The best that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.

Goethe

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Russia, by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Russia.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

• The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
• South direction foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
• The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. how public education, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltics were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the top.

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan 4 the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push back the borders of the state in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

1. Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livnsky Order and Russia signed a document according to which the former were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order single-handedly withdrew from this obligation.
2. The weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national differences.

Speaking about the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Russia from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles, who wished to appropriate new lands, were interested in the capture of Livonia. But main reason one can single out the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

Course of the war and major events

The Livonian War was fought with long breaks and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

At the first stage (1558–1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. The Russian army in the first months captured Derpt, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.

The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the peasants of the Baltic were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of the war, exactions and other disasters.

Second phase of the war

The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar refused to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Tsardom. The conflict could only be continued under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the Chosen Rada.

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570–1577) is the battles of local significance between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.

Fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic, but soon the luck turned away from the king and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of united Poland and Lithuania (the Commonwealth), Stefan Batory, drove Ivan the Terrible out of the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.). The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Commonwealth was provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

The defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat (since August 1581). For 5 months of the siege, the garrison and the inhabitants of the city repelled 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian Empire and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Peace of Plus was signed in 1583.

Thus, we can single out the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sum up the results of the Liovna war:

• adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three strong states;
• the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
• A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy in long years forward - get access to the Baltic Sea.

Introduction 3

1. Causes of the Livonian War 4

2. Stages of war 6

3.Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and exhausting, it brought many losses to Russia. It is very important and relevant to consider given event, after all, any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter. After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Therefore, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

aim of this work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

Reveal the causes of the Livonian War

Analyze its stages

Consider the results and consequences of the war

1. Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands, once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the hostility of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves Ivan the Terrible's aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them "intentions that are beneficial for Russia."

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible had an alternative - either to deal with the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains the decision of Ivan IV, which was contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by "discord" between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia's need to "assimilate the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were not allowed into Russia by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not put up with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of troops.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned by the leaders of the Chosen Rada for quite a long time."

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that "the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct links with the centers European civilizations, as well as in the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive decay of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute" (Yuryev, later called Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

2.Stages of the war.

The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with Danish prince Magnus fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga passed under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was removed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ezel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, arrived in Moscow Lithuanian embassy, who proposed to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to retreat from those cities of Livonia that the king took for protection, and it is more fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. From 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Seimas in Lublin, Lithuania and Poland were united into a single state - the Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because. were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia”. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material means so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying Magnus to the tsar's niece, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. More intimately, the Tsar was preoccupied with the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he did his best to prevent. All this speaks of a correct, strategically deep understanding of the alignment of forces in Europe by the tsar and of his precise vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the short and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, before it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

The article tells briefly about the Livonian War (1558-1583), which was waged by Ivan the Terrible for the right to enter the Baltic Sea. The war for Russia was initially successful, but after the entry of Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth into it, it took on a protracted character and ended in territorial losses.

1. Causes of the Livonian War
2. The course of the Livonian War
3. Results of the Livonian War

Causes of the Livonian War

• Livonia was a state founded by a German order of chivalry in the 13th century. and included part of the territory of the modern Baltic. By the 16th century it was a very weak state formation, in which the power was divided between knights and bishops. Livonia was an easy prey for an aggressive state. Ivan the Terrible set himself the task of capturing Livonia in order to ensure access to the Baltic Sea and in order to prevent its conquest by someone else. In addition, Livonia, being between Europe and Russia, in every possible way prevented the establishment of contacts between them, in particular, the entry of European masters into Russia was practically prohibited. This caused discontent in Moscow.
• The territory of Livonia before the capture by the German knights belonged to the Russian princes. This pushed Ivan the Terrible to the war for the return of ancestral lands.
• According to the existing treaty, Livonia was obliged to pay Russia an annual tribute for the possession of the ancient Russian city of Yuryev (renamed Derpt) and neighboring territories. However, this condition was not observed, which was the main reason for the war.

