The largest of the wars waged by the Russians in the 16th century, but at the same time it had an important political event for a number of European states, and for European history as a whole. Starting from the 13th century, Livonia, as a confederation, was part of the German Empire. By the beginning of the 16th century, this huge medieval state was in the process of disintegration. It provided an outdated, loosely cohesive body politic based on and still dominated by a remnant of inter-tribal alliances.

Germany did not have its own national image at the time of the development of the money economy. The once powerful and bloodthirsty Livonian Order completely lost its militancy and could not resist the new young state, which considered the unity of the nation as the priority of its policy and energetically, regardless of means, pursued a national policy.

Geopolitics of the Northern European states in the 16th century

Without exception, all the powers surrounding Livonia would not refuse, under favorable circumstances, to annex the southeastern coast of the Baltic to themselves. The Lithuanian principality, the Polish kingdom were interested in having access to the sea in order to carry out direct trade relations with the countries of the West, and not pay a huge fee for the use of foreign sea areas. Sweden and Denmark did not need to acquire maritime trade routes in the Baltic Sea, they were quite satisfied with receiving a transit duty from merchants, which was very significant.

Trade routes passed not only through the sea, but also overland. Both states played the role of gatekeepers, and there was a fierce competition between them in this regard. It is clear that the further fate of Livonia was not indifferent to the decrepit, disintegrating into small principalities of Germany. And the attitude towards the claims of the young Moscow tsar was far from unambiguous. Far-sighted politicians from the overthrown Hanseatic League dreamed of using the growing power of Moscow to restore the former trading power in the east.

Livonia has also become a battlefield for states located very far from the Baltic coast. England and Spain continued their dispute in western waters.

Results of the Livonian War

Therefore, after the Russian troops defeated the Livonians, and the diplomatic negotiations of the northern states did not lead to the desired results, they all rallied as a united front against the troops. The war dragged on for almost 30 years and its results for the Muscovite state were not at all comforting. The main task of access to the Baltic Sea was not solved. Instead of two neighbors eternally hostile to Russia - the Principality of Lithuania and Poland, a new strong state of the Commonwealth took shape.

As a result of a ten-year truce, which was formalized on January 5, 1582 in the village of Yama Zapolsky, this new state secured most of the Baltic states. The trophies of war included 41 cities and fortresses occupied by Russian troops. The economy of the Russian state was drained of blood, and political prestige was undermined.

Interesting facts about the results of the Livonian War

• The Livonians were amazed at the generosity of the Russian troops, who removed church property from Orthodox churches, but left weapons in the fortresses - cannons, a large amount of gunpowder and cannonballs.
• As a result of the defeat, the Russians, who had lived in Livonia for centuries, had to leave the Baltic states and return to Novgorod, Pskov and other cities, although most of the cities they left had Russian names.

Introduction 3

1. Causes of the Livonian War 4

2. Stages of war 6

3.Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and exhausting, it brought many losses to Russia. It is very important and relevant to consider given event, because any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter. After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Therefore, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

aim of this work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

Reveal the causes of the Livonian War

Analyze its stages

Consider the results and consequences of the war

1. Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands, once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the hostility of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves Ivan the Terrible's aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them "intentions that are beneficial for Russia."

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible had an alternative - either to deal with the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains the decision of Ivan IV, which was contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by "discord" between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia's need to "assimilate the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were not allowed into Russia by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not put up with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of troops.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned by the leaders of the Chosen Rada for quite a long time."

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that "the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct links with the centers European civilizations, as well as in the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive decay of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute" (Yuryev, later called Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

2.Stages of the war.

The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with Danish prince Magnus fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga passed under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was dismissed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Esel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to retreat from those cities of Livonia that the king took for protection, and it is more fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. From 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Seimas in Lublin, Lithuania and Poland were united into a single state - the Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because. were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia”. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material means so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying Magnus to the tsar's niece, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. More intimately, the Tsar was preoccupied with the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of a correct, strategically deep understanding by the tsar of the alignment of forces in Europe and of his exact vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the near and far future. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, before it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

The best that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Russia, by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Russia.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

• The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
• The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
• The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltics were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the top.

