"Loro" (18+)

Director: Paolo Sorrentino Cast: Toni Servillo, Elena Sofia Ricci, Riccardo Scamarchio, Kasia Smutniak, Fabrizio Bentivoglio, Dario Cantarelli and others.

At private parties and expensive tricks in Rome and Sardinia, he is always surrounded by the most beautiful and most dangerous people, ready to do anything to gain access to a living legend. “Loro” (“they”) are nouveau riche Italians, the real star among which is a tyrant and a merry fellow, a hedonist and a romantic, a scandalous politician and billionaire Silvio Berlusconi.

"How to skip school with benefit" (6+)

Director: Nicolas Vanier, Cast: Francois Cluzet, Eric Elmosnino, Francois Berlean, Urbain Cancellier, Affif Ben Badra, Laurent Gerra and others.

The film is set in the 1920s. An orphan is adopted by a simple village family working for a rural landowner. Left to himself, the boy soon falls under the influence of a local poacher...

"Reproduction" (16+)

Director: Jeffrey Nachmanoff | Cast: Keanu Reeves, Alice Eve, Emily Alyn Lind, Thomas Middleditch, John Ortiz, MJ Anthony, Nyasha Hatendi, Sunshine Logroño

A talented biologist loses his family in a car accident. Obsessed with the desire to bring his wife and children back to life, he violates the laws of scientific ethics and nature itself. But when information about the world's first human reproduction reaches the authorities, the hunt begins for the scientist and his resurrected relatives.

"Invincible" (12+)

Director: Konstantin Maksimov, cast: Andrey Chernyshov, Vladimir Epifantsev, Oleg Fomin, Olga Pogodina, Sergei Gorobchenko, Nikolai Dobrynin and others.

At the heart of the film real story the feat of the crew of the tank "KV-1" during the Great Patriotic War. Having accepted an unequal battle, Semyon Konovalov and his soldiers destroyed 16 tanks, two armored vehicles and eight enemy vehicles.

Jivan Gasparyan. Anniversary concert (6+)

This year, the Armenian performer and composer Jivan Gasparyan celebrates his 90th birthday. His music is featured in films by Martin Scorsese and Ridley Scott. And it is to him that the merit belongs to the popularization of the duduk instrument, without playing which not a single concert of Gasparyan can do. The performance will not be an exception. People's Artist Armenian SSR on stage Great Hall"Charging".

Presentation of the new album OQJAV (12+)

The indie pop group OQJAV will present their first full-length album "Flower Leaves", recorded with a new line-up (Vadim Korolev / Yaroslav Timofeev / Dmitry Shugaikin). At concerts it will sound like new material, including already known to fans based on the mini-album "Traitor", and the old songs of the band.

"Auditor. Version "(16+)

As part of the Biennale of Theater Arts, a production by Robert Sturua based on a novel by Nikolai Gogol will be shown. Another director's version of the great work can be described as an anecdote, paradoxical reflections on modern absurdity and a Russian comedy of masks.

"Tales of Pushkin" (12+)

The first Russian performance by Robert Wilson is based on several Pushkin's tales: "The Tale of Tsar Saltan", "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish", "The Tale of the Pope and his Worker Balda", "The Tale of the Golden Cockerel", "The Bear", and also fragments of the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila". To create the lighting and scenographic score of the performance, the master of European stage direction studied not only fairy tales, but also illustrations for them, the history of their appearance, folklore components ... The result was complex visual images, accessible, however, not only to theater critics and philologists.

October 26, 19.00, October 27, 13.00, 18.00, October 28, 13.00. 18.00, Theater of Nations, Main Stage

"Caligula" (18+)

The director-choreographer Sergei Zemlyansky used both the plot of Albert Camus's play of the same name and historical materials in the production. The performance was staged in the genre of plastic drama without words, but with numerous visual effects.

"Roller coaster" (16+)

Director Leonid Trushkin staged a performance based on the adventurous comedy Les Montagnes russes by Eric Assou. The main male role was written by the playwright especially for Alain Delon, in the Lenkom version the role of the hero-lover went to Gennady Khazanov. True, the people's artist turned out not to be a lucky Don Juan, but a lonely and not very lucky person.

"Shining Path 19.17" (18+)

On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the Russian Revolution, director Alexander Molochnikov staged a performance dedicated to the great Soviet utopia. According to the plot, the stove-maker Makar (Artem Bystrov) receives a fiery motor instead of a heart. The gift comes from a revolutionary triumvirate consisting of Lenin (Igor Vernik), Trotsky (Artem Sokolov), Krupskaya (Inga Oboldina) and Kollontai (Paulina Andreeva), who joined them. Now Makar travels around the cities and villages, agitating the people for a brighter future.

"Baroque Concerto" / "Wings of Wax" / "Pajama Party" (12+)

Photo: Moscow Academic Musical Theatre them. K.S. Stanislavsky and Vl.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko/Karina Zhitkova

MAMT presents new series one-act ballets. If Wings of Wax by Jiri Kilian has already been shown in the theater - the premiere took place in November 2013, then Moscow audiences will see the Baroque Concerto by George Balanchine and Andrei Kaidanovsky's Pajama Party for the first time. The musical director and conductor of the production is Anton Grishanin.

October 27, 28, 19.00, Moscow Academic Musical Theatre. K.S. Stanislavsky and Vl.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko

"Contours of the global era" (0+)

The Shchusev Museum of Architecture presented a large-scale exhibition of drawings by Alexander Deineka. The six halls of the mansion on Vozdvizhenka housed sketches, sketches, as well as several paintings and sculptures. Soviet muralist, designed to demonstrate not just the monumental, but the more personal, chamber side of his art.

The exhibition presents over 30 landscapes by Isaac Levitan from the State Tretyakov Gallery, the Russian Museum, the Israel Museum (Jerusalem), the Plessky Historical and Artistic Reserve and other museums in Russia. In order to broaden the horizon of viewers' perception and demonstrate continuity in Russian art, Levitan's paintings in the exposition side by side with fragments from films by Sergei Eisenstein, Andrei Tarkovsky, Alexander Sokurov, Andrei Konchalovsky, Sergei Parajanov, Andrei Zvyagintsev, Alexander Dovzhenko and other directors.

DAEMONS IN THE MACHINE (0+)

The exhibition is dedicated to the so-called new demonology - artistic comprehension artificial intelligence, myths and ghosts of the era of autonomous machines. Do they discover new, unknown ways of being? Can neural networks think - and what does the word “think” mean in this case? Most of the works created for the project by artists from Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Australia, together with scientists from IPavlov, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and the Kurchatov Institute, are shown to the public for the first time.

The end of the 1910s - 1920s was a short but extremely eventful period in the life of our country: in 1917, the Bolsheviks came to power, and the Soviet state, which claimed to build a new world, needed a completely different architecture than before. In this regard, freedom from all sorts of "fetters", including canonical, stylistic ones, was declared, which provided unlimited opportunities for all types of creativity. It is precisely such a sharp turn, not so much in politics as in the minds of people, that we owe the invaluable legacy of the Russian avant-garde.