The course of the Livonian War

• In response to the refusal to pay tribute, Ivan the Terrible in 1558 starts a war with Livonia. A weak state, torn by contradictions, cannot resist the huge army of Ivan the Terrible. The Russian army victoriously passes through the entire territory of Livonia, leaving only large fortresses and cities in the hands of the enemy. As a result, by 1560 Livonia, as a state, ceases to exist. However, its lands were divided between Sweden, Denmark and Poland, which declared that Russia should renounce all territorial acquisitions.
• The emergence of new opponents did not immediately affect the nature of the war. Sweden was at war with Denmark. Ivan the Terrible concentrated all efforts against Poland. Successful military operations lead in 1563 to the capture of Polotsk. Poland begins to ask for a truce, and Ivan the Terrible convenes the Zemsky Sobor and addresses him with such a proposal. However, the cathedral responds with a sharp refusal, stating that the capture of Livonia is necessary economically. The war continues, it becomes clear that it will be protracted.
• The situation changes for the worse after the introduction of the oprichnina by Ivan the Terrible. The state, already weakened in the course of a tense war, receives a "royal gift." The punitive and repressive measures of the king lead to a decline in the economy, the execution of many prominent military leaders significantly weakens the army. At the same time, the Crimean Khanate activates its actions, starting to threaten Russia. In 1571, Khan Devlet Giray burned down Moscow.
• In 1569, Poland and Lithuania are united into a new strong state - the Commonwealth. In 1575, Stefan Batory became its king, who later showed the qualities of a talented commander. This was a turning point in the Livonian War. The Russian army held the territory of Livonia for some time, laid siege to Riga and Revel, but soon the Commonwealth and Sweden began active hostilities against the Russian army. Batory inflicts a series of defeats on Ivan the Terrible, recaptures Polotsk. In 1581, he besieges Pskov, the courageous defense of which lasts five months. The lifting of the siege by Bathory becomes last victory Russian army. Sweden at this time captures the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which belongs to Russia.
• In 1582, Ivan the Terrible concludes a truce with Stefan Batory, according to which he renounces all his territorial acquisitions. In 1583, an agreement was signed with Sweden, as a result of which the captured lands on the coast of the Gulf of Finland were assigned to it.

Results of the Livonian War

• The war started by Ivan the Terrible promised to be successful. At first, Russia made significant progress. However, due to a number of internal and external reasons, a turning point occurs in the war. Russia is losing its occupied territories and, in the end, access to the Baltic Sea, remaining cut off from European markets.

In parallel with the internal breakdown and struggle, from 1558 there was a stubborn struggle near Grozny for the Baltic coast. The Baltic issue was at that time one of the most difficult international problems. Many Baltic states argued for dominance in the Baltic, and Moscow's efforts to stand on the seashore with a firm foot raised Sweden, Poland, and Germany against the "Muscovites". It must be admitted that Grozny chose a good moment to intervene in the struggle. Livonia, on which he directed his blow, represented at that time, according to an apt expression, a country of antagonisms. There was a centuries-old tribal struggle between the Germans and the natives of the region - Latvians, Livs and Estonians. This struggle often took the form of an acute social clash between the newcomer feudal lords and the native serf masses. With the development of the Reformation in Germany, religious ferment also spread to Livonia, preparing for the secularization of the order's possessions. Finally, all other antagonisms were joined by a political one: between the authorities of the Order and the Archbishop of Riga there was a chronic strife for supremacy, and at the same time there was a constant struggle between the cities for independence. Livonia, in the words of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, "represented a miniature repetition of the Empire without the unifying power of Caesar." The disintegration of Livonia did not hide from Grozny. Moscow demanded that Livonia recognize its dependence and threatened to conquer it. The question of the so-called Yuryev (Derpt) tribute was raised. From the local obligation of the city of Dorpat to pay a "duty" or tribute to the Grand Duke for something, Moscow made a pretext for establishing its patronage over Livonia, and then for war. In two years (1558-1560) Livonia was defeated by Moscow troops and disintegrated. In order not to surrender to the hated Muscovites, Livonia succumbed in parts to other neighbors: Livonia was annexed to Lithuania, Estonia to Sweden, Fr. Ezel - to Denmark, and Courland was secularized in fief dependence on the Polish king. Lithuania and Sweden demanded from Grozny that he cleared their new possessions. Grozny did not want to, and thus, the Livonian war from 1560 turns into the Lithuanian and Swedish wars.

