Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher vocational education

“Khakass State University named after N.F. Katanov"

Institute of History and Law

Department of Russian History

Livonian war: causes, course, results.

(Course work)

Performed:

1st year student, group Iz-071

Bazarova Rano Makhmudovna

Scientific adviser:

Ph.D., Art. teacher

Drozdov Alexey Ilyich

Abakan 2008

INTRODUCTION

1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONS WAR

2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONS WAR

2.1 First stage

2.2. Second phase

2.3 Third stage

2.4 Outcomes of the war

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic. The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, the results of the clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the diversity of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other foreign policy actions of Russia in the second half of the 16th century. May with with good reason discover problems similar to those of the reign of Ivan the Terrible in foreign policy modern Russia. Having thrown off the Horde yoke, the young state needed an urgent reorientation to the West, the restoration of interrupted contacts. The Soviet Union was also in long-term isolation from most of the Western world for many reasons, so the first task of the new, democratic government was to actively search for partners and raise the country's international prestige. It is the search for the right ways to establish contacts that determines the relevance of the topic under study in social reality.

Object of study. Russia's foreign policy in the 16th century.

Subject of study. Livonian war causes, course, results.

Objective. To characterize the influence of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. on the international position of Russia; as well as on the domestic politics and economy of the country.

1. Determine the causes of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583.

2. Identify the main stages in the course of hostilities with a description of each of them. Pay attention to the causes of changes in the nature of war.

3. Summing up the results of the Livonian War, based on the terms of the peace treaty.

Chronological framework. It began in 1558 and ended in 1583.

Geographic limits. The territory of the Baltic States, the western and northwestern regions of Russia.

Sources.

“The Capture of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible” depicts the situation in Polotsk during its siege by Russian troops, the panic of the Lithuanian governors who were forced to surrender the city. The source provides interesting information about the superiority of Russian artillery, about the transition to the side of the Russian Polotsk peasants. The chronicler shows the tsar as a zealous master of his "fatherland" - Polotsk: after the capture of the city, Ivan the Terrible conducts a population census.

"Correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky" is polemical in nature. In it, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of striving for autocracy and merciless terror against talented commanders. The fugitive sees this as one of the reasons for military failures, in particular, the surrender of Polotsk. In response letters, Grozny, despite the rude epithets addressed to the former governor, justifies himself to him in his actions. In the first message, for example, Ivan IV substantiates territorial claims to the Livonian land as his "patrimony".

One of the events of the Livonian War is reflected in the "Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the City of Pskov": the defense of Pskov. The author very picturesquely describes the "unquenchable fierce beast" of King Stephen, his inexorable "lawless" desire to take Pskov and, in contrast, the decision of all participants in the defense to stand "strongly". In sufficient detail, the source shows the location of the Lithuanian troops, the course of the first attack, the firepower of both sides.

Bright representative psycho-economic school, V. O. Klyuchevsky, saw the defining beginning of a stormy history XVI century in the princes' claim to absolute power. Briefly, but clearly considering the foreign policy tasks of the Russian state, he noted that the basis of the complex diplomatic relations that began with the countries of Western Europe was the “national idea” of further struggle for the unification of all ancient Russian lands.

In "Russian history in the descriptions of its main figures" by N. I. Kostomarov, published within fifteen years from 1873, the character of each figure is presented in accordance with the historical situation. He attached great importance to the subjective factor in history. He sees the reason for the conflict between Ivan the Terrible and Sigismund in personal hostility due to unsuccessful matchmaking. According to Kostomarov, the choice of means to achieve the well-being of the human race was made by Ivan the Terrible unsuccessfully, and for this reason he does not fit the concept of a "great man."

The monograph of V. D. Korolyuk, the only one for Soviet period, completely dedicated to the Livonian War. It accurately highlights the fundamentally different vision of Ivan the Terrible and the Chosen Rada of the foreign policy tasks facing Russia at that time. The author describes in detail the international situation favorable for the Russian state before the start of the war, the course of hostilities itself is poorly covered.

According to A.A. Zimin and A.L. Khoroshkevich war acted as a continuation of domestic policy by other means for both opposing sides. The outcome of the conflict for Russia was predetermined for a number of objective reasons: the complete ruin of the country, the oprichnina terror that destroyed the best military personnel, the presence of fronts both in the West and in the East. The monograph emphasizes the idea of ​​the national liberation struggle of the Baltic peoples against the Livonian feudal lords.

R. G. Skrynnikov in his "History of the Russian" paid very little attention to the Livonian War, believing that Ivan the Terrible did not have to resort to military action to gain access to the Baltic. The Livonian War is consecrated in an overview, much more attention is paid to domestic politics Russian state.

Among the kaleidoscope of views on the history of the Livonian War, two main directions can be distinguished, based on the expediency of choosing the country's foreign policy in specific historical conditions. Representatives of the former believe that among many foreign policy tasks, the solution of the Baltic issue was a top priority. These include historians of the Soviet school: V. D. Korolyuk, A. A. Zimin and A. L. Khoroshkevich. Characteristic for them is the use of a socio-economic approach to history. Another group of researchers considers the choice in favor of war with Livonia to be erroneous. The first to note this was the 19th-century historian N.I. Kostomarov. R. G. Skrynnikov, Professor of St. Petersburg University, in his new book "Russian History of the 9th - 17th centuries" believes that the Russian government could peacefully establish itself on the Baltic coast, but failed to cope with the task and put forward foreground military capture of the harbors of Livonia. An intermediate position was taken by the pre-revolutionary historian E.F. Shmurlo, who considered the programs "Crimea" and "Livonia" equally urgent. The choice of one of them at the time described, in his opinion, was influenced by secondary factors.

1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONS WAR

The main directions of the foreign policy of the Russian centralized state emerged in the second half of the 15th century, under Grand Duke Ivan III. They boiled down, firstly, to the struggle on the eastern and southern borders with the Tatar khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde; secondly, to the fight against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the union of Poland connected with it for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands captured by Lithuanian and partly Polish feudal lords; thirdly, to the fight on the northwestern borders against the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords and the Livonian Order, who sought to isolate the Russian state from the natural and convenient outlet it needed to the Baltic Sea.

For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a habitual and constant matter. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century did the long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorb the forces of the Tatar world. A protege of Moscow established itself in Kazan. The union between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the attack of the Crimean Khan on Moscow in 1521, the citizens of Kazan broke off vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had developed to the east and south of the Russian state. A force grew in her face that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai Horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus also increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the king. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east.

The foreign policy question that has arisen seems natural: should we continue the onslaught on the Tatar world, should we finish the struggle, the roots of which go back to the distant past? Is the attempt to conquer the Crimea timely? Two different programs clashed in Russian foreign policy. The formation of these programs was determined by international circumstances and the alignment of political forces within the country. The elected council considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. The vast expanses of the "wild field" separated the then Russia from the Crimea. Moscow did not yet have strongholds on this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to the difficulties of a military nature, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with the Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and the German Empire. The latter was under the constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But at the moment, the position of Poland and Lithuania, who saw in Ottoman Empire a serious counterbalance to Russia. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania against Turkish aggression was accompanied by serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. More realistic was the program of struggle for the Baltic states. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his council, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order, to try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same flaw - impracticability at the moment, but at the same time, both were equally urgent and timely. Nevertheless, before the start of hostilities in the western direction, Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the revolt of the Kazan murzas in 1558 and thus forcing the Astrakhan khans to submit.

Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first serious skirmish dates back to the 12th century. At the same time, the German knights begin to implement their political doctrine - "March to the East", a crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples in order to convert them to Catholicism. In 1201, Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword-bearers was founded specifically for operations in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from the Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the sword-bearers and the Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240-1242. In general, the peace with the order in 1242 did not save from hostilities with the crusaders and the Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, at the end of the 13th century captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Sweden, having its own interests in the Baltics, was able to intervene in Livonian affairs. The Russian-Swedish war lasted from 1554 to 1557. The attempts of Gustav I Vasa to involve Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the Livonian Order in the war against Russia did not produce results, although initially it was the order that pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share the waiting position of their father. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, the hands of Sweden were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations.

The territorial dispute with Lithuania had a long history. Before the death of Prince Gediminas (1316 - 1341), Russian regions accounted for more than two thirds of the entire territory of the Lithuanian state. Over the next hundred years, under Olgerd and Vitovt, the Chernigov-Seversk region (the cities of Chernigov, Novgorod - Seversk, Bryansk), the Kyiv region, Podolia (the northern part of the lands between the Bug and the Dniester), Volyn, Smolensk region were conquered.

Under Basil III, Russia claimed the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the sister of the Russian sovereign. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the victory of the latter, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw Vasily as a personal enemy who claimed the Lithuanian throne. This aggravated the already strained Russo-Lithuanian relations. In such an environment, the Lithuanian Seimas in February 1507 decided to start a war with the eastern neighbor. The Lithuanian ambassadors, in an ultimatum form, raised the question of the return of the lands that had passed to Russia during the last wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the process of negotiations, and in March 1507 hostilities began. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, an uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another pretender to the throne of Lithuania, begins. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failure was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to start peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, "Perpetual Peace" was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transition to Russia of the Seversk cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. But, despite some success, the government of Vasily III did not consider the war of 1508 to be the solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered the "eternal peace" as a respite, preparing to continue the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversk lands either.

But under the specific conditions of the middle of the 16th century, a direct clash with Poland and Lithuania was not envisaged. The Russian state could not count on the help of reliable and strong allies. Moreover, the war with Poland and Lithuania would have to be waged in difficult conditions of hostile actions both from the Crimea and Turkey, and from Sweden and even the Livonian Order. Therefore, this variant of foreign policy was not considered by the Russian government at the moment.

One of the important factors that determined the choice of the king in favor of the struggle for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. The main military force in the country was the knightly Order of the Sword. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinated to the supreme authority of the master. The archbishop of Riga (another part of Riga was subordinate to him), and the bishops of Derpt, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. The knights of the order owned estates on fiefdom. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Derpt, Narva, etc., were in fact an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. There were constant clashes between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only organ of the central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four estates: the Order, the clergy, chivalry and cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually did not have real value in the absence of a single executive power. Close ties have existed for a long time between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian population was ready to support the military operations of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.

The Russian state itself by the end of the 50s. XVI century was a powerful military power in Europe. As a result of the reforms, Russia has become much stronger and has achieved a much higher degree of political centralization than ever before. Permanent infantry units were created - the archery army. The Russian artillery also achieved great success. Russia had not only large enterprises for the manufacture of cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder, but also well-trained numerous personnel. In addition, the introduction of an important technical improvement - the gun carriage - made it possible to use artillery in the field. Russian military engineers have developed a new effective system of engineering support for the attack of fortresses.

Russia in the 16th century became the largest trading power at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, whose craft was still suffocated by the lack of non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the receipt of metals is trade with the West through the overhead mediation of Livonian cities. Livonian cities - Derpt, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. The main source of their income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, the attempts of the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. At the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, Russian Ivangorod was founded opposite Narva. A little later, the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not but frighten the trading elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. Livonia, in response, was ready to organize an economic blockade, which was also supported by Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communication with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the 1557 peace treaty with Sweden. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular, Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hindered by the contradictions between Sweden and Russia in border issues.

Trade on the White Sea, although of great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible for most of the year; the way there was difficult and distant; contacts were unilateral in nature with the complete monopoly of the British, etc. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unhindered trade relations with the countries of Europe, set the task of gaining access to the Baltic.

The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Muscovite state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Russia was in close contact with many foreign states. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, marriage unions connected the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. One of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke for Russia was the forcible reorientation of foreign policy towards the East. The war for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track, to restore the interrupted connection with the West.

International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to secure for itself an independent position in the sphere of international relations, or to serve as a mere object of interests of other powers. In many respects, the future of the Muscovite state depended on the outcome of the struggle for the Baltic states: whether it would enter the family of European peoples, having the opportunity to independently communicate with the states of Western Europe.

In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV reasonably states: "... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land ...". Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.

The social factor should not be discounted either. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the townspeople. The nobility counted on the local distribution of land in the Baltic, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the "wild field", the impossibility of establishing a strong central authority there, at least at first, the landowners - the boyars had the opportunity to occupy the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, he took into account, first of all, the interests of the nobility and merchant classes.

With the complex alignment of forces in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment for the start of hostilities against Livonia. It came to Russia at the end of 1557 - the beginning of 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russian-Swedish war temporarily neutralized this rather strong enemy, which had the status of a maritime power. Denmark at this point was distracted by the aggravation of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not connected by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved internal issues: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expired truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. And finally, as a result of military operations against the Crimean Tatars, it was possible for some time not to be afraid of the southern borders. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.

During this period, relations with Livonia were rather strained. In 1554, Alexey Adashev and the clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy that they did not want to extend the truce due to:

Non-payment by the Bishop of Dorpat of tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;

The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the ruin of Russian settlements in the Baltic.

The establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden contributed to the temporary settlement of Russian-Livonian relations. After Russia lifted the ban on the export of wax and lard, Livonia was presented with the terms of a new truce:

Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;

Guaranteed payment of tribute by the Bishop of Derpt;

Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;

Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;

Providing conditions for free trade.

Livonia was not going to fulfill its obligations under a truce concluded for fifteen years.

Thus, the choice was made in favor of resolving the Baltic issue. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: economic, territorial, social and ideological. Russia, being in a favorable international situation, had a high military potential and was ready for a military conflict with Livonia for the possession of the Baltic states.

2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONS WAR

2.1 First phase of the war

The course of the Livonian War can be divided into three stages, each of which differs somewhat in the composition of the participants, the duration and nature of the actions. The reason for the start of hostilities in the Baltic States was the fact that the Bishop of Derpt did not pay the "Yurievsky tribute" from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes. In addition to the oppression of the Russian people in the Baltic states, the Livonian authorities violated another clause of the agreement with Russia - in September 1554, they entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, directed against Moscow. The Russian government sent Master Furstenberg a letter declaring war. However, hostilities did not begin then - Ivan IV hoped to achieve his goals through diplomacy until June 1558.