Candidate of Art History, Head of the Sector of the Department of Architectural and Graphic Funds of the XX-XXI centuries. State Museum architecture them. A. V. Shchuseva (Moscow)

For architects, the time has come for bold searches and experiments. The bored academicism of the classics*, the excessive decorativeness of modernity** and the mixture of the incompatible in eclecticism, which often did not meet the requirements of good taste,*** were associated with tsarism that had gone into the past. The most important factors in the development of architecture were the nominal exemption from the will of the customer, the abolition of private ownership of land and large real estate, which opened wide horizons for the design and mass construction of previously unprecedented types of buildings. Architecture played a leading role in shaping the visual image of the country of the Soviets. Then competitions were organized for projects of large administrative and public buildings: destroying the palaces of the outgoing era, the new system sought to create its own, designed to become the personification of the power, greatness, success and progressiveness of the young state. However, in architecture it is much more difficult than in other types of art, the path from birth to the realization of a creative idea. Exhausted by World War I (1914 - 1918) and Civil (1918 - 1922) wars, the country had no time for large-scale construction that could reflect the radical changes that had taken place in it. Therefore, many projects were created, as it were, in advance, however, without doubts about their implementation. In addition, putting forward a fresh idea was more important than putting it into practice.

In 1917 - 1925, in an atmosphere of romantic perception of the opened horizons of creativity, many unusual architectural works appeared, distinguished by sharp symbolic expressiveness - the authors tried to make them understandable, like a propaganda poster. The most striking of these examples is the Tower of the Third International**** by Vladimir Tatlin (1919). The representativeness of her image lay in the daring novelty of the design: the metal frame unfolding in a spiral contained three glass volumes - cubic, pyramidal and cylindrical, and each had to rotate with a strictly defined cyclicity. It was planned to place the legislative, executive bodies and the information center of the Comintern there.

The building, conceived as the greatest building in the world, was supposed to soar 400 m high. The author intended to achieve the strength and rigidity of the frame not by the mass of material, but by the spiral bending of two metal rods with thin lintels, designed to give the monumental structure extraordinary lightness. This idea, which in many ways served as an example of the aesthetic development of new forms, remained unrealized, like many others born in the first half of the 1920s. However, they, for example, the Palace of Labor of Viktor and Leonid Vesnin (1923), the "horizontal skyscrapers" of Lazar Lissitzky (1923 - 1925), the architectons (spatial compositions) of Kazimir Malevich (1920s), entered the history of world architecture as milestone works.

In 1920, the Institute was opened in Moscow artistic culture(INKHUK) and the Higher Artistic and Technical Workshops (VKHUTEMAS) with architectural and production faculties. In the first of them, they were mainly engaged in the creation of theoretical concepts, in the second - their direct experimental study in the atmosphere of extensive creative discussions.

Meanwhile, construction has noticeably intensified, in particular, power plants, workers' settlements attached to them, industrial enterprises, low-rise residential complexes, which required the formation of a new architectural "language". And by the mid-1920s, two main trends in domestic architecture had developed - rationalism and constructivism (their first associations arose in INHUK). Their representatives worked to determine the features, patterns of human perception of the previously unseen architectural form, its interaction with the functional and constructive basis of the structure. It was the dissimilarity of the methods for solving these issues that became the criterion for dividing these concepts, however, rather conditionally, although their supporters themselves insisted on fundamental differences in their creative methods.

Rationalists focused on the aesthetic tasks of architecture, achieving its expressiveness using the laws of psychophysiology of human perception. The formation of their concept was influenced by cubo-futurism, suprematism***** and symbolic romanticism. The plastic image of the object came to the fore (the design played a secondary role), and special meaning acquired its volume-spatial solution.

The organizer, theorist and creative leader of the rationalists was Nikolai Ladovsky, around whom, even at INKhUK, a team of like-minded people began to take shape, who in 1923 united in the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA). One of the first in the world, he raised the question of the rational foundations of human perception of an architectural and artistic work. The innovative architect studied the corresponding psychophysiological patterns, organized a laboratory at VKhUTEMAS, where he conducted research using devices specially designed to test the eye and spatial imagination.

The project of the building of the joint-stock company "Arkos" Vesnin architects. 1927

The project of the Moscow branch of the newspaper "Leningradskaya Pravda". Vesnin architects. 1924

In the early 1920s, Ladovsky developed a psychoanalytic method of teaching architecture (in particular, composition) at VKhUTEMAS, introduced the practice of completing assignments in mock-ups, which certainly contributed to the development of spatial thinking among students.

ASNOVA, a relatively small organization that operated only in the capital, was closely associated with VKhUTEMAS and primarily focused on young people (as opposed to the old architectural societies of Moscow and Petrograd that became more active in the early 1920s). It is no coincidence that rationalists, to a greater extent than supporters of other architectural trends engaged in teaching activities.

We emphasize that rationalists were often criticized for abstract experimentation with form and detachment from reality (for example, a high-rise building that was supposed to be erected in Moscow on Lubyanka Square; Vladimir Krinsky, 1922), but the release of creativity from purely pragmatic tasks gave these works a significant potential for future.

Constructivism in architecture (finally formed somewhat later than rationalism) was part of a broad trend in Russian culture of the 1920s with the same name. It arose from the creative search of artists Vladimir Tatlin. Vladimir and Yeorgy Stenberg, Naum Gabo, Alexander Rodchenko and the development of the main ideas of the theorists of "production art" ****** Osip Brik, Boris Arvatov, Alexander Ean and others. The followers of this movement focused on creating not images of reality, but its the most - the things surrounding a person.

The time of birth of constructivism as a trend in architecture can be called 1921, when its supporters created a working group in INHUK. At the heart of their theoretical credo was an orientation towards functional requirements for works of art as for everyday objects. Simplicity of forms was associated with the aesthetic ideals of the victorious proletariat.

The constructivists gradually united around Alexander Vesnin. In 1923 - 1924 he led a group of adherents of this trend, which consisted mainly of students of VKHUTEMAS, in which the leaders of the LEF (Left Front of the Arts) ******* participated. In 1925, on its basis, the Association of Modern Architects was formed, which began to publish a magazine, where its members published the main provisions of their concept, with the main emphasis on the constructive originality of the architectural form and its functional expediency. Theorists of this direction emphasized that it is not a new style, but the method of creativity.

The so-called functional design method developed by one of the leaders of the trend under consideration, Moisei Ginzburg, based on a rational approach to the layout and equipment of a structure, taking into account its purpose and social function, has become widespread. It was an extensive creative program that required the introduction of the latest scientific and technological achievements of that time into architecture, the development of appropriate types of buildings, the determination of the aesthetic possibilities of new architecture, and the industrialization of construction.

The first manifestation of constructivism as an emerging trend was the aforementioned competitive project of the Vesnin brothers' Palace of Labor (1923), which was distinguished by a bright innovative solution, in particular, the use of modern structures and materials, and was designed for a large urban planning scale. The main hall was connected with a huge cylindrical tower of the building by a suspended passage. Its asymmetrical shift relative to the axis and the rhythmic failure of the horizontal and vertical articulations of the facades created a sense of the dynamics of the composition. For interior spaces, the authors provided for the possibility of transformation and unification.