Map of the Livonian War

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan 4 the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push back the borders of the state in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

1. Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livnsky Order and Russia signed a document according to which the former were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order single-handedly withdrew from this obligation.
2. The weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national differences.

Speaking about the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Russia from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles, who wished to appropriate new lands, were interested in the capture of Livonia. But the main reason is the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

Course of the war and major events

The Livonian War was fought with long breaks and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

At the first stage (1558–1561), the fighting was relatively successful for Russia. The Russian army in the first months captured Derpt, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.

The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the peasants of the Baltic were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of the war, exactions and other disasters.

Second phase of the war

The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar refused to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Tsardom. The conflict could only be continued under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the Chosen Rada.

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570–1577) is the battles of local significance between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.

Fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic, but soon the luck turned away from the king and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of united Poland and Lithuania (the Commonwealth), Stefan Batory, drove Ivan the Terrible out of the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.). The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Commonwealth was provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

The defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat (since August 1581). For 5 months of the siege, the garrison and the inhabitants of the city repelled 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian Empire and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Peace of Plus was signed in 1583.

Thus, we can single out the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sum up the results of the Liovna war:

• adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three strong states;
• the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
• A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy in long years forward - get access to the Baltic Sea.

History of Russia / Ivan IV the Terrible / Livonian War (briefly)

Livonian War (briefly)

Livonian War - a brief description

After the conquest of the recalcitrant Kazan, Russia sent forces to take Livonia.

Researchers identify two main reasons for the Livonian War: the need for trade of the Russian state in the Baltic, as well as the expansion of possessions. The struggle for dominance over the Baltic waters was between Russia and Denmark, Sweden, as well as Poland and Lithuania.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities (Livonian War)

The main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the fact that the Livonian Order did not pay the tribute that it had to pay under the peace treaty of the fifty-fourth year.

The Russian army invaded Livonia in 1558. At first (1558-1561) several castles and cities were taken (Yuryev, Narva, Derpt).

However, instead of continuing the successful offensive, the Moscow government provides the order with a truce, while at the same time equipping a military expedition against the Crimea. The Livonian knights, taking advantage of the support, gathered forces and defeated the Moscow troops a month before the end of the truce.

Against Crimea, Russia did not achieve a positive result from military operations.

The favorable moment for victory in Livonia was also missed. Master Ketler in 1561 signs an agreement according to which the order passes under the protectorate of Poland and Lithuania.

After making peace with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow concentrated its forces on Livonia, but now, instead of a weak order, it had to face several powerful contenders at once. And if at first it was possible to avoid war with Denmark and Sweden, then the war with the Polish-Lithuanian king was inevitable.

The greatest achievement of the Russian troops in the second stage of the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in 1563, after which there were many fruitless negotiations and unsuccessful battles, as a result of which even the Crimean Khan decided to abandon the alliance with the Moscow authorities.

The final stage of the Livonian War

The final stage of the Livonian War (1679-1683)- the military invasion of the Polish king Bathory in Russia, which at the same time was at war with Sweden.

In August, Stefan Batory took Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki and small towns were taken. On September 9, 1581, Narva, Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod were taken by Sweden, after which the struggle for Livonia ceased to be relevant for Grozny.

Since it was impossible to wage war with two enemies, the king concludes a truce with Batory.

The result of this war was the conclusion completely two treaties unfavorable for Russia, as well as the loss of many cities.

Main events and chronology of the Livonian War

Schematic map of the Livonian War

Interesting materials:

Livonian war in the history of Russia.

The Livonian War is a major armed conflict of the 16th century between the Livonian Confederation, the Russian Tsardom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark were also drawn into the conflict.