The main goal of the first campaign of the Russian army in Livonia, which took place in the winter of 1558, was the desire to achieve a voluntary concession of Narva from the Order. Hostilities began in January 1558. Moscow cavalry rati led by the Kasimov "king" Shah - Ali and Prince. M.V. Glinsky entered the land of the Order. During the winter campaign, Russian and Tatar detachments, numbering 40 thousand soldiers, reached the Baltic coast, devastating the environs of many Livonian cities and castles. During this campaign, Russian military leaders twice, on the direct instructions of the tsar, sent letters to the master about the resumption of peace negotiations. The Livonian authorities made concessions: they began collecting tribute, agreed with the Russian side on a temporary cessation of hostilities, and sent their representatives to Moscow, who, during the most difficult negotiations, were forced to agree to the transfer of Narva to Russia.

But the established truce was soon violated by supporters of the military party of the Order. March 1558. Narva Vogt E. von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress Ivangorod, provoking a new invasion of Moscow troops into Livonia.

During the second trip to the Baltic in May-July 1558. Russians captured more than 20 fortresses, including the most important ones - Narva, Neishloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Derpt. During the summer campaign in 1558. the troops of the Moscow tsar came close to Revel and Riga, devastating their surroundings.

The decisive battle of the winter campaign of 1558/1559. happened near the city of Tiersen, where on January 17, 1559. met a large Livonian detachment of the Riga house prefect F. Felkerzam and the Russian Advanced Regiment, led by the voivode Prince. V.S. Silver. In a stubborn battle, the Germans were defeated.

March 1559. the Russian government, considering its position sufficiently strong, through the mediation of the Danes, agreed to conclude a six-month truce with master V. Furstenberg - from May to November 1559.

Having received in 1559. an urgently needed respite, the order authorities, headed by G. Ketler, who became on September 17, 1559. new master, enlisted the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden. Ketler in October 1559 broke the truce with Moscow. The new master managed to defeat the detachment of the governor Z.I. near Dorpat with an unexpected attack. Ochina-Pleshcheeva. Nevertheless, the head of the Yurievsky (Derpt) garrison, voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. For ten days, the Livonians unsuccessfully stormed Yuryev and, not venturing into a winter siege, were forced to retreat. The siege of Lais in November 1559 turned out to be just as unsuccessful. Ketler, having lost 400 soldiers in the battles for the fortress, retreated to Wenden.

The result of a new big offensive of the Russian troops was the capture of one of the strongest fortresses of Livonia - Fellin - on August 30, 1560. A few months before this, Russian troops led by governors Prince I.F. Mstislavsky and Prince P.I. Shuisky occupied Marienburg.

Thus, the first stage of the Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1561. It was conceived as a punitive demonstration campaign with the clear military superiority of the Russian army. Livonia stubbornly resisted, counting on the help of Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Hostile relations between these states allowed Russia for the time being to conduct successful military operations in the Baltics.

2.2 Second phase of the war

Despite the defeat of the Order, the government of Ivan the Terrible faced a difficult choice: either to cede the Baltic states in response to the ultimatum statement of Poland and Lithuania (1560), or to prepare for war against the anti-Russian coalition (Sweden, Denmark, the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Holy Roman Empire) . Ivan the Terrible made an attempt to avoid conflict by dynastic marriage with a relative of the Polish king. The matchmaking proved unsuccessful, as Sigismund demanded territorial concessions as a marriage condition.

The successes of the Russian weapons accelerated the disintegration of the Cavalier Teutonic Order in Livonia. In June 1561, the cities of Northern Estonia, including Revel, swore allegiance to the Swedish king Eric XIV. The Livonian state ceased to exist, transferring its cities, castles and lands under the joint rule of Lithuania and Poland. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II August. In December, Lithuanian troops were sent to Livonia, occupying more than ten cities. The Muscovite side initially managed to reach an agreement with the Kingdom of Sweden (August 20, 1561 in Novgorod, a truce was concluded with representatives of the Swedish king Eric XIV for 20 years).

In March 1562, immediately after the end of the truce with Lithuania, the Moscow governors devastated the environs of the Lithuanian Orsha, Mogilev and Vitebsk. In Livonia, the troops of I.F. Mstislavsky and P.I. Shuisky captured the cities of Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev).

In the spring of 1562 Lithuanian troops carried out retaliatory raids on Smolensk places and Pskov volosts, after which the fighting unfolded along the entire line of the Russian-Lithuanian border. Summer - autumn 1562. Lithuanian troops continued to attack border fortresses in Russia (Nevel) and on the territory of Livonia (Tarvast).

December 1562. Ivan IV himself set out on a campaign against Lithuania with an 80,000-strong army. Russian regiments in January 1563 moved to Polotsk, which had a favorable strategic position at the junction of Russian, Lithuanian and Livonian borders. The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. Thanks to the actions of Russian artillery, the well-fortified city was taken on February 15. An attempt to conclude peace with Lithuania (with the condition of consolidating the successes) failed.

Soon after the victory near Polotsk, the Russian rati began to suffer defeats. The Lithuanians, alarmed by the loss of the city, sent all available forces to the Moscow border under the command of Hetman Nikolai Radziwill.

Battle on the river Ulle January 26, 1564 turned into a heavy defeat for the Russian army due to the betrayal of Prince. A.M. Kurbsky, an agent of Lithuanian intelligence, who transmitted information about the movement of Russian regiments.

1564 brought not only the flight of Kurbsky to Lithuania, but also another defeat from the Lithuanians - near Orsha. The war took on a protracted character. In the autumn of 1564 The government of Ivan the Terrible, not having the strength to fight several states at once, concluded a seven-year peace with Sweden at the cost of recognizing Swedish authority over Reval, Pernov (Pärnu) and other cities of Northern Estonia.

In the autumn of 1564 the Lithuanian army, in which Kurbsky was also located, launched a successful counteroffensive. In agreement with Sigismund II, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray also approached Ryazan, whose raid led the king into a panic.

In 1568, the enemy of Ivan IV, Johan III, sat on the Swedish throne. In addition, the rude actions of Russian diplomats contributed to the further deterioration of relations with Sweden. In 1569 Lithuania and Poland, according to the Union of Lublin, merged into a single state - the Commonwealth. In 1570, the Russian tsar accepted the peace conditions of the Polish king in order to be able to force the Swedes out of the Baltic states by force of arms. On the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow, a vassal kingdom was created, the ruler of which was Danish prince Magnus Holstein. The siege of the Russian-Livonian troops of the Swedish Reval for almost 30 weeks ended in complete failure. In 1572, a struggle began in Europe for the Polish throne, which had become empty after the death of Sigismund. The Commonwealth was on the verge of civil war and foreign invasion. Russia hastened to turn the tide of the war in its favor. In 1577, the victorious campaign of the Russian army to the Baltic took place, as a result of which Russia controlled the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, excluding Riga and Revel.

