled on a typewriter - poems, strokes on the canvas of a donkey's tail dipped in paint - painting. Poems of vowels are the music of noises. Aphorism of the leader of "dada" T. Tiara: "We want, we want, we want ... to urinate in different colors."

“Dada is born in the midst of a cosmopolitan mess,” Jacobson concludes. According to Yakobson, Western new performances by art critics did not develop into directions: “Western futurism, in all its inconsistencies, strives to become an artistic direction (1001st),” he writes. Dadaism is "one of countless isms" "parallel to the relativistic philosophies of the moment."

The "Moscow" period of Jacobson's work (1915-1920) is characterized by his interest in the problems of the interaction of language, literature, painting, common problems art, as can be seen from the above analysis of his work of these years. The "Prague" period of Jacobson's work (1921-1922) is characterized by more mature works. This period opens with his informative, original article "On Artistic Realism" (1921). Here is a subtle typology literary trends. Speaking of Russian realism XIX in., Jacobson proposes to take into account the features of details as a specific difference in directions: “essential” or “insignificant”. From his point of view, the criterion of "truthfulness" applied to realism is rather arbitrary. The writers of the Gogol school, the scientist believes, are characterized by "the consolidation of the narrative by images drawn by contiguity, that is, the path from their own term to metonymy and metaphor."

In the "American" period of creativity, Yakobson created numerous works on poetics, Slavic languages, questions of creativity of Khlebnikov, Pushkin, Mayakovsky, Pasternak.

V.V. Vinogradov(1894/95 - 1969). A prominent Russian scholar and philologist. Professor of Moscow State University, dean of the philological faculty of this university. Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, director of the Institute of Linguistics. Proceedings on the theory of language and literature, stylistics, poetics. Initial performances in the early 1920s as part of the Moscow Linguistic Circle, which arose under the influence of OPOYAZ and the so-called "formal school". Works of the 1920s: “The style of the St. Petersburg poem (F.M. Dostoevsky) “Double” (Experience of linguistic analysis)” (1922), “On the tasks of stylistics. Observations on the style of The Life of Archpriest Avvakum (1923), On the Poetry of Anna Akhmatova (Stylistic Sketches) theory of poetic language. The doctrine of speech systems literary works" (1927), "The evolution of Russian naturalism. Gogol and Dostoevsky" (1929), "On fiction» (1930). During this period, Vinogradov views the evolution of language as the development of various structural "systems". Working on the problems of style, Vinogradov comes to the idea of text stylistics and various forms of speech stylistics. In his writings, the idea of the unity of the Russian literary language as a system is developed. In this system, the unity of "techniques" for the use of language means is also necessary. “Style,” writes Vinogradov, “is a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally integrated set of methods of using, selecting and combining means of verbal communication ...”

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The ghost of realism

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