Military operations, for the most part, were carried out on the territory where the Baltic countries, Belarus, as well as the North-Western region of the Russian Federation are currently located.

Causes of the Livonian War.

The Livonian Order owned a huge part of the Baltic lands, but by the 16th century it began to lose power due to internal strife and the Reformation.

Due to its coastal position, the lands of Livonia were considered convenient for trade routes.

Fearing the growth of Russia, Livonia did not allow Moscow to trade there in full force. The result of such a policy was the hostility of Russians to their neighbors.

In order not to give Livonia into the hands of one of the European powers, which could conquer the lands of a weakening state, Moscow decided to win back the territories itself.

Livonian war of 1558-1583.

Beginning of the Livonian War.

Military operations began with the fact of the attack of the Russian kingdom on the territory of Livonia in the winter of 1558.

The war lasted in several stages:

• First stage. Russian troops conquered Narva, Derpt and other cities.
• The second stage: the liquidation of the Livonian Confederation took place in 1561 (Vilna Treaty).

  The war took on the character of a confrontation between the Russian kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

• Third stage. In 1563, the Russian army conquered Polotsk, but a year later they were defeated at Chashniki.
• Fourth stage. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569, joining forces with the Kingdom of Poland, turns into the Commonwealth. In 1577, Russian troops besiege Revel, lose Polotsk, Narva.

End of the war.

Livonian War ended in 1583 after the signing of two peace treaties: Yam-Zapolsky (1582) and Plyussky (1583)

According to the agreements, Moscow lost all the reclaimed lands and border territories with the Rech: Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod.

The lands of the Livonian Confederation were divided between the Commonwealth, the Swedish and Danish kingdoms.

Results of the Livonian War.

Russian historians have long characterized the Livonian War as an attempt by Russia to reach the Baltic Sea. But today the causes and reasons for the war have already been revised. Interesting to follow what were the results of the Livonian war.

The war was the end of the existence of the Livonian Order.

The military actions of Livonia provoked a change in the internal policy of the countries of Eastern Europe, thanks to which a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, which for another hundred years kept the whole of Europe on a par with the Roman Empire in fear.

As for the Russian kingdom, the Livonian War became a catalyst for the economic and political crisis in the country and led to the decline of the state.

Russian troops (1577) troops of the Commonwealth returned Polotsk and unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. The Swedes took Narva and unsuccessfully besieged Oreshek.

The war ended with the signing of Yam-Zapolsky (1582) and Plyussky (1583) truces. Russia was deprived of all the conquests made as a result of the war, as well as lands on the border with the Commonwealth and coastal Baltic cities (Koporye, Yama, Ivangorod). The territory of the former Livonian Confederation was divided between the Commonwealth, Sweden and Denmark.

In Russian historical science since the 19th century, the concept of the war as a struggle of Russia for access to the Baltic Sea has been established. A number of modern scientists name other causes of the conflict.

The Livonian War had a huge impact on events in Eastern Europe and the internal affairs of the states involved. As a result, the Livonian Order ended its existence, the war contributed to the formation of the Commonwealth, and the Russian kingdom led to economic decline.

The disunity and military weakness of Livonia (according to some estimates, the Order could put up no more than 10 thousand soldiers in an open battle), the weakening of the once powerful Hansa, the expansionist aspirations of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, Sweden, Denmark and Russia led to a situation in which the existence of the Livonian Confederation was threatened .

Proponents of a different approach believe that Ivan IV did not plan to start a large-scale war in Livonia, and the military campaign of the beginning of 1558 was nothing more than a show of force in order to push the Livonians to pay the promised tribute, which is supported by the fact that the Russian army was originally planned to be used on Crimean direction. So, according to the historian Alexander Filyushkin, on the part of Russia, the war did not have the character of a “fight for the sea”, and not a single Russian document contemporary with the events contains information about the need to break through to the sea.