In the second stage, the war took on a protracted character. The struggle was fought on several fronts with varying success. The situation was complicated by unsuccessful diplomatic actions and mediocrity of the military command. Failures in foreign policy led to a sharp change in domestic policy. Years of war led to an economic crisis. The military successes achieved by 1577 subsequently failed to be consolidated.

2.3 Third phase of the war

A decisive turning point in the course of hostilities is associated with the appearance at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian state of an experienced military leader Stefan Batory, whose candidacy for the Polish throne was nominated and supported by Turkey and the Crimea. He deliberately did not interfere with the offensive of the Russian troops, delaying peace negotiations with Moscow. His first concern was the solution of internal problems: the suppression of the rebellious gentry and the restoration of the combat capability of the army.

In 1578 the counteroffensive of the Polish and Swedish troops began. The stubborn struggle for the castle of Verdun ended on October 21, 1578. heavy defeat of the Russian infantry. Russia lost one city after another. Duke Magnus went over to the side of Bathory. The difficult situation forced the Russian tsar to seek peace with Batory in order to gather strength and inflict in the summer of 1579. decisive blow to the Swedes.

But Batory did not want peace on Russian terms and was preparing to continue the war with Russia. In this, he was fully supported by the allies: the Swedish king Johan III, the Saxon Elector August and the Brandenburg Elector Johann George.

Batory determined the direction of the main attack not on the devastated Livonia, where there were still many Russian troops, but on the territory of Russia in the region of Polotsk, a key point on the Dvina.

Alarmed by the invasion of the Polish army into the Moscow state, Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen the Polotsk garrison and its combat capabilities. However, these actions are clearly too late. The siege of Polotsk by the Poles lasted three weeks. The defenders of the city offered fierce resistance, but, suffering huge losses and having lost faith in the help of the Russian troops, they surrendered on September 1 to Batory.

After the capture of Polotsk, the Lithuanian army invaded the Smolensk and Seversk lands. After this success, Batory returned to the capital of Lithuania - Vilna, from where he sent a message to Ivan the Terrible with a message about the victories and demanding the cession of Livonia and recognition of the rights of the Commonwealth to Courland.

Preparing to resume hostilities next year, Stefan Batory again intended to attack not in Livonia, but in a northeasterly direction. This time he was going to capture the fortress of Velikiye Luki, which covered the Novgorod lands from the south. And again, Batory's plans turned out to be unsolved by the Moscow command. Russian regiments were stretched along the entire front line from the Livonian city of Kokenhausen to Smolensk. This mistake had the most negative consequences.

At the end of August 1580. the army of the Polish king (48-50 thousand people, of which 21 thousand were infantry) crossed the Russian border. The royal army, which set out on a campaign, had first-class artillery, which included 30 siege guns.

The siege of Velikiye Luki began on August 26, 1580. Alarmed by the success of the enemy, Ivan the Terrible offered him peace, agreeing to very significant territorial concessions, primarily the transfer of 24 cities in Livonia to the Commonwealth. The tsar also expressed his readiness to renounce claims to Polotsk and Polotsk land. However, Batory considered Moscow's proposals insufficient, demanding all of Livonia. Apparently, even then, in his entourage, plans were being developed to conquer the Seversk land, Smolensk, Veliky Novgorod and Pskov. The interrupted siege of the city continued, and on September 5, the defenders of the dilapidated fortress agreed to surrender.

Shortly after this victory, the Poles took the fortresses of Narva (September 29), Ozerische (October 12) and Zavolochye (October 23).

In the battle near Toropets, the army of Prince. V.D. Khilkov, and this deprived the protection of the southern borders of the Novgorod land.

The Polish-Lithuanian detachments continued hostilities in this area even in the winter. The Swedes, having taken with great difficulty the fortress of Padis, put an end to the Russian presence in Western Estonia.

The main target of Batory's third strike was Pskov. June 20, 1581 The Polish army set out on a campaign. This time, the king failed to hide his preparation and the direction of the main attack. The Russian governors succeeded, ahead of the enemy, in delivering a warning strike in the area of ​​Dubrovna, Orsha, Shklov and Mogilev. This attack not only slowed down the progress of the Polish army, but also weakened its strength. Thanks to the temporary stop of the Polish offensive, the Russian command managed to transfer additional military contingents from the Livonian castles to Pskov and strengthen the fortifications. Polish-Lithuanian troops in the autumn and winter of 1581. stormed the city 31 times. All attacks were beaten off. Bathory abandoned the winter siege and on December 1, 1581. left camp. The time has come for negotiations. The Russian tsar understood that the war was lost, while for the Poles, further presence on the territory of Russia was fraught with heavy losses.

The third stage is more defensive actions of Russia. Many factors played a role in this: the military talent of Stefan Batory, the inept actions of Russian diplomats and generals, a significant drop in Russia's military potential. For 5 years, Ivan the Terrible has repeatedly offered peace to opponents on conditions unfavorable for Russia.

2.4 Summary

Russia needed peace. In the Baltic States, the Swedes went on the offensive, the Crimeans resumed raids on the southern borders. Pope Gregory XIII, who dreamed of expanding the influence of the papal curia in Eastern Europe, acted as an intermediary in the peace negotiations. Negotiations began in mid-December 1581 in the small village of Yama Zapolsky. The congresses of ambassadors ended on January 5, 1582, with the conclusion of a ten-year truce. The Polish commissars agreed to cede to the Muscovite state Velikie Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzhev Pustaya and the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, and Velya, previously captured by their army. It was specifically stipulated that the Russian fortresses besieged at that time by the troops of the Polish king were subject to return if they were captured by the enemy: Vrev, Vladimirets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobyle settlement and Sebezh. The foresight of the Russian ambassadors turned out to be useful: according to this clause, the Poles returned the captured city of Sebezh. For its part, the Muscovite state agreed to the transfer of the Commonwealth of all the cities and castles in Livonia occupied by Russian troops, which turned out to be 41. Yam - the Zapolsky truce did not apply to Sweden.

So, Stefan Batory secured most of the Baltic states for his kingdom. He also managed to achieve recognition of his rights to the Polotsk land, to the cities of Velizh, Usvyat, Ozerishche, Sokol. In June 1582, the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky truce were confirmed at the negotiations in Moscow, which were conducted by the Polish ambassadors Janusz Zbarazhsky, Nikolai Tavlosh and clerk Mikhail Garaburda. The parties agreed to consider the day of St. Peter and Paul (29 June) 1592

On February 4, 1582, a month after the conclusion of the Yam-Zapolsky truce, the last Polish detachments left Pskov.

However, the Yam-Zapolsky and "Peter and Paul" peace agreements of 1582 did not end the Livonian War. The Swedish army under the command of Field Marshal P. Delagardie dealt the final blow to Russian plans to preserve part of the cities conquered in the Baltic states. In September 1581, his troops captured Narva and Ivangorod, the defense of which was led by the governor A. Belsky, who surrendered the fortress to the enemy.

Having entrenched themselves in Ivangorod, the Swedes soon went on the offensive again and soon occupied the border Yam (September 28, 1581) and Koporye (October 14) with their counties. On August 10, 1583, Russia concluded a truce with Sweden in Plus, according to which the Russian cities and Northern Estonia occupied by them remained behind the Swedes.