Among the others major works constructivists of the 1920s, one can single out the competitive projects for the buildings of the Leningradskaya Pravda newspaper (the Vesnin brothers, Ilya Golosov), the Arkos joint-stock company (the Vesnin brothers, Ilya Golosov, Vladimir Krinsky), the Moscow telegraph (the Vesnin brothers, Georgy Vegman).

In the mid-1920s, the most prominent figure among the constructivists was Golosov, who focused on the development of a glazed frame and a large complex form. One of his most famous buildings - the club. CM. Zuev in Moscow (1927 - 1929). The glass volume of the cylinder seems to cut through the corner of the building, creating a significant spatial accent on the corner of Lesnaya Street. The vertical windows of the longitudinal part bring a clear rhythm to the organization of the facade plane and balance the protruding horizontal lines of the balconies.

And in 1928 - 1930s, Ivan Leonidov became the actual leader of this movement. His projects, in particular the Institute of Library Science. V. I. Lenin, were distinguished by the conciseness of geometric volumes and the novelty of the principles of the spatial organization of the urban ensemble.

A significant milestone in architecture was also the residential building of the People's Commissariat of Finance on Novinsky Boulevard (Moses Ginzburg, Ignatius Milinis, 1929 - 1930). It was erected on a large plot, surrounded by a park, on a high slope facing the Moscow River. The design of the facades is dominated by long stripes of windows, emphasizing the horizontal extension of the residential building and contrasting with the large stained-glass window of the communal building. The semicircular protrusions of the end facade visually complete the movement of the longitudinal lines of the windows.

Another important monument of the avant-garde in Moscow is the building of the Central Union of Consumer Societies of the USSR (now the Federal State Statistics Service - Goskomstat) consisting of four buildings on Myasnitskaya Street (1929 - 1936). As a result of an international competition, the famous French architect Le Corbusier became the author of the project. The complex arrangement of volumes and the difference in heights bring dynamics to the rectangular "grid" of rationalistic facades.

One of the most striking and memorable buildings of that time is the planetarium in Moscow. It was built in 1927 - 1929. Mikhail Barsh and Mikhail Sinyavsky near the Garden Ring. The basis of the unusual composition of the building is a parabolic reinforced concrete dome, which serves as a ceiling for the main hall located on the second floor. The cylindrical volume of the base is accentuated by three ledges of stairs.

Among the leading architects of the Soviet avant-garde was Konstantin Melnikov, who was not included in any creative association and remained a bright creative individuality. His own house, built in 1929 in the center of Moscow, near Arbat Street, is a unique architectural monument of the capital. An unprecedented event in the history of the Soviet period: The government and the city leadership officially allocated a piece of land to the architect and provided a loan from a state bank for the construction of a building according to the project presented by him. Compositionally, these are two cylinders cut into each other of the same diameter, but of different heights. The front part of the lower one is "cut off" by the glazed plane of the facade, here is the entrance and a large living room window. The walls are made of bricks and are a mesh frame with diagonally oriented cells that are multiples of hexagonal windows.

Melnikov built five clubs in Moscow that went down in the history of avant-garde architecture. An unusual volumetric and spatial solution of the most famous of them, built for the Union of Transport Workers of the Moscow Institute of Art. I. V. Rusakova (1927 - 1929), is interconnected with the layout of the interior, suggesting the possibility of their transformation. The balconies of the auditorium in the form of dynamic "outliers" of peculiar cut-off consoles, separated by glazed vertical staircases, form the basis of the compositional solution of the facade.

The composition of another club designed by Melnikov, which belonged to the Burevestnik shoe factory (1927 - 1929), is built on a contrasting comparison of the plastic volume of a glazed five-leaf tower and a blank wall of the auditorium hanging over the entrance. The main volume of the building, made up of two rectangles that seem to slide out of each other, goes into the depths of the site. The austere gray facade of the club of the "Kauchuk" factory (1927 - 1929) is dissected by the alternation of vertical sections of the wall and glazed surfaces. The round cash pavilion, placed at the corner of the sidewalk, fixes the central axis of the sector.

In conclusion, we note that the evolution of the relationship between rationalism and constructivism is quite complex. Initially, their common base was a declarative denial of the traditions of the past. Then, disagreements arose between their representatives in the main provisions of the creative method, which led to heated discussions. However, later, under the influence of the realities of the transition to solving practical problems, the theoretical contradictions somewhat weakened and both directions converged over time, successfully complementing each other.

In the late 1920s, an attempt was made to unite representatives of innovative trends into a single federation. However, this failed. Moreover, in 1929, the All-Russian Association of Proletarian Architects appeared, which sharply criticized the architects who advocated exploratory design, and declared the avant-garde movements "non-proletarian", which led to the strengthening of the positions of supporters of the traditionalist direction.

As a result, at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, the positions of rationalists and constructivists noticeably weakened. Neoclassical directions came to the fore, which received the approval of the authorities as predominant in the choice of landmarks for the figurative solution of Soviet architecture, which actually marked the end of the architecture of the Soviet avant-garde.

* See: Z. Zolotnitskaya. "Noble simplicity and majestic tranquility." - Science in Russia, 2009, N 3.

** See: T. Geydor. Russian architecture of the Silver Age. - Science in Russia, 2009, N 6.

*** See: T. Geydor. Polystylism in Russian architecture. - Science in Russia, 2009, N 5.

**** Comintern (Communist International), III International - in 1919 - 1943. An international organization that united the communist parties of various countries.

***** Cubo-futurism is a trend in avant-garde art at the beginning of the 20th century, which combined the achievements of the futurists (who claimed to build the "art of the future", denied all previous world experience) and cubist artists (who used emphatically geometrized conditional forms, "crushing " real objects). Suprematism is a trend in avant-garde art, founded in the first half of the 1910s in Russia by the artist Kazimir Malevich. It was expressed in combinations of multi-colored planes of the simplest geometric outlines (straight line, square, circle, rectangle), which formed balanced asymmetric compositions permeated with internal movement.

****** "Production art" - an artistic movement in the culture of Russia in the 1920s. In 1918 - 1921. was closely associated with the so-called leftist trends in painting and sculpture. The participants in the movement set themselves the task of merging art, which had been divorced from crafts by the development of capitalism, with material production based on highly developed industrial technology.

******* The Left Front of the Arts is a creative association that existed in 1922-1929. in Moscow, Odessa and other cities. The basic principles of his activity are factual literature, industrial art, and social order.