Also important is the fact that in 1557 the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian Union concluded the Treaty of Pozvol, which grossly violated the Russian-Livonian treaties of 1554 and included an article on a defensive-offensive alliance directed against Moscow. In historiography, both contemporaries of those events (, I. Renner), and later researchers, had the opinion that it was this treaty that provoked Ivan IV to decisive military action in January 1558, in order not to give time to the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to mobilize their forces to secure their Livonia.

However, a number of other historians believe that the Treaty of Pozvol had little effect on the development of the situation in 1558 around Livonia. According to V. E. Popov and A. I. Filyushkin, the question of whether the Pozvolsky treaty was casus belli for Moscow is controversial, since it has not yet been substantiated by act material, and the military alliance against Moscow at that time was postponed for 12 years. According to E. Tyberg, in Moscow at that time they did not know at all about the existence of this agreement. V. V. Penskoy believes that in this matter it is not so important whether the fact of concluding the Pozvolsky Treaty was casus belli for Moscow, which, as the cause of the Livonian War, went in conjunction with others, such as the open intervention of Poland and Lithuania in Livonian affairs, the non-payment of the Yuryev tribute by the Livonians, the strengthening of the blockade of the Russian state, and so on, which inevitably led to war.

By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Order was even more weakened by the defeat in the conflict with the Archbishop of Riga and Sigismund II Augustus, who supported him. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, Bashkiria, the Great Nogai Horde, the Cossacks and Kabarda.

The Russian kingdom began the war on January 17, 1558. The invasion of Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. It was attended by 40 thousand people under the command of Khan Shig-Aley (Shah-Ali), governor M. V. Glinsky and D. R. Zakharyin-Yuriev. They passed through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March [ ] . The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive the due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers for settlement with Moscow in order to stop the outbreak of war. However, by May, only half of the amount claimed had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired on the Ivangorod fortress, which violated the ceasefire agreement.

This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put in the field, not counting the fortress garrisons, no more than 10 thousand people. Thus, its main military asset was the powerful stone walls of the fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.

Governors Aleksey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Vocht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Virgin into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the city walls, the Russians rushed to the assault.

“Very vile, terrible, hitherto unheard of, true new news, what atrocities the Muscovites are committing with captive Christians from Livonia, men and women, virgins and children, and what harm they are doing to them daily in their country. Along the way, it is shown what is the great danger and need of the Livonians. To all Christians, as a warning and improvement of their sinful life, it was written from Livonia and printed, Georg Breslein, Nuremberg, Flying Leaf, 1561

They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having seized the guns located there, the warriors deployed them and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, by the evening the defenders of the castle themselves surrendered on the terms of a free exit from the city.

The defense of the Neuhausen fortress distinguished itself with particular perseverance. She was defended by several hundred soldiers led by the knight von Padenorm, who for almost a month repelled the onslaught of the governor Peter Shuisky. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to keep the defense here, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Peter Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.

In 1560, the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg (now Aluksne in Latvia) was taken; the German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed. During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order Wilhelm von Furstenberg was captured. In 1575 he sent a letter to his brother from Yaroslavl, where the land was granted to the former landmaster. He told a relative that he "had no reason to complain about his fate." Sweden and Lithuania, which acquired the Livonian lands, demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused, and Russia found itself in conflict with a coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.

In the autumn of 1561, the Union of Vilna was concluded on the formation of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia on the territory of Livonia and the transfer of other lands to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

On November 26, 1561, the German emperor Ferdinand I banned the supply of Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blockaded the port of Narva and sent Swedish privateers to intercept merchant ships sailing to Narva.

In 1562, Lithuanian troops raided the Smolensk region and Velizh. In the summer of the same year, the situation on the southern borders of the Russian kingdom [room 4] escalated, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to autumn. In 1562, in the battle near Nevel, Prince Andrey Kurbsky failed to defeat the Lithuanian detachment that invaded the Pskov region. On August 7, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Denmark, according to which the Tsar agreed to the annexation of the island of Ösel by the Danes.