The Livonian War, which lasted almost 25 years, ended. Russia suffered a heavy defeat, losing not only all its conquests in the Baltic states, but also part of its own territories with three major border fortress cities. On the coast of the Gulf of Finland, only a small fortress Oreshek on the river remained behind the Moscow state. Neva and a narrow corridor along this waterway from the river. Arrows to the river. Sisters, with a total length of 31.5 km.

Three stages in the course of hostilities are of a different nature: the first - local war with a clear advantage of the Russians; at the second stage, the war took on a protracted character, an anti-Russian coalition was formed, battles were taking place on the border of the Russian state; the third stage is characterized mainly by the defensive actions of Russia on its territory, Russian soldiers demonstrate unprecedented heroism in the defense of cities. The main goal of the war - the solution of the Baltic issue - was not achieved.

CONCLUSION

Thus, based on the above material, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. It is rather difficult to say whether the choice in favor of the war with Livonia was timely and correct. The necessity of solving this problem for the Russian state seems unambiguous. The importance of unhindered trade with the West dictated the need for the Livonian War in the first place. Russia under Ivan the Terrible considered itself the heir to Novgorod, Kyiv, etc., and therefore had every right to claim the lands occupied by the Livonian Order. At a certain period, completely isolated from Europe, having grown stronger, Russia needed to restore interrupted political and cultural contacts with Western Europe. It seemed possible to restore them only by ensuring high international prestige. The most accessible way, unfortunately, lay through the war. The reasons that caused the Livonian War turned out to be relevant later. All the successors of Ivan the Terrible tried to gain a foothold on the Baltic coast and raise the international status of Russia, until Peter the Great managed to do this.

2. Livonian War 1558 - 1583 has three stages. From a punitive expedition, it turned for Russia into a war on several fronts. Despite the initial defeat of the Livonian Order, it was not possible to consolidate the success. A strong Russia did not suit the neighbors, and former rivals in Europe joined forces against it (Lithuania and Poland, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate). Russia was isolated. The protracted hostilities led to the depletion of human and financial resources, which, in turn, did not contribute to further success on the battlefield. It is impossible not to take into account the influence on the course of the war and many subjective factors: the military and political talent of Stefan Batory, cases of betrayal of prominent military leaders, the low level of commanders in general, diplomatic miscalculations, etc. In the third stage, the threat of capture hung over Russia itself. The key point at this stage can be considered with full confidence the defense of Pskov. Only the heroism of its participants and the timely actions of the authorities to strengthen the defense saved the country from final defeat.

3. The historical task of obtaining free access to the Baltic Sea was not ultimately resolved. Russia was forced to make territorial concessions under the terms of peace treaties with the Commonwealth and Sweden. But despite the unsuccessful end of the war for Russia, some positive results can be identified: the Livonian Order was finally defeated, in addition, the Russian state managed to avoid irreparable land losses. It was the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. for the first time loudly voiced one of the priorities in Russia's foreign policy for the next hundred and fifty years.

The consequences of the Livonian War affected many spheres of Russian life. Many years of tension in the economy led to an economic crisis. Heavy taxes led to the desolation of many lands: Novgorod, Volokolamsk district, etc. Failures in military operations, political dissent, the betrayal of some boyars and numerous attempts to discredit them by the enemy, the need to mobilize society became the reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina. The foreign policy crisis thus had a direct impact on the domestic policy of the state. The social upheavals of the 17th century are rooted in the era of Ivan the Terrible.

The defeat in the Livonian War seriously damaged the prestige of the tsar and, in general, Russia. In the peace treaty, Ivan IV is referred to only as the “Grand Duke”, he is no longer “Tsar of Kazan and Tsar of Astrakhan”. A completely new political situation developed in the area of ​​the Baltic coast, in particular, the Commonwealth was ousted from Livonia by the Swedes.

The Livonian War rightfully occupies a prominent place in the history of the Russian state.

REFERENCES

Sources

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2. A. A. Zimina. Proc. allowance for the university -comrade. - M.: Sotsekgiz, 1962. - 751s.

3. Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky / Comp. Ya. S. Lurie,

4. Yu. D. Rykov. – M.: Nauka, 1993. – 429 p.

5. The story of the arrival of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov. From the book:

6. Reader on the history of the USSR XVI - XVII centuries. / ed. A. A. Zimina.

7. Proc. allowance for the university. – M.: Sotsekgiz, 1962. – 751 p.

Literature

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5. Zimin, A.A. Russia on the threshold of a new era. (Essays on the political history of Russia in the first third of the 16th century) / A.A. Zimin. - M., "Thought", 1972. - 452 p.

6. History of the Russian state: biographies, IX - XVI centuries. - M., 1996. - 254s.

7. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions: essays on the history of Russia, IX - early XX century. - M., 1991. - 298s.

8. Kazakova, N.A. Russian-Livonian and Russian-Henseatic relations, late XIV - early XVI centuries. - L., Nauka, 1975. - 358s.

9. Klyuchevsky, V.O. Works. In 9 vols. T. 2. The course of Russian history. Part 2 / Afterword. and comment. Compiled by V.A. Alexandrov, V. G. Zimina. - M.: Thought, 1987. - 447 p.

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Capture of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible (according to the Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom). From the book: Reader on the history of the USSR XVI - XVII centuries. / ed. A. A. Zimina. - M., 1962. - S. 176 - 182.

Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky / Comp. Ya. S. Lurie, Yu. D. Rykov. - M., 1993. - S. 156 - 177.

The story of the arrival of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov. From the book. : An Reader on the History of the USSR in the 16th-17th Centuries. / ed. A. A. Zimina. - M., 1962.- S. 185 - 196.

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Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 125.

There. – S. 140.

Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 143.

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After the conquest of Kazan, Russia turned its eyes to the Baltic and put forward plans for the capture of Livonia. For Russia, the main goal of the Livonian War was the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea. The struggle for supremacy at sea was between Lithuania and Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.

The reason for the start of the war was the non-payment of tribute by the Livonian Order, which they were obliged to pay under the peace treaty of 1554. In 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia.

At the first stage of the war (1558-1561), several cities and castles were taken, including such significant ones as Narva, Derpt, Yuryev.

Instead of continuing the successfully launched offensive, the Moscow government granted the Order a truce and at the same time equipped an expedition against the Crimea. Taking advantage of the respite, the Livonian knights gathered military forces and, a month before the end of the truce, defeated the Russian troops.

Russia did not achieve results in the war against the Crimean Khanate and missed favorable opportunities for victory in Livonia. Moscow made peace with the Crimea and concentrated all its forces in Livonia.

The second stage of the war (1562-1578) for Russia passed with varying success.

The highest achievement of Russia in the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in February 1563, after which military failures followed.

In 1566, Lithuanian ambassadors arrived in Moscow with a proposal for a truce and so that Polotsk and part of Livonia remained behind Moscow. Ivan the Terrible demanded all of Livonia. Such demands were rejected, and the Lithuanian king Sigismund August resumed the war with Russia. In 1568, Sweden terminated the previously concluded alliance with Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. After the death of Sigismund Augustus in 1572, Stefan Batory took the throne.