Maria KOSTIUK

The Russian engineering school was technologically advanced, and at the beginning of the 20th century gave the world many inventions in the field of mechanical engineering, energy, aeronautics, radio, and construction. Traditional Russian maximalism, which was clearly manifested in the movement of the "Wanderers" and "Sixties" of the nineteenth century, was only strengthened by the Russian revolution and led to the fact that Soviet Russia became the birthplace of avant-garde art. Held in 1992-1993. in USA, Western Europe and Moscow exhibition of Russian avant-garde 1915-1932. was called "Great Utopia". As stated in the preface to the exhibition catalog, “utopia moved the history of Russia and contained a discrepancy with reality,” and therefore it is impossible to unambiguously evaluate such a complex phenomenon. The ideology of avant-gardism carries within itself a destructive force. In 1910, according to Berdyaev, a “hooligan generation” was growing up in Russia. Aggressive youth, mainly consisting of ideologically convinced and selfless nihilists, set the goal of their lives to destroy all cultural property , which could not but arouse the concern of cultured and sane people. However, avant-gardism has always had another, commercial side. Conscious neglect of the school and the complexity of the pictorial form is the easiest way to attract those who like to fool simpletons, insufficiently cultured public, poorly educated critics and ignorant patrons with great profit. Indeed, in order to fully realize the inner emptiness of avant-gardism, a considerable “visual experience” is needed. The more elementary art, the more significant it seems to an inexperienced viewer. In our country, at the stage of the formation of design, shaping processes proceeded in extremely peculiar concrete historical conditions. The main thing is a breakthrough into the new, in which innovative searches, both general and social, were combined, which gave the process of the formation of Soviet design a number of features that fundamentally distinguished it from the processes of design formation in other countries. In Western Europe, the formation of design in the first third of the twentieth century was stimulated primarily by the desire of industrial firms to increase the competitiveness of their products in world markets. In Russia, before the revolution, such an order from the industry had not yet been formed. It was not there in the first post-revolutionary years. The industry was in such a state that design issues were not a priority. In our country, the main impetus for the formation of design was not industry. This movement originated outside the industrial sphere. On the one hand, it relied on the artists of the left movements, and on the other hand, on theorists (historians and art critics). Therefore, industrial art had a pronounced socio-artistic character. The production workers, as if on behalf of and on behalf of the new society, formulated the social order for industry. Moreover, this social order was largely agitational and ideological in nature. The sphere of application of the nascent design was: festive decoration, poster, advertising, book production, exhibition design, theater, etc. This predetermined the active participation in it, first of all, of artists in the first five years (1917-1922). In the next decade of the development of Soviet design (1922-1932), socio-typological and functional-constructive problems are becoming increasingly important. The processes of restructuring life and the formation of socially new types of buildings formulated a new social order not only in the architectural and construction business, but also in the field of interior equipment. Among the pioneers of Soviet design, those who were involved in the formation of industrial art in the first fifteen years after October revolution can be divided into three generations. Artists of the first generation, as a rule, even before the revolution received a systematic art education and actively participated in the formation and development of leftist trends in the visual arts. One of the important features of the stage of formation of Soviet design was that in those years there were almost no artists in this type of creativity who could be considered only designers. These are V. Tatlin, K. Malevich, A. Rodchenko, A. Vesnin, L. Popova, A. Lavinsky, L. Lissitzky, A. Exter, V. Stepanova, G. Klutsis, A. Gan and others. Pioneers of Soviet design the second generation are those who (due to age or other reasons) did not have time to receive a systematic art education before the revolution. Many of them did not have sufficient professional skills, they had practically nothing to give up in their work. Insufficient artistic professionalization while focusing on pictorial fiction was characteristic of the second generation of Soviet design pioneers. Many of them, in fact, have never been professional artists and sculptors. However, it was on them that the brunt of the mass practical work. If their older comrades in the 30s, that is, after the ideas of industrial art lost popularity, returned to their former profession, then these design artists had nowhere to go - they remained to work in the field of decoration.

12. Bauhaus - the first school of design.

In 1919, in the small German city of Weimar, the Bauhaus (literally "Building House") was created, the first educational institution designed to prepare artists for work in industry. The school, according to its organizers, was supposed to produce comprehensive developed people which would combine artistic, spiritual and creative possibilities. Former art schools did not go beyond handicraft production. The Bauhaus was headed by its organizer, the progressive German architect Walter Gropius, a student of Peter Behrens. In a short time, the Bauhaus became a true methodological center in the field of design. Among his professors were the largest cultural figures of the early 20th century, architects Mies van der Rohe, Hannes Mayer, Marcel Breuer, artists Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Lionel Feninger, Piet Mondrian.

The beginning of the Bauhaus activity took place under the influence of utopian ideas about the possibility of reorganizing society by creating a harmonious subject environment. Architecture was regarded as a "prototype of social coherence", recognized as the beginning, uniting art, craft and technology. Students from the first year were engaged in a certain specialization (ceramics, furniture, textiles, etc.). Education was divided into technical training and artistic training. Engaging in a craft in the workshop of the institute was considered necessary for the future designer, because only by making a sample (or standard) could the student feel the object as some kind of integrity and, doing this work, control himself. Bypassing direct communication with the object, the future designer could become a victim of one-sided limited "machinism", since modern production divides the process of creating a thing into disparate operations. But, unlike the traditional vocational school, the Bauhaus student did not work on a single item, but on a standard for industrial production.

Needless to say, the products of the "Bauhaus" bore a tangible imprint of painting, graphics and sculpture of the 20s with a passion for cubism, characteristic of that time, decomposing the general form of an object into its components. geometric shapes. The samples made within the walls of the school are distinguished by the energetic rhythm of lines and spots, the pure geometrism of objects made of wood and metal. Teapots, for example, could be assembled from a shooting gallery, a truncated cone, a semicircle, and in another version - from a semicircle, a hemisphere and cylinders. All transitions from one form to another are extremely naked, nowhere can one find a desire to soften them, all this is emphasized in contrast and pointed. The fluidity of the silhouette can be traced in ceramics, but this is an expression of the properties of the material - fired clay. How amorphous objects of modern times would seem in comparison with them! But the main difference between them is not even in comparing the energy of Bauhaus things with the deliberate lethargy of modernity. The Bauhaus looked for the constructiveness of a thing, emphasized it, revealed it, and sometimes exaggerated it where, it would seem, it was not easy to find it (in dishes, for example). An intense search for new constructive solutions, sometimes unexpected and bold, was especially characteristic in furniture production: many schemes were born in the Bauhaus that made a real revolution (Ritfeld's wooden chairs, Marcel Breuer's metal-based seats, and much more). The technical training of students was supported by the study of machine tools, metal processing technology and other materials. In general, the study of materials was given exclusively great importance, since the veracity of the use of this or that material was one of the foundations of the Bauhaus aesthetic program. The very principle of artistic training was also innovative. In former schools, the teaching of painting, drawing, and sculpture, according to a long tradition, was of a passive nature, and mastery took place in a process that almost excluded the analysis of nature. The Bauhaus believed that mastery alone was not enough to bring the plastic arts into the service of industry. Therefore, in addition to the usual sketches from nature, technical drawing, all courses included continuous experimentation, during which students studied the patterns of rhythm, harmony, proportion (as counterpoint, harmony, instrumentation are studied in music). Students mastered all the subtleties of perception, shaping and color matching. The Bauhaus became a true laboratory for architecture and industrial design. The evolution of the Bauhaus is very interesting. Founded by merging the Weimar Academy of Arts and the Van de Velde School, it initially continued some of their traditions. Over time, the influence of predecessors was lost. Important in this regard was the gradual abolition of such "man-made", handicraft specialties as sculpture, ceramics, glass painting, and a greater approximation to the requirements of industry and life. Instead of carved furniture, models for mass production began to emerge from the walls of the Bauhaus, in particular samples of seats by M. Breuer. An important milestone in the history of the Bauhaus was the relocation of the school from the quiet patriarchal Weimar to the industrial city of Dessau. Here, according to the project of Gropius himself, a remarkable building was built, included in the golden fund of world architecture, a special educational building, which unites classrooms, workshops, students' hostel, professors' quarters. This building was in every way the manifesto of a new architecture - sensible and functional.