The prophecy of the Russian saint, the miracle worker Metropolitan Peter, was fulfilled, about the city of Moscow, that his hands would rise up on the splashes of his enemies: God poured unspeakable mercy on us unworthy, our patrimony, the city of Polotsk, gave us into our hands

At the proposal of the German Emperor Ferdinand to conclude an alliance and join forces in the fight against the Turks, the king said that he was fighting in Livonia practically for his own interests, against the Lutherans [ ] . The tsar knew what place the idea of ​​the Catholic counter-reformation occupied in the politics of the Habsburgs. By opposing the “Lutherian doctrine,” Ivan the Terrible touched a very sensitive chord in Habsburg politics.

After the capture of Polotsk, Russia's successes in the Livonian War began to decline. Already in the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). The boyar and a major military leader, who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A. M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania, he gave the king tsarist agents in the Baltic states and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to the military failures and unwillingness of eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.

A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden again aggravated, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of Both Peoples of a long “kinglessness”, the creation in Livonia of the vassal kingdom of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed the scales to tip in favor of Russia. [ ]

In order to interrupt the growing trade turnover of Narva, which was under Russian control, Poland, and behind it Sweden, launched an active privateer activity in the Baltic Sea. In 1570, measures were taken to protect Russian trade on the Baltic Sea. Ivan the Terrible issued a "royal charter" (letter of marque) to the Dane Carsten Rode. Despite a short period of activity, Rode's actions were quite effective, they reduced Swedish and Polish trade in the Baltic, forced Sweden and Poland to equip special squadrons to capture Rode. [ ]

In 1575, the fortress of Sage surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov (now Pärnu in Estonia) surrendered to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Revel.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, serious internal difficulties (the economic ruin that was looming over the country) negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia. [ ]

About the complex relationship between the Moscow state and the Commonwealth in 1575, the Caesar's ambassador John Kobenzel testified: [ ]

“Only the Poles exalt themselves with their disrespect for him; but he also laughs at them, saying that he took from them more than two hundred miles of land, and they did not make a single courageous effort to return what was lost. He receives their ambassadors badly. As if pitying me, the Poles predicted exactly the same reception for me and foreshadowed many troubles; meanwhile, this great Sovereign received me with such honors that if His Caesar's Majesty had taken it into his head to send me to Rome or Spain, then I could not have expected a better reception there either.

Poles at dark night
Before the very cover,
With a mercenary squad
They sit in front of the fire.

Filled with courage
The Poles twist their mustaches
They came in a gang
Destroy Holy Russia.

On January 23, 1577, the 50,000-strong Russian army again besieged Revel, but failed to take the fortress. In February 1578, Nuncio Vincent Laureo reported to Rome with anxiety: “The Muscovite divided his army into two parts: one is waiting near Riga, the other near Vitebsk.” By this time, all of Livonia along the Dvin, with the exception of only two cities - Revel and Riga, was in the hands of the Russians [ ] . In the late 70s, Ivan IV in Vologda began to build his navy and tried to transfer it to the Baltic, but the plan was not implemented.

The king takes on a difficult task; the strength of the Muscovites is great, and, with the exception of my sovereign, there is no more powerful Sovereign on earth

In 1578, the Russian army under the command of Prince Dmitry Khvorostinin took the city of Oberpalen, occupied after the flight of King Magnus by a strong Swedish garrison. In 1579, the royal messenger Wenceslas Lopatinsky brought a letter to the tsar from Bathory declaring war. Already in August, the Polish army surrounded Polotsk. The garrison defended for three weeks, and its courage was noted by Batory himself. In the end, the fortress surrendered (August 30), and the garrison was released. Stefan Batory's secretary Heidenstein writes about the prisoners:

According to the establishments of their religion, they consider loyalty to the Sovereign to be as obligatory as loyalty to God, they exalt with praise the firmness of those who, to the last breath, have kept the oath to their prince, and say that their souls, having parted with the body, immediately move to heaven. [ ]

Nevertheless, "many archers and other people of Moscow" went over to the side of Batory and were settled by him in the Grodno region. After Batory moved to Velikiye Luki and took them.