The third stage of the Livonian War (1679-1583) began with the invasion of Russia by the Polish king Stefan Batory. At the same time, Russia had to fight with Sweden. On September 9, 1581, Sweden captured Narva, and after that, the continuation of the struggle for Livonia lost its meaning for Grozny. Realizing the impossibility of waging war with two opponents at once, the tsar began negotiations with Bathory on a truce in order to concentrate all forces on the recapture of Narva. But the plans for an attack on Narva remained unfulfilled.

The result of the Livonian War was the conclusion of two treaties that were unfavorable for Russia.

On January 15, 1582, Yam Zapolsky signed an agreement on a 10-year truce. Russia ceded all its possessions in Livonia to Poland, and Batory returned to Russia the fortresses and cities he had conquered, but retained Polotsk.

In August 1583, Russia and Sweden signed the Plyussky truce for three years. The Swedes retained all the captured Russian cities. Russia retained a section of the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the mouth of the Neva.

The end of the Livonian War did not give Russia access to the Baltic Sea.

Livonian War
	The struggle of Russia, Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the "Livonian heritage"
	Victory of the Commonwealth and Sweden
Territorial changes:	Annexation by the Commonwealth of Velizh and Livonia; Swedish annexation of Ingria and Karelia
Opponents
	Livonian Confederation (1558-1561)
Don Army (1570-1583)	Kingdom of Poland (1563-1569)
Livonian Kingdom (1570-1577)	Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1563-1569)
	Sweden (1563-1583)
	Army Zaporozhye (1568-1582)
	Rzeczpospolita (1569-1582)
Commanders
Ivan IV the Terrible Khan Shah Ali King of Livonia Magnus in 1570-1577	Former King Magnus after 1577 Stefan Batory	Frederick II

Livonian War(1558-1583) was fought by the Russian Kingdom for the territories in the Baltic and access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from the Livonian Confederation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

background

The Livonian Confederation was interested in controlling the transit of Russian trade and significantly limited the possibilities of Russian merchants. In particular, all trade exchange with Europe could be carried out only through the Livonian ports of Riga, Lindanise (Revel), Narva, and it was possible to transport goods only on the ships of the Hanseatic League. At the same time, fearing the military and economic strengthening of Russia, the Livonian Confederation prevented the transport of strategic raw materials and specialists to Russia (see the Schlitte case), receiving the assistance of Hansa, Poland, Sweden and the German imperial authorities in this.

In 1503, Ivan III concluded a truce with the Livonian Confederation for 50 years, according to which it had to annually pay tribute (the so-called "Yuriev tribute") for the city of Yuryev (Derpt), which previously belonged to Novgorod. Treaties between Moscow and Derpt in the 16th century traditionally referred to the "Yuryev tribute", but in fact it had long been forgotten. When the truce expired, during the negotiations in 1554, Ivan IV demanded the return of arrears, the refusal of the Livonian Confederation from military alliances with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, and the continuation of the truce.

The first payment of the debt for Dorpat was to take place in 1557, but the Livonian Confederation did not fulfill its obligation.

In 1557, in the city of Posvol, an agreement was concluded between the Livonian Confederation and the Kingdom of Poland, establishing the vassal dependence of the Order on Poland.

In the spring of 1557, Tsar Ivan IV set up a port on the banks of the Narva ( “The same year, July, a city was set up from the German Ust-Narova River Rozsen by the sea for the shelter of a sea ship”). However, Livonia and the Hanseatic League do not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they are forced to go, as before, to the Livonian ports.

The course of the war

By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Confederation was weakened by a defeat in a conflict with the Archbishop of Riga and Sigismund II Augustus. In addition, the already heterogeneous Livonian society was even more split as a result of the reformation. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after victories over the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the annexation of Kabarda.

War with the Livonian Confederation

Russia started the war on January 17, 1558. The invasion of Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. It was attended by 40 thousand people under the command of Khan Shig-Aley (Shah-Ali), governor of Glinsky and Zakharyin-Yuriev. They passed through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March. The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive the due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers for settlement with Moscow in order to stop the outbreak of war. However, by May, only half of the amount claimed had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired on the Ivangorod fortress, which violated the ceasefire agreement.

This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put in the field, not counting the fortress garrisons, no more than 10 thousand. Thus, its main military asset was the powerful stone walls of the fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.

Governors Aleksey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Focht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Virgin into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the city walls, the Russians rushed to the assault. They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having seized the guns located there, the warriors deployed them and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, the defenders of the castle themselves surrendered by the evening, on the terms of a free exit from the city.

The defense of the Neuhausen fortress distinguished itself with particular perseverance. She was defended by several hundred soldiers led by the knight von Padenorm, who for almost a month repelled the onslaught of the governor Peter Shuisky. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to keep the defense here, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Peter Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.

In July, P. Shuisky laid siege to Dorpat. The city was defended by a garrison of 2,000 men under the command of Bishop Hermann Weiland. Having built a shaft at the level of the fortress walls and installing guns on it, on July 11, Russian artillery began shelling the city. The cores pierced the tiles of the roofs of houses, filling up the inhabitants who were hiding there. On July 15, P. Shuisky offered Weiland to surrender. While he thought, the bombardment continued. Some towers and loopholes were destroyed. Having lost hope of outside help, the besieged decided to enter into negotiations with the Russians. P. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city to the ground and to preserve its former administration for its inhabitants. July 18, 1558 Dorpat capitulated. The troops were stationed in abandoned houses. In one of them, the warriors found 80 thousand thalers in a cache. The Livonian historian bitterly narrates that, because of their greed, the Derptians lost more than the Russian Tsar demanded from them. The funds found would be enough not only for the Yuryev tribute, but also for hiring troops to protect the Livonian Confederation.

In May-October 1558, Russian troops took 20 fortress cities, including those that voluntarily surrendered and became subjects of the Russian Tsar, after which they went to their winter quarters, leaving small garrisons in the cities. The new energetic master Gotthard Ketler took advantage of this. Gathering 10,000 army, he decided to return the lost. At the end of 1558, Ketler approached the Ringen fortress, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers under the command of governor Rusin-Ignatiev. A detachment of governor Repnin (2 thousand people) went to help the besieged, but he was defeated by Ketler. However, the Russian garrison continued to defend the fortress for five weeks, and only when the defenders ran out of gunpowder, the Germans managed to take the fortress by storm. The entire garrison was killed. Having lost a fifth of his troops near Ringen (2 thousand people) and spending more than a month on the siege of one fortress, Ketler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October 1558, his army retreated to Riga. This small victory turned into a big disaster for the Livonians.

In response to the actions of the Livonian Confederation, two months after the fall of the Ringen fortress, Russian troops carried out a winter raid, which was a punitive operation. In January 1559, the prince-voivode Serebryany at the head of the army entered Livonia. The Livonian army under the command of the knight Felkenzam came out to meet him. On January 17, at the Battle of Terzen, the Germans were completely defeated. Felkenzam and 400 knights (not counting ordinary soldiers) died in this battle, the rest were captured or fled. This victory opened wide the gates to Livonia for the Russians. They freely passed through the lands of the Livonian Confederation, captured 11 cities and reached Riga, where they burned the Riga fleet on the Dyunamun raid. Then Courland lay on the path of the Russian army and, having passed it, they reached the Prussian border. In February, the army returned home with huge booty and a large number of prisoners.