The interior furnishings of Gropius's own apartment, designed by himself together with Breuer, were, in their democratic basis, a model of the progressive dwelling of the future. It was remarkable for its surprising modesty, conveniences, and in many ways anticipated the main trends in the construction of domestic space with its spaciousness, abundance of air, and the absence of cabinet furniture. Not only the general solution is noteworthy, but also individual interior details - lamps, kitchen furniture blocks and much more.

At the Faculty of Metal, samples were designed for a local factory; the samples of wallpaper and upholstery fabrics created at the institute served as the basis for the factory production of mass products. IN last years the existence of the Bauhaus, when Hannes Mayer became its head, the theoretical training of students especially increased. Sociology and economics were studied in order to study the demands of the mass consumer, in order to know his needs, to comprehend his tastes. To understand the production process, students had to go directly through all its stages. This method of study allowed them to comprehensively master the effect of the external form of an object, the features of the perception of form, texture, color, get acquainted with optics, color science, and physiology. The time when the artist could only rely on intuition and personal experience, as the leaders of the "Bauhaus" believed, was gone forever; the student was formed as a comprehensively developed creative person. The progressiveness of the Bauhaus and the progressive views of its professors caused dissatisfaction with the local authorities. In 1930 Mayer was removed from the leadership of the institute. The remarkable architect Mies van der Rohe becomes the head of the Bauhaus, but the Bauhaus does not have long to exist. Immediately after the Nazis came to power in 1933, it was liquidated. Most of the leaders of the Bauhaus, including Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, Mogoly Nagy, leave the country forever. The value of the "Bauhaus" is difficult to overestimate. It was not only an example of organizing the training of designers, but also a true scientific laboratory of architecture and artistic design. Methodological developments in the field artistic perception, shaping, color science formed the basis of many theoretical works and have not lost their scientific value so far.

1920-1930s

Functionalism - rationalist trend in architecture of the 1920s, asserting the supremacy of practical

tic functions, vital needs in determining both plans and forms of structures(Tables 14-16).

The ground for it was prepared by the struggle against the division of architecture characteristic of eclecticism into utilitarian construction and facade decoration, the desire to restore the unity of aesthetics and practice, to develop a new principle of the expediency of architectural form. L.Sulliven's slogan "function determines the form" was picked up by the founders of modern architecture in Germany - the Bauhaus group, in France - the Esprit Nouveau group and in the Netherlands - the De Stil group. Since the late 1920s, functionalism has spread rapidly in Europe and beyond. External signs of an international style were asserted, while local traditions and climatic conditions were ignored. Functionalism in Western European countries developed in parallel with constructivism in the Soviet Union.

Both directions refer to avant-garde phenomena in architecture (Tables 17-19, see Tables 14-16).

At the heart of the planning structure of buildings made in functionalism, there is a clear schedule of movement, a logical interconnection of premises, and a true reflection of functions can be seen in the appearance of buildings. Functionalists follow the formula of the German architect B. Taut: "What functions well, looks good."

The characteristic features of functionalism are:

loose asymmetry of pants;

differentiation of the volume of the building and allocation of premises with the same functions into separate groups, interconnected by transitions;

simple geometric architectural forms;

horizontal divisions, ribbon windows;

flat roofs;

lack of decorative elements and elements of historical styles.

A prominent representative of functionalism in France was the architect Le Corbusier. Already in his early work, he shows interest in the problems of mass housing and seeks to standardize it, to make it as industrial as possible.

Exhibition pavilion "Esprit Nouveau" in Paris designed by the architect Le Corbusier International exhibition decorative arts and technology (1925) reflected the author's innovative ideas.

But Le Corbusier became widely known when he began to build villas for rich people.

Villa Savoy in Poissy(1928) gained wide popularity in the world. It has a clear architectural appearance, characterized by laconic forms. The house seems to float above the ground. Its parallelepiped is raised on thin frame supports-pillars. The first floor is partly built up. There is a garage and a workshop here. The rest of the space is free. The main premises are located on the second floor. The connection between the floors is carried out with the help of gently sloping reinforced concrete ramps, which allows you to see unexpected angles of the interior space of the villa when climbing.

The principle of flowing spaces is used. The space of the room due to the continuous glazing of the wall is visually combined with an open terrace. On the flat roof there is a solarium, which is hidden behind a thin curvilinear wall, close in plan to an oval. This is an element of architecture that softens the rectangular outlines. The terrace of the second floor is limited by walls with window openings without glass, which allows you to sharpen the perception of the surrounding landscape.

Villa in Garsha(1927) near Paris became one of the most famous works of Jle Corbusier in the field of individual housing construction. When constructing a rectangular plan and when creating the composition of the main facades, Le Corbusier uses the proportions of the golden section. Free planning is ensured by the use of a reinforced concrete frame. The walls of the northern facade are strips of reinforced concrete and glass. The glass strips on the south facade are wider than those on the north. On the ground floor there is a hall, a garage, a workshop and rooms for servants. On the second floor there is a large open room in the center, a library in the northwest corner, a dining room in the southeast corner, a kitchen in the northeast corner, a terrace with a garden in the southwest corner. The house has two staircases: one rises from the hall to the library, the other leads from the passage near the garage to the kitchen and above. The third floor is occupied by bedrooms, dressing rooms and bathrooms, as well as a terrace. The fourth floor has a guest room and a servant's bedroom, a terrace with a garden. In the center of the terrace is an elliptical tower. The house makes maximum use of sunlight, fresh air and natural surroundings. The plans are inscribed in a simple rectangle, but spatially complex, as they take into account all human needs. The southern façade, with wide window bands, is enlivened by a diagonal open staircase leading to the terrace.

Le Corbusier formulated five principles of his creativity, which 48

were the basis of the concept of functionalism:

house on racks (to free the surface of the earth for greenery);

free plan (independence of division of floors by partitions due to the use of a light frame);

freedom of the facade (which can be achieved by rarely located vertical racks of the frame and cantilever structures);

horizontal windows;

flat roof (the ability to arrange open terraces).

They are clearly visible in all his works of this period.

Along with private villas, Le Corbusier designed and built large public buildings, such as a hostel for Swiss students in Paris (1930), the building of the Centrosoyuz in Moscow (1928-1936). These buildings also vividly embodied the principles of functionalism, new aesthetic concepts.

The largest French architect of the period of functionalism I was A. Lyursa, according to the project of which a significant building was built - school in Villajuif(1931 - 1933), one of the districts of Paris. The school included a kindergarten.

A. Lyursa created a developed spatial composition, which was dominated by an extended educational building, three short blocks departed perpendicularly from it, creating open courtyards for games and sports activities. It was another striking example of functionalism. The planning structure was based on a simple and clear connection between the premises. In the early 1930s, A. Lyursa was invited to the USSR, where he worked on the creation of mainly school and hospital buildings.