This war dragged on for a long time. At first, Grozny had great success in Lithuania: in 1563 he took Polotsk, and his troops reached Vilna itself. In 1565–1566 Lithuania was ready for an honorable peace for Grozny and conceded to Moscow all its acquisitions. But the Zemsky Sobor of 1566 spoke in favor of continuing the war with a view to further land acquisitions: they wanted all of Livonia and the Polotsk povet to the city of Polotsk. The war continued sluggishly. With the death of the last Jagiellon (1572), when Moscow and Lithuania were in a truce, even Grozny's candidacy for the throne of Lithuania and Poland, united in the Commonwealth, arose. But this candidacy was not successful: Heinrich of Valois was first elected, and then (1576) the Prince of Semigrad Stefan Batory (in Moscow "Obatur"). With the advent of Batory, the picture of the war changed. Lithuania moved from defense to offensive. Batory took Polotsk from Grozny (1579), then Velikie Luki (1580) and, bringing the war within the Muscovite state, laid siege to Pskov (1581). Grozny was defeated not only because Batory had military talent and a good army, but also because by this time Grozny had run out of means of waging war. As a result of the internal crisis that hit the Muscovite state and society at that time, the country, in a modern expression, "was exhausted into the wasteland and came to desolation." The properties and significance of this crisis will be discussed below; now let us note that the same lack of manpower and means paralyzed Grozny's success against the Swedes in Estonia as well.

Siege of Pskov by Stefan Batory in 1581. Painting by Karl Bryullov, 1843

The failure of Bathory near Pskov, which heroically defended itself, allowed Grozny, through the intermediary of the papal ambassador, the Jesuit Possevin (Antonius Possevinus), to begin peace negotiations. In 1582, a peace was concluded (more precisely, a truce for 10 years) with Batory, to whom Grozny conceded all his conquests in Livonia and Lithuania, and in 1583 Grozny also made peace with Sweden on the fact that he ceded Estland to her and, moreover, his own lands from Narova to Lake Ladoga along the coast of the Gulf of Finland (Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye, Oreshek, Korelu). Thus the struggle, which dragged on for a quarter of a century, ended in complete failure. The reasons for the failure are, of course, in the discrepancy between Moscow's forces and the goal set by Grozny. But this discrepancy was revealed later than Grozny began the struggle: Moscow began to decline only from the 70s of the 16th century. Until then, its forces seemed enormous not only to Moscow patriots, but also to the enemies of Moscow. The performance of Grozny in the struggle for the Baltic coast, the appearance of Russian troops at the Gulf of Riga and the Gulf of Finland and hired Moscow marques on the Baltic waters struck Central Europe. In Germany, the "Muscovites" were presented as a terrible enemy; the danger of their invasion was signed not only in the official relations of the authorities, but also in the vast flying literature of leaflets and brochures. Measures were taken to prevent either Muscovites from going to the sea or Europeans from Moscow, and by separating Moscow from the centers European culture, to prevent its political strengthening. In this agitation against Moscow and Grozny, many unreliable things were concocted about Moscow's morals and Grozny's despotism, and a serious historian must always keep in mind the danger of repeating political slander, of mistaking it for an objective historical source.

To what has been said about Grozny's policy and the events of his time, it is necessary to add a mention of a very known fact the appearance of English ships at the mouths of the S. Dvina and the beginning of trade relations with England (1553–1554), as well as the conquest of the Siberian kingdom by a detachment of Stroganov Cossacks headed by Yermak (1582–1584). Both that and another for Grozny was an accident; but the Moscow government managed to take advantage of both. In 1584, at the mouth of the S. Dvina, Arkhangelsk was established as a seaport for fair trade with the British, and the British were given the opportunity to trade in the entire Russian north, which they very quickly and clearly studied. In those same years, the occupation of Western Siberia began already by the forces of the government, and not by the Stroganovs alone, and in Siberia many cities were set up with the "capital" Tobolsk at the head.