At the same time there were direct peace negotiations with Poland. Ivan the Terrible offered to give Poland all of Livonia, with the exception of four cities. Batory did not agree to this and demanded all the Livonian cities, in addition to Sebezh, and the payment of 400,000 Hungarian gold for military expenses. This infuriated Grozny, and he responded with a sharp letter.

Polish and Lithuanian detachments ravaged the Smolensk region, Seversk land, Ryazan region, south-west of the Novgorod region, plundered Russian lands up to the headwaters of the Volga. The Lithuanian voivode Filon Kmita from Orsha burned 2000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge full [ ] . The Lithuanian magnates Ostrozhsky and Vishnevetsky, with the help of light cavalry detachments, plundered

Formal reasons were found to start the war (see below), but the true reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian an order, the progressive disintegration of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting the strengthening of Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The presence of such a hostile barrier did not suit Moscow, which was striving to break out of continental isolation. However, Russia owned a small segment of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. But it was strategically vulnerable, and there were no ports or developed infrastructure. So Ivan the Terrible hoped to use the transport system of Livonia. He considered it an ancient Russian fiefdom, illegally seized by the crusaders.

The forceful solution of the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to their own historians, acted imprudently. The reason for the aggravation of relations was the mass pogroms of Orthodox churches in Livonia. Outraged, Grozny sent a message to the authorities of the Order, in which he stated that he would not tolerate such actions. A whip was attached to the letter, as a symbol of imminent punishment. By that time, the truce between Moscow and Livonia had expired (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503). To extend it, the Russian side demanded the payment of the Yuryev tribute, which the Livonians pledged to pay back to Ivan III, but for 50 years they never collected it. Recognizing the need to pay it, they again failed to fulfill their obligations. Then in 1558 Russian troops entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted a quarter of a century, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in the history of Russia.

Livonian War (1558-1583)

The Livonian War can be roughly divided into four stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

In the middle of the XVI century. Livonia was not a significant military force capable of seriously resisting the Russian state. Its main military asset remained powerful stone fortresses. But formidable for arrows and stones, knightly castles were by that time no longer very capable of protecting their inhabitants from the power of heavy siege weapons. Therefore, military operations in Livonia were reduced mainly to the fight against fortresses, in which the Russian artillery, which had already shown itself in the Kazan case, distinguished itself. The first fortress to fall from the onslaught of the Russians was Narva.

Capture of Narva (1558). In April 1558, Russian troops led by governors Adashev, Basmanov and Buturlin laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Focht Schnellenberg. The decisive assault on Narva took place on 11 May. On this day, a fire broke out in the city, which was accompanied by a storm. According to legend, it arose due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Virgin into the fire. Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the fortifications, the Russians rushed to the assault. They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having seized the guns located there, the attackers opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. But it did not follow, because by the evening the defenders of the castle surrendered, pronouncing the condition of a free exit from the city.
It was the first major fortress taken by the Russians in the Livonian War. Narva was a convenient sea ​​harbor, through which direct relations between Russia and Western Europe. At the same time, the creation of our own fleet was going on. A shipyard is being built in Narva. The first Russian ships were built on it by craftsmen from Kholmogory and Vologda, whom the tsar sent abroad "to supervise how guns are poured and ships are built in the west." A flotilla of 17 ships was based in Narva under the command of the Dane Karsten Rode, who was taken into Russian service.