The new direction, despite its achievements, did not determine the general character of French cities. Modern buildings were rare interspersed with traditional buildings.

Le Corbusier in the late 1920s was the first to raise the question of creating an international organization of architects. In 1928, such an organization was created - the International Congress of Modern Architecture (SIAM). The organization brought together supporters of the rationalist direction - the "modern movement", which spread in the 1920s and 1930s to Europe, North and South America, Austria, and Japan. The idea of ​​“international architecture”, put forward by V. Gropius, began to be realized. Supporters of this movement opposed academism. Le Corbusier created a document called the I "Charter of Athens", where the urban concept of functionalism was formulated. In the postwar years, the provisions of the Charter of Athens became the dogmas of functionalism. In the 1930s-1950s, SIAM contributed to the establishment of international relations between architects.

In the 1920s, a new trend in architecture also developed rapidly in Germany. Such well-known architects as P.Behrens, L.Mies van der Rohe, V.Gropius, G.Pelzig, B.Taut, G.Meyer, E.May worked here.

In 1919, the architect W. Gropius created a new educational institution, the Bauhaus (Higher School of Construction and Artistic Design), in which he combined two educational institutions: a higher art school and a vocational school, in an effort to bridge the gap between "pure" and applied art, between industry and manual labor. This educational institution and architectural and artistic association was originally founded in Weimar, and in 1925 it was transferred to Dessau, then in 1932 to Berlin, where it was closed by the Nazis in 1933.

W. Gropius dreamed of reviving the unity of arts and crafts in the spirit of W. Morris. His aesthetic utopia was aimed at the ideal living order as the ultimate goal. At the same time, V. Gorpius did not reject industrial methods of production. The training included the study of materials and methods of their processing, and then the theory of shaping. V. Gropius saw the solution to the social problems of architecture and design in standardization and serialization. The Bauhaus began to prepare artists-designers who understood both painting, drawing, and composition, and were specialists who knew the technologies for the industrial production of applied art objects and equipment for residential and public buildings. In 1928, the Bauhaus and the department of architecture in it were headed by the architect G. Meyer. He focused his program on the development of the social role of architecture and the preparation of students for practical activities. At the same time, artistic disciplines were isolated, which violated the unified integrity of the program. In 1930 the architect L. Mies van der Rohe took over as director. He retained the predominance of the architectural disciplines, but drastically curtailed the activities of the workshops.

The Bauhaus was not only a center for the education of architects, designers and artists, but also a center for the development of rationalist ideas in architecture. The teaching methods developed at the Bauhaus were adopted by many architectural and art schools in Europe and the USA.

A similar epicenter for the formation of the avant-garde trend in Soviet architecture of the 1920s was a higher educational institution - Vkhutemas (Vkhutein).

V. Gropius built a new Bauhaus building in Dessau (1925 - 1926 BC), which is considered the manifesto of functionalism in Germany, as it embodied all the principles of this avant-garde movement. The building had an asymmetric structure of separate simple geometric volumes, interconnected by passages. The composition consisted of two buildings: one housed training facilities, the other - production workshops. The building of the workshops had continuous glazing of the walls, and the training one had separate windows. The transition is revealed by horizontal bands of windows, stairwells - by vertical glazing. Roofs are flat. There is nothing decorative in the building. The appearance is distinguished by simplicity and novelty.

Functionalism abandoned the allocation of the main facade. The main principle was the all-facade principle, proposed by the Art Nouveau.

In 1924, V. Gropius in an international competition for Chicago Tribune office building presented a project that shocked the jury with its appearance. Here there was a complete rejection of the use of eclectic forms and the identification of structures of the supporting frame. Despite harsh criticism from the jury, the project had an impact on the further search for American architecture.

This innovative project, in its significance for the subsequent development of architecture, echoed the avant-garde project of the leaders of constructivism in the Soviet Union - the brothers A., JL, V. Vesnin, presented in 1922 in the competition for the Palace of Labor in Moscow.

V. Gropius was the first to propose the so-called line building during the construction of residential settlements for workers, when the houses were located in parallel rows, perpendicular to the city highways, to which only the blind ends of standard houses went out. This reduced the cost of construction, contributed to a reduction in the length of communications, and isolation of apartments from street noise was achieved. Examples are the settlements of Dammerstock, Siemensstadt, and others. This was the first experience of rationalizing mass housing construction and its industrialization. The principle of line building began to be widely used in our country in the 1920s and 1930s during the construction of new socialist cities (for example, the Avtostroy socialist city in Nizhny Novgorod).

In 1921 -1926. V. Gropius works in the field of housing construction, developing projects for mass cheap housing. Simplicity of volumes, a flat roof, and the absence of decorative ornaments have become a feature of the new type of residential buildings. The demand for savings in housing construction came to the fore.

Another major representative of German functionalism was L. Mies van der Rohe. His designs and buildings of this period anticipated the development of modern architecture and became the program buildings of European functionalism.

The work of L. Mies van der Rohe was formed under the influence of the ideas of P. Behrens, whose design bureau he joined in 1908; under the influence of F. Wright, whose work he saw at the 1910 exhibition in Berlin; under the influence of the work of the Dutch architect H. Berlage, one of the outstanding forerunners of modern architecture.

Among the most famous works of L. Mies van der Rohe is pavilion of Germany at the International

exhibition in Barcelona (1929), where he created a new organization of the interior space. The flat horizontal roof slab rests on free-standing walls that asymmetrically divide the pavilion into compartments, as well as on two rows of chrome-plated cross-section steel posts. Racks were installed on a square grid of axes. The interior was complemented by partitions made of transparent, smoky gray and bottle-colored glass. The floor slab, protruding forward, captures the outer space, as it were. The pavilion is designed according to the principle of free planning. The free plan allowed the viewer to perceive the entire structure as a whole. The building is extremely laconic, it embodies new architectural ideas, new aesthetic ideals.

Researchers of L. Mies "van der Rohe's creativity recognized the graphic style of the De Stil group in a free plan, echoes of F. Wright's "prairie houses" in the horizontality of the volume. The architecture of the pavilion demonstrated new revolutionary ideas. The Barcelona pavilion became the pinnacle of L. Mies van's creativity der Rohe and a masterpiece of architecture of the XX century.

The social democratic sentiment of the 1930s in Vienna prompted the construction of mass housing for workers. Multi-section residential buildings were closed and semi-closed quarters, reminiscent of a kind of fortress. The most striking example of such construction is the Karl-Marx-Hof residential complex in Vienna, Austria, designed by the architect K. Ehn (1926 - 1930). It consisted of a narrow courtyard, stretching for almost a kilometer in length, along the perimeter of which there are 5-6-storey buildings with 1325 apartments. The complex included preschool institutions, a laundry, shops and a library. Here you can see the influence of the ideas of communal houses in Soviet architecture of that period. The extended facades had a large rhythm of metric articulations in the form of towers protruding above the cornice line and complemented by blind railings of balconies and huge arched openings in the lower floors. Like compositional technique gave the residential complex massiveness and monumentality.