Livonian War 1558 - 1583 - the largest military conflict of the XVI century. in Eastern Europe, which took place on the territory of present-day Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Leningrad, Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk and Yaroslavl regions of the Russian Federation and Chernigov region of Ukraine. Participants - Russia, the Livonian Confederation (the Livonian Order, the Archbishopric of Riga, the Bishopric of Derpt, the Bishopric of Ezel and the Bishopric of Courland), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian, Poland (in 1569 the last two states united into the federal state of the Commonwealth), Sweden, Denmark.

The beginning of the war

It was launched by Russia in January 1558 as a war with the Livonian Confederation: according to one version, with the aim of acquiring trading ports in the Baltic, according to another, in order to force the Derpt bishopric to pay the "Yuryev tribute" (which was to be paid to Russia under the 1503 agreement for the possession of the former ancient Russian city of Yuryev (Derpt, now Tartu) and the acquisition of new lands for distribution to the nobles on the estate.

After the defeat of the Livonian Confederation and the transition in 1559 - 1561 of its members under the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia, Sweden and Denmark, the Livonian War turned into a war between Russia and these states, as well as with Poland - which was in personal union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Russian and Zhemoytsky. The opponents of Russia sought to keep the Livonian territories under their rule, and also to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the event of the transfer of commercial ports in the Baltic to it. Sweden at the end of the war also set the goal of capturing the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Izhora land (Ingria) - and thereby cut off Russia from the Baltic.

Already in August 1562, Russia concluded a peace treaty with Denmark; with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian and with Poland, she fought with varying success until January 1582 (when the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded), and with Sweden, also with varying success, until May 1583 (before the signing of the Plyussky truce ).

The course of the war

In the first period of the war (1558 - 1561), hostilities took place on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia). Hostilities alternated with truces. During the campaigns of 1558, 1559 and 1560, Russian troops captured many cities, defeated the troops of the Livonian Confederation at Tirzen in January 1559 and at Ermes in August 1560 and forced the states of the Livonian Confederation to become part of the large states of Northern and Eastern Europe or to recognize vassalage to them.

In the second period (1561 - 1572) hostilities took place in Belarus and the Smolensk region, between the troops of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian. On February 15, 1563, the army of Ivan IV captured the largest of the cities of the principality - Polotsk. An attempt to move further into the depths of Belarus led to the defeat of the Russians in January 1564 at Chashniki (on the Ulla River). Then there was a break in hostilities.

In the third period (1572 - 1578), hostilities again moved to Livonia, which the Russians tried to take away from the Commonwealth and Sweden. During the campaigns of 1573, 1575, 1576 and 1577, Russian troops captured almost all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina. However, the attempt to take Reval from the Swedes in 1577 failed, and in October 1578 the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish army defeated the Russians near Wenden.

In the fourth period (1579 - 1582), the king of the Commonwealth, Stefan Batory, undertook three major campaigns against Russia. In August 1579, he returned Polotsk, in September 1580 he captured Velikie Luki, and on August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582 he unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. At the same time, in 1580 - 1581, the Swedes took away from the Russians Narva, captured by them in 1558, and seized the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ingria. The siege of the Oreshek fortress by the Swedes in September - October 1582 ended in failure. Nevertheless, Russia, which also had to resist the Crimean Khanate, as well as suppress uprisings in the former Kazan Khanate, could no longer fight.

The results of the war

As a result of the Livonian War, most of the German states that emerged on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia) ceased to exist in the 13th century. (with the exception of the Duchy of Courland).

Russia not only failed to acquire any territories in Livonia, but also lost its access to the Baltic Sea, which it had before the war (returned, however, by it as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1590-1593). The war led to economic ruin, which contributed to the emergence of a socio-economic crisis in Russia, which then grew into the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The Commonwealth began to control most of the Livonian lands (Lifland and the southern part of Estonia became part of it, and Courland became a vassal state in relation to it - the duchy of Courland and Semigalle). Sweden received the northern part of Estonia, and Denmark - the islands of Ezel (now Saaremaa) and Moon (Muhu).