Capture of Neuhaus (1558). The defense of the Neuhaus fortress, which was defended by several hundred soldiers led by the knight Fon-Padenorm, was distinguished by particular persistence in the campaign of 1558. Despite their small numbers, they staunchly resisted for almost a month, repelling the onslaught of the troops of the voivode Peter Shuisky. After the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, on June 30, 1558, the Germans withdrew to the upper castle. Von Padenorm wanted to defend himself here to the last extremity, but his surviving associates refused to continue the senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for the courage of the besieged, Shuisky allowed them to leave with honor.

Capture of Dorpat (1558). In July, Shuisky laid siege to Derpt (until 1224 - Yuryev, now the Estonian city of Tartu). The city was defended by a garrison under the command of Bishop Weiland (2 thousand people). And here, first of all, the Russian artillery distinguished itself. On July 11, she began shelling the city. Some towers and loopholes were destroyed by the cannonballs. During the shelling, the Russians brought part of the guns almost to the very fortress wall, opposite the German and St. Andrew's Gates, and opened fire at close range. The shelling of the city lasted 7 days. When the main fortifications were destroyed, the besieged, having lost hope of outside help, entered into negotiations with the Russians. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city and to preserve its former administration for its inhabitants. July 18, 1558 Dorpat capitulated. Order in the city was indeed maintained, and its violators were subjected to severe punishments.

Defense of Ringen (1558). After the capture of a number of cities in Livonia, the Russian troops, leaving garrisons there, left in the autumn for winter quarters within their borders. This was taken advantage of by the new Livonian master Ketler, who gathered a 10,000-strong army and tried to return what was lost. At the end of 1558, he approached the fortress of Ringen, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers, led by the governor Rusin-Ignatiev. The Russians bravely held out for five weeks, repulsing two attacks. The detachment of governor Repnin (2 thousand people) tried to help the besieged, but he was defeated by Ketler. This failure did not dampen the spirit of the besieged, who continued to resist. The Germans were able to take the fortress by storm only after its defenders ran out of gunpowder. All the defenders of Ringen were destroyed. Having lost a fifth of his army near Ringen (2 thousand people) and spending more than a month on the siege, Ketler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October, his army retreated to Riga. This small victory turned into a major disaster for the Livonians. In response to their actions, the army of Tsar Ivan the Terrible entered Livonia two months later.

Battle of Tiersen (1559). In the area of ​​this city in Livonia on January 17, 1559, a battle took place between the army of the Livonian Order under the command of the knight Felkenzam and the Russian army, led by the governor Serebryany. The Germans were completely defeated. Felkenzam and 400 knights died in battle, the rest were captured or fled. After this victory, the Russian army freely made a winter raid on the lands of the Order to Riga itself and returned to Russia in February.

Truce (1559). In the spring hostilities did not resume. In May, Russia concluded a truce with the Livonian Order until November 1559. This was largely due to the presence of serious disagreements in the Moscow government over foreign strategy. Thus, the closest advisers to the tsar, headed by the devious Alexei Adashev, were against the war in the Baltic states and advocated the continuation of the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. This grouping reflected the mood of those circles of the nobility who wished, on the one hand, to eliminate the threat of attacks from the steppes, and on the other, to receive a large additional land fund in the steppe zone.

The truce of 1559 allowed the Order to gain time and carry out active diplomatic work in order to involve its closest neighbors - Poland and Sweden - in the conflict against Moscow. With his invasion of Livonia, Ivan IV affected the trade interests of the main states that had access to the Baltic region (Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark). At that time, trade on the Baltic Sea was growing from year to year, and the question of who would control it was very relevant. But not only the problems of their own commercial gain were of interest to Russia's neighbors. They were worried about the strengthening of Russia by getting Livonia. Here is what, for example, the Polish king Sigismund-August wrote to the English Queen Elizabeth about the role of Livonia for the Russians: “The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring items that are brought to Narva; for not only goods, but also weapons are brought here, until now unknown to him... the artists (specialists) themselves come, through whom he acquires the means to defeat everyone... Until now, we could defeat him only because he was a stranger to education. But if Narva navigation continues, then what will happen to him unknown?" Thus, the struggle of the Russians for Livonia received a wide international response. The clash in the small Baltic patch of interests of so many states predetermined the severity of the Livonian War, in which military operations were closely intertwined with complex and intricate foreign policy situations.