The Netherlands in the period under review is characterized by the desire of left-wing artists and architects to find forms that would reflect the aesthetic views of the beginning of the new century. They actively searched for ways of new artistic expressiveness, creating their own version of functionalism - neoplasticism -direction that opposed expressionism. Neoplasticists, mainly representatives of the De Stil group, sought to oppose the world of chaos with some kind of abstract harmony.(see tables 16, 17).

The creative group "De Stil" was founded in the Netherlands in 1917. It included artists T. van Doesburg, P. Mondrian, architects J. Aud, G. Rietveld and others.

The aesthetic concept of neoplasticism and post-cubist abstract painting were associated with geometric abstractions of horizontal and vertical lines and planes, which were painted in bright, simple colors. Color was used to enhance the expressiveness of spatial construction. Experiments on the interpenetration of internal and external spaces, the division of wall planes into separate independent elements, the introduction of color and texture were new principles of architecture that quickly gained recognition. They were in tune with the Suprematist searches of L. Lissitzky and K. Malevich in the architecture of the Soviet avant-garde of the 1920-1930s.

The group published its own magazine ("De Stil"), where the problems of creating new forms were raised. She served as an experimental laboratory, trying to form a new language of modern architecture. But the group was more inclined towards theoretical research. And the buildings they erected remained isolated. Therefore, in particular, the architect J. Aud separated in the 1920s from the De Stil group and began independent activities.

During construction residential buildings in Hoek van Holland(in the suburbs of Rotterdam) J. Aud proved himself to be a rationalist. He developed simple and clear plans for residential buildings (1924-1927) with apartments on one and two levels. At the same time, he used two modules: one large, equal to the size of the living room, and the other, equal to half this size. The small module corresponded to kitchens, bedrooms, stairwells and other ancillary spaces. The houses had flat roofs, smooth walls, horizontal windows. They were more rational in terms of compositional and constructive techniques, novelty of forms, more static compared to the dynamic ideas of neoplasticism.

Another representative of Dutch functionalism was the architect IN. Dudok. in Hilversum, Netherlands, in 1928 he built town hall building, which was distinguished by an expressive composition of the simplest geometric volumes, energetic shifts and emphasized asymmetry. At the same time, the author does not refuse to use red brick and does not 52

seeks to hide it under a layer of plaster. All rooms are grouped around a square courtyard. A tall square clock tower rises above the southeast corner of the building, which doubles as a water tower.

Department store in Rotterdam architect V. Dudok (1929-1930) is characterized by an emphatically modern look. main theme in the solution of facades there is a continuous glazing of the walls, contrasting with the blank volumes. This building is distinguished by its dynamic composition due to the accentuated rapid horizontal lines of the individual floors.

Functionalism in the Netherlands was most vividly represented by the building tobacco factory in Rotterdam designed by architects A. Brinkman and C. van der Flugg (1926-1930). A frame structure was used here. Continuous glazing made it possible to create the appearance of a modern building. It is distinguished by plastic expressiveness due to the construction of the main body along a concave arc. This shows a certain interest in the formal qualities of architecture. The building was characterized by a rational layout that meets the requirements of the technological process.

Dutch architect G. Rietveld in 1923-1924. built mansion for artist Schroeder in Utrecht, where the concept of neoplasticism in architecture was implemented. The almost cubic volume has facades, consisting of a number of geometric planes (squares and rectangles), which are independent and divide the space, while maintaining the integrity of the volume. The mansion has a free plan, which is transformed by movable partitions. Thus, G. Rietveld brings P. Mondrian's planar formal compositions into three-dimensional space. With protruding planes, canopies, balconies and terraces, the author connects the building with the surrounding space.

The search for neoplasticists became an intermediate link between aesthetic and technocratic searches. New ideas of shaping influenced the architectural avant-garde.

In the northern Scandinavian countries, functionalism began to develop with some delay - in the early 1930s. Unlike other European countries, it was characterized by an appeal to local building materials and a tendency to connect architecture with the surrounding nature.

In Finland, the ideas of functionalism were clearly manifested in the works of the architect A. Aalto. His work had a strong personality. For him, as for F. Wright, the main thing in architecture was the fusion of buildings with nature.

His most famous work is sanatorium in Paimio near Turku (1929-1933). It attracted everyone's attention. The composition of the sanatorium is free and asymmetrical. Cases interconnected by transitions are located at different angles to each other. Such an arrangement is associated with a strict orientation to the cardinal points, since the requirements for insolation in a tuberculosis sanatorium are very strict. The chambers receive maximum sunlight, and the buildings themselves are perfectly connected with the surrounding nature and terrain, which gives a sense of organic architectural composition. The clear functional organization of the building, the simple geometry of the volumes make it one of the best examples of functionalism in Europe.

In 1930 in Stockholm an exhibition was held, which became a turning point in the development of architecture in Sweden. Complex exhibition facilities was designed by the architect G. Asplund and executed in the style of functionalism. It was distinguished by a clear functional logic in planning, the use of steel structures, and the absence of traditional motifs in the spirit of neoclassicism or national romanticism.

The pioneers of the "modern movement" (modernism), which included functionalists, neoplasticists and expressionists, considered architecture as a tool for solving social problems, eliminating social injustice. By means of new architecture, they sought to actively shape the life processes of society, to influence the minds of people, demonstrating a reassessment of aesthetic values. They called for a fight against the unscrupulousness of eclecticism, and their search for the 1920s and 1930s broke sharply with historicism and decorativeism. The criteria for architecture were the interaction of function, form and construction. The weak side of the "modern movement" was the inattention to the existing environment (with the exception of the buildings of A. Aalto). By the end of the 1930s, fatigue with the limitations of architectural techniques began to be felt, the appearance of stamps among the adherents of the new direction.

In Russia, the avant-garde trend in architecture of the 1920s and 1930s had its origins in the leftist trends in fine arts. Soviet architecture of the avant-garde era has taken a special place in the world architecture of the 20th century. and in the development of domestic architecture. Russia, along with Germany, France and the Netherlands, became the center for the formation of a new global stylistic direction, which * is still a source of new creative impulses and gives modern architects the opportunity to develop new formative ideas born at that time. Soviet architecture experienced its heyday and attracted the attention of progressive architects from other countries, who watched with great interest experiments in urban planning and architecture, the process of forming socially new types of buildings. The Soviet Union in those years became a center of attraction for famous architects from many countries. They actively participated in competitive and real design: Jle Corbusier, A. Lyurs, E. Mendelssohn, V. Gropius, B. Taut, E. May, G. Meyer and others. Moscow (1931) - attracted a number of foreign architects to participate. Of the 160 projects (first round), 24 were presented from other countries (among them from the USA - 11, Germany - 5, France - 3). One of the largest public buildings built by Le Corbusier in the 1930s was the building of the Tsentrosoyuz on the street. Kirov in Moscow (1930-1936).

Along with functionalism in the 1920s and 1930s, a number of European countries also developedexpressionism - direction in fine arts and modern architecture, which is the opposite of functionalism. Expressionism conveyed the disturbing worldview inherent in periods of social crises and unrest. It is distinguished by the search for ways to express expressiveness, the focus on the active plasticity of forms. It was especially pronounced in Germany and Austria.(see tables 18, 19).