After the winter raid of 1559, Ivan IV granted the Livonian Confederation a truce (the third in a row) from March to November, without consolidating his success. This miscalculation was due to a number of reasons. Moscow was under serious pressure from Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark, which had their own views on the Livonian lands. From March 1559, the Lithuanian ambassadors urged Ivan IV to stop hostilities in Livonia, otherwise threatening to take the side of the Livonian Confederation. Soon, the Swedish and Danish ambassadors addressed with requests to stop the war.

With its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade on the Baltic Sea then grew from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant. Reval merchants, having lost the most important item of their profits - income from Russian transit, complained to the Swedish king: “ We stand on the walls and watch with tears as merchant ships go past our city to the Russians in Narva».

In addition, the presence of Russians in Livonia affected the complex and intricate pan-European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent. So, for example, the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus wrote to the English Queen Elizabeth I about the importance of the Russians in Livonia: “ The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because here, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him ... military experts come, through which he acquires the means to defeat everyone ...».

The truce was also driven by disagreements over foreign strategy within the Russian leadership itself. There, in addition to supporters of access to the Baltic Sea, there were those who advocated the continuation of the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. In fact, the main initiator of the truce of 1559 was the roundabout Alexei Adashev. This grouping reflected the mood of those circles of the nobility who, in addition to eliminating the threat from the steppes, wanted to receive a large additional land fund in the steppe zone. During this truce, the Russians struck at the Crimean Khanate, which, however, did not have significant consequences. More global consequences had a truce with Livonia.

Truce of 1559

Already in the first year of the war, in addition to Narva, Yuryev (July 18), Neishloss, Neuhaus were occupied, the troops of the Livonian Confederation were defeated near Tirzen near Riga, Russian troops reached Kolyvan. The raids of the Crimean Tatar hordes on the southern borders of Russia, which happened already in January 1558, could not tie down the initiative of the Russian troops in the Baltic.

However, in March 1559, under the influence of Denmark and representatives of the major boyars, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, a truce was concluded with the Livonian Confederation, which lasted until November. Historian R. G. Skrynnikov emphasizes that the Russian government, represented by Adashev and Viskovaty, “should have concluded a truce on the western borders,” as it was preparing for a “decisive clash on the southern border.”

During the armistice (August 31), the Livonian Landsmeister of the Teutonic Order, Gotthard Ketler, concluded an agreement in Vilna with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II, according to which the lands of the order and the possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under “clientella and patronage”, that is, under the protectorate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the same 1559, Revel went to Sweden, and the Bishop of Ezel ceded the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to Duke Magnus, brother of the Danish king, for 30 thousand thalers.

Taking advantage of the delay, the Livonian Confederation gathered reinforcements, and a month before the end of the truce in the vicinity of Yuryev, its detachments attacked the Russian troops. Russian governors lost more than 1000 people killed.

In 1560, the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg (now Aluksne in Latvia) was taken; German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed.

During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Wilhelm von Furstenberg, was captured. In 1575, he sent a letter to his brother from Yaroslavl, where the land was granted to the former Landmaster. He told a relative that he "had no reason to complain about his fate."

Sweden and Lithuania, which acquired the Livonian lands, demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused and Russia found itself in conflict with the coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.

War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

On November 26, 1561, the German emperor Ferdinand I banned the supply of Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blocked the port of Narva and sent Swedish privateers to intercept merchant ships sailing to Narva.

In 1562, Lithuanian troops raided the Smolensk region and Velizh. In the summer of that year, the situation on the southern borders of the Muscovite state escalated, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to autumn.

The way to the Lithuanian capital Vilna was closed by Polotsk. In January 1563, the Russian army, which included "almost all the armed forces of the country," set out to capture this border fortress from Velikiye Luki. In early February, the Russian army began the siege of Polotsk, and on February 15 the city surrendered.

According to the Pskov Chronicle, during the capture of Polotsk, Ivan the Terrible ordered all Jews to be baptized on the spot, and those who refused (300 people) ordered to be drowned in the Dvina. Karamzin mentions that after the capture of Polotsk, John ordered "to baptize all the Jews, and drown the disobedient in the Dvina."

After the capture of Polotsk, Russia's successes in the Livonian War began to decline. Already in 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). The boyar and a major military leader, who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A.M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania, he gave the king agents in the Baltic states and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to the military failures and unwillingness of eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.

Third period of the war

The Union of Lublin had serious consequences, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569 into one state - the Republic of Both Nations. A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden again aggravated, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of Both Nations of a long “kinglessness”, the creation in Livonia of the vassal “kingdom” of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed the scales to tip in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet Giray was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573 the Russians stormed the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near Lode Castle in western Estonia with a Swedish army of two thousand. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and baggage.

In 1575, the fortress of Sage surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov (now Pärnu in Estonia) surrendered to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Kolyvan.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, serious internal difficulties (the economic ruin that was looming over the country) negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia.

Fourth period of the war

Stefan Batory, who, with the active support of the Turks (1576), took the throne of the Republic of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, went on the offensive, occupied Wenden (1578), Polotsk (1579), Sokol, Velizh, Usvyat, Velikiye Luki. In the captured fortresses, the Poles and Lithuanians completely destroyed the Russian garrisons. In Velikiye Luki, the Poles exterminated the entire population, about 7 thousand people. Polish and Lithuanian detachments ravaged the Smolensk region, Seversk land, Ryazan region, south-west of the Novgorod region, plundered Russian lands up to the headwaters of the Volga. The devastation they caused was reminiscent of the worst Tatar raids. The Lithuanian voivode Filon Kmita from Orsha burned 2000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge full. The Lithuanian magnates Ostrozhsky and Vishnevetsky, with the help of light cavalry detachments, plundered the Chernihiv region. The cavalry of the gentry Jan Solomeretsky ravaged the environs of Yaroslavl. In February 1581, the Lithuanians burned Staraya Russa.

In 1581, the Polish-Lithuanian army, which included mercenaries from almost all of Europe, besieged Pskov, intending, if successful, to go to Novgorod the Great and Moscow. In November 1580, the Swedes took Korela, where 2 thousand Russians were exterminated, and in 1581 they occupied Rugodiv (Narva), which was also accompanied by a massacre - 7 thousand Russians died; the victors did not take prisoners and did not spare the civilian population. The heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582 by the garrison and the population of the city determined a more favorable outcome of the war for Russia: the failure near Pskov forced Stefan Batory to enter into peace negotiations.

Results and consequences

In January 1582, in Yama-Zapolny (near Pskov), a 10-year truce was concluded with the Republic of Both Nations (the Commonwealth) (the so-called Yam-Zapolsky peace). Russia abandoned Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border lands were returned to it.