In the postwar years (after the First World War), the ideas of such a direction of the artistic avant-garde as expressionism continued to develop, which, like Art Nouveau, believed in the possibility of transforming life according to the laws of art. Expressionism in architecture was also influenced by the ideas of national romanticism - retrospectivism.

The works of expressionism are distinguished by a fantastic whimsical composition, sculptural quality, dynamism of forms, and unbalance. The architecture of expressionism, like the architecture of functionalism, opposed various manifestations of historicism. Expressionism was distinguished by specific methods of organizing space, which became complex, shapeless, with fuzzy boundaries. Expressionism was associated with utopian dreams, it offered the destruction of established dogmas, but its ideology was vague.

The most striking examples of this trend appeared in the 1920s and 1930s in the Netherlands and Germany. Tre- | The important, unstable atmosphere of that time deformed the perception of the artist, architect and gave rise to ecstatic, decostructive works. In most cases, the images of structures are built on associations with forms of technology or forms of organic nature; they often contain an image-symbol.

Among the most famous expressionist architects are G.Pelzig, E.Mendelssohn, G.Sharun.

The German architect E. Mendelssohn became widely known in the 1920s by creating sketches of industrial buildings, which struck with the sharpness and unexpectedness of architectural forms. They ascended to images of the power and dynamics of industry.

71

72

Project for the reconstruction of Paris (Plan Voisin) (France), arch. Le Corbusier, 1925

Exhibition pavilion "Esprit Nouveau" in Paris (France), architect. Le Corbusier, 1925

74. Villa Savoy in Poissy (France), arch. Le Corbusier, 1928 75, 76. Villa in Garches (France), arch. Le Corbusier, 1927

74

77

o: o in oh oh"

78

79

77, 78. School in Villajuif (France), arch. A. Lyursa, 1931 - 193379, 80. Bauhaus in Dessau (Germany), arch. W. Gropius, 1925 - 1926

Exhibition complex with a cafe in Stockholm (Sweden), arch. G. Asplund, 1930

Competitive design for the editorial building of the Chicago Tribune newspaper in Chicago (USA), arch. W. Gropius, 1924

83, 84 . Pavilion of Germany at the International Exhibition in Barcelona (Spain), arch. L. Mies van der Rohe, 1929

99, 100. Chili House in Hamburg (Germany), arch. F. Heger, 1922 - 1924101, 102. Residential house for bachelors in Breslau, arch. G. Sharun, 1929

In 1921 he builtastrophysical laboratory near Potsdamfor

scientist A. Einstein. E. Mendelssohn created an unusual image of a structure that differs from "earthly" structures. Its plastic, sculptural forms were conceived in reinforced concrete, but due to the lack of this new building material, it had to be replaced with brick and plastered over. The building is distinguished by the absence of right angles, thick walls, and strangely shaped windows.

The form is dictated by figurative associations. After this unusual building, the architect received many orders.

The German expressionist G. Pelzig built a number of large industrial buildings, which also created unusual architectural images. Then in 1919 he reconstructs Big drama theatre in Berlin. Auditorium The theater for 5 thousand seats is covered with a semi-dome ceiling, which rests on a number of reinforced concrete supports, to which the architect gives the appearance of stalactites, behind which light sources are hidden.

Architect F. Heger erects a multi-storey office building Chili House in Hamburg(1922-1924), which is distinguished by the frequent rhythm of the vertical divisions of the facades and the sharp form of the elevated corner part. The building is made of traditional red brick. Its sharp profile is accentuated by an angle reminiscent of the prow of a ship, reflecting the structure's function as a business building for the shipping company.

In 1929, the German architect G. Sharun, standing among the innovative architects, striving in his works for irrationality, individuality, complexity of figurative and formal language, presented bachelor's house at the Werkbund exhibition in Breslau. In it, the author creates not only a combination of simple geometric volumes, but also boldly uses curvilinear and oblique shapes. The rationalistic features here are complemented by the plasticity of the constituent elements of the overall composition, and the building acquires the emotional expressiveness desired by the author. F. Wright's ideas of organic architecture are read in his buildings. G. Sharun arranges the spatial structure around a large “middle space”. In the bachelor's house in Breslau, the role of such a space is played by a large hall that unites both wings of the building. The compositional principles of G. Sharun, although they belong to expressionism, are distinguished by their attention to functional issues.

In the late 1920s, expressionism was supplanted by the rationalist architecture of functionalism.

The ideas of expressionism, with their increased attention to expressiveness and vivid imagery, manifested themselves in the 1920s and were further developed in the architecture of Western countries in the 1960s.

In the Soviet Union, no clear manifestation of expressionism was noted, although its features, of course, were manifested in avant-garde architects, in particular in student projects of Vkhutemas, in the work of architect K. Melnikov.

The change in the face of the world and the formation of a new paradigm of the social and cultural development of Russia in the 20s of the 20th century led to new trends in all areas of human life. A radical restructuring of the ideological principles on which society was based required the rebirth of artistic thought. The response to the challenge of the new time was the selection from the background of other figures of Malevich and Tatlin, who formed the basic principles. , revealing a tendency towards simple geometric designs and color looseness, and Tatlin's counter-reliefs, reflecting the constructive possibility of combining several materials at once (glass, metal, wood) in one product, became catalysts for the transformation of the language of architecture, in the depths of which a new style, avant-garde, was born.

Features and principles of the architectural avant-garde

Russian architecture of the early 20th century became a fruitful environment in which the desire to go beyond traditional thinking and habitual space began to mature. The innovators of that time - Kuznetsov, Loleit, Shukhov - in their creations largely anticipated subsequent achievements. The tower of the radio station named after the Comintern Vladimir Shukhov is rightfully considered one of the first buildings in the avant-garde style and an expressive indicator of the onset of an era of experimentation and artistic nihilism, announcing that Art Nouveau architecture has taken center stage.
In the future, the ideas of social equality, the socialization of everyday life, the change in industrial canons, which took shape, demanded a deeper and more thorough revision of the current architectural postulates.

Three main principles came to the fore:

• feasibility and practicality of structures. The erected buildings were supposed to serve utilitarian purposes, organize the life of people in accordance with their needs, create comfortable conditions for work and life.
• exposure of the true form of the architectural shell. The drawing of the internal space set the functional and aesthetic image of the exterior.
• austerity of designs and natural naturalness of materials. The principle of "art for art's sake" was no longer relevant. The artistic and utilitarian meaning was expressed in the creation of a "pure" composition, devoid of attributive veil.

The main features of the avant-garde in architecture were:

• strictness and conciseness of forms,
• simplicity and logical appearance.

The ideological protagonists actively experimented with materials: new horizons were opened in the use of tiles, metal mesh, glass and wood. An understanding of the role of the architect as an organizer and creator, and not a decorator of the environment, was formed. There was a rethinking of the traditional tools: space (rather than substance) began to be perceived as a field for creativity. It was not individual needs that came to the fore, but public ones (the masses were in the center of attention), which was reflected in the buildings characteristic of that time: factories-kitchens, workers' clubs, houses - communes.