In May 1583, a 3-year Plyus truce with Sweden was concluded, according to which Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the adjacent territory of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland were ceded. The Russian state was again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, and the northwestern regions were depopulated.

It should also be noted that the Crimean raids influenced the course of the war and its results: only for 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no significant raids.

For him, the war has become a truly part of the reign and, one might even say, a matter of life.

It cannot be said that Livonia was a strong state. The formation of the Livonian state is attributed to the XIII century, by the XIV century it was considered weak and fragmented. The Order of the Knights of the Sword headed the state, although he did not have absolute power.

The order throughout its existence prevented Russia from establishing diplomatic relations with other European countries.

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

The reason for the start of the Livonian War was the non-payment of the Yuryev tribute, which, by the way, happened throughout the entire period, after the conclusion of the treaty in 1503.

In 1557, the Livonian Order entered into a military agreement with the Polish king. In January of the following year, Ivan the Terrible advanced his troops to Livonian territory. During 1558 and by the beginning of 1559, the Russian army had already passed all of Livonia and was at the borders of East Prussia. Yuriev and Narva were also captured.

The Livonian Order needed to make peace in order to avoid complete defeat. In 1559, a truce was concluded, but it lasted only six months. Hostilities continued again, and the end of this company was the complete destruction of the Livonian Order. The main fortresses of the Order were captured: Fellin and Marienburg, and the master himself was captured.

However, after the defeat of the order, its lands began to belong to Poland, Sweden and Denmark, which, accordingly, dramatically complicated the situation on the war map for Russia.

Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, and therefore for Russia this meant a war in one direction - with the king of Poland, Sigismund II. At first, success in military operations accompanied the Russian army: in 1563, Ivan IV took Polotsk. But the victories stopped there, and the Russian troops began to suffer defeats.

Ivan IV saw the solution to this problem in the restoration of the Livonian Order under the auspices of Russia. It was also decided to conclude peace with Poland. However, this decision was not supported by the Zemsky Sobor, and the tsar had to continue the war.

The war dragged on, and in 1569 a new state was created called the Commonwealth, which included Lithuania and Poland. With the Commonwealth still managed to make peace for 3 years. At the same time, Ivan IV creates a state on the territory of the Livonian Order and puts Magnus, the brother of the Danish king, at the head.

In the speech of the Commonwealth at this time, a new king was elected - Stefan Batory. After that, the war continued. Sweden entered the war, and Batory laid siege to Russian fortresses. He took Velikiye Luki and Polotsk, and in August 1581 approached Pskov. The inhabitants of Pskov swore an oath that they would fight for Pskov until their death. After the 31st unsuccessful assault, the siege was lifted. And although Bathory failed to capture Pskov, the Swedes at that time occupied Narva.

Results of the Livonian War

In 1582, peace was concluded with the Commonwealth for 10 years. According to the agreement, Russia lost Livonia along with the Belarusian lands, although it received some border territories. A peace agreement was concluded with Sweden for a period of three years (Plus Armistice). According to him, Russia lost Koporye, Ivangorod, Yam and adjacent territories. The main and saddest fact was that Russia remained cut off from the sea.

Livonian War 1558 - 1583 - the largest military conflict of the XVI century. in Eastern Europe, which took place on the territory of present-day Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Leningrad, Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk and Yaroslavl regions of the Russian Federation and Chernigov region of Ukraine. Participants - Russia, the Livonian Confederation (the Livonian Order, the Archbishopric of Riga, the Bishopric of Derpt, the Bishopric of Ezel and the Bishopric of Courland), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian, Poland (in 1569 the last two states united into the federal state of the Commonwealth), Sweden, Denmark.

The beginning of the war

It was launched by Russia in January 1558 as a war with the Livonian Confederation: according to one version, with the aim of acquiring trading ports in the Baltic, according to another, in order to force the Derpt bishopric to pay the "Yuryev tribute" (which was to be paid to Russia under the 1503 agreement for the possession of the former ancient Russian city of Yuryev (Derpt, now Tartu) and the acquisition of new lands for distribution to the nobles on the estate.

After the defeat of the Livonian Confederation and the transition in 1559 - 1561 of its members under the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia, Sweden and Denmark, the Livonian War turned into a war between Russia and these states, as well as with Poland - which was in personal union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Russian and Zhemoytsky. The opponents of Russia sought to keep the Livonian territories under their rule, and also to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the event of the transfer of commercial ports in the Baltic to it. Sweden at the end of the war also set the goal of capturing the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Izhora land (Ingria) - and thereby cut off Russia from the Baltic.

Already in August 1562, Russia concluded a peace treaty with Denmark; with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian and with Poland, she fought with varying success until January 1582 (when the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded), and with Sweden, also with varying success, until May 1583 (before the signing of the Plyussky truce ).

The course of the war

In the first period of the war (1558 - 1561), hostilities took place on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia). Hostilities alternated with truces. During the campaigns of 1558, 1559 and 1560, Russian troops captured many cities, defeated the troops of the Livonian Confederation at Tirzen in January 1559 and at Ermes in August 1560 and forced the states of the Livonian Confederation to become part of the large states of Northern and Eastern Europe or to recognize vassalage to them.

In the second period (1561 - 1572) hostilities took place in Belarus and the Smolensk region, between the troops of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian. On February 15, 1563, the army of Ivan IV captured the largest of the cities of the principality - Polotsk. An attempt to move further into the depths of Belarus led to the defeat of the Russians in January 1564 at Chashniki (on the Ulla River). Then there was a break in hostilities.

In the third period (1572 - 1578), hostilities again moved to Livonia, which the Russians tried to take away from the Commonwealth and Sweden. During the campaigns of 1573, 1575, 1576 and 1577, Russian troops captured almost all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina. However, the attempt to take Revel from the Swedes in 1577 failed, and in October 1578 the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish army defeated the Russians near Wenden.

In the fourth period (1579 - 1582), the king of the Commonwealth, Stefan Batory, undertook three major campaigns against Russia. In August 1579, he returned Polotsk, in September 1580 he captured Velikie Luki, and on August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582 he unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. At the same time, in 1580 - 1581, the Swedes took away Narva, which they captured in 1558, from the Russians and took possession of the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ingria. The siege of the Oreshek fortress by the Swedes in September - October 1582 ended in failure. Nevertheless, Russia, which also had to resist the Crimean Khanate, as well as suppress uprisings in the former Kazan Khanate, could no longer fight.

The results of the war

As a result of the Livonian War, most of the German states that emerged on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia) ceased to exist in the 13th century. (with the exception of the Duchy of Courland).

Russia not only failed to acquire any territories in Livonia, but also lost its access to the Baltic Sea, which it had before the war (returned, however, by it as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1590-1593). The war led to economic ruin, which contributed to the emergence of a socio-economic crisis in Russia, which then grew into the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The Commonwealth began to control most of the Livonian lands (Lifland and the southern part of Estonia became part of it, and Courland became a vassal state in relation to it - the duchy of Courland and Semigalle). Sweden received the northern part of Estonia, and Denmark - the islands of Ezel (now Saaremaa) and Moon (Muhu).