Defense of Dorpat and Lais (1559). The master of the Livonian Order, Ketler, actively used the respite given to him. Having received help from Germany and made an alliance with the Polish king, the master broke the truce and went on the offensive in early autumn. He managed to defeat the detachment of governor Pleshcheev near Dorpat with an unexpected attack. In this battle, 1 thousand Russians fell. Nevertheless, the head of the Derpt garrison, governor Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. When Ketler laid siege to Derpt, the Russians met his army with gunfire and a brave sortie. For 10 days, the Livonians tried to destroy the walls with cannon fire, but to no avail. Not daring for a long winter siege or attack, Ketler was forced to retreat.
On the way back, Ketler decided to capture the fortress of Lais, where there was a small Russian garrison under the command of the head of the archery Koshkarov (400 people). In November 1559, the Livonians set up tours, broke the wall, but could not break into the fortress, stopped by the fierce resistance of the archers. The brave garrison of Lais steadfastly fought off the attacks of the Livonian army for two days. Ketler never managed to overcome the defenders of Lais, and he was forced to retreat to Wenden. The unsuccessful siege of Dorpat and Lais meant the failure of the autumn offensive of the Livonians. On the other hand, their treacherous attack forced Ivan the Terrible to resume hostilities against the Order.

Battles of Wittenstein and Ermes (1560). The decisive battles between Russian and Livonian troops took place in the summer of 1560 near Wittenstein and Ermes. In the first of them, the army of Prince Kurbsky (5 thousand people) defeated the German detachment of the former Master of the Order of Firstenberg. Under Ermes, the cavalry of the governor Barbashin (12 thousand people) completely destroyed a detachment of German knights led by Landmarshal Bel (about 1 thousand people), who tried to suddenly attack the Russian horsemen resting on the edge of the forest. 120 knights and 11 commanders surrendered, including their leader Bel. The victory at Ermes opened the way for the Russians to Fellin.

The Capture of Fellin (1560). In August 1560, a 60,000-strong army led by governors Mstislavsky and Shuisky laid siege to Fellin (known since 1211, now the city of Viljandi in Estonia). This most powerful fortress in the eastern part of Livonia was defended by a garrison under the command of the former Master Firstenberg. The success of the Russians near Fellin was ensured by the effective actions of their artillery, which for three weeks fired continuously at the fortifications. During the siege, the Livonian troops tried to help the besieged garrison from outside, but were defeated. After artillery fire destroyed part of the outer wall and set fire to the city, Fellin's defenders entered into negotiations. But Firstenberg did not want to give up and tried to force them to defend themselves in an impregnable castle inside the fortress. The garrison, not receiving a salary for several months, refused to comply with the order. On August 21, the fellines capitulated.

Having handed over the city to the Russians, its ordinary defenders received a free exit. Important prisoners (including Firstenberg) were sent to Moscow. The released soldiers of the Fellin garrison reached Riga, where they were hanged by Master Ketler for treason. The fall of Fellin actually decided the fate of the Livonian Order. Desperate to defend himself against the Russians on his own, Ketler in 1561 transferred his lands to the Polish-Lithuanian possession. The northern regions with the center in Reval (before 1219 - Kolyvan, now - Tallinn) recognized themselves as subjects of Sweden. According to the Treaty of Vilna (November 1561), the Livonian Order ceased to exist, its territory was transferred to the joint possession of Lithuania and Poland, the last master of the order received the Duchy of Courland. Denmark, which occupied the islands of Khiuma and Saaremaa, also declared its claims to part of the order's lands. As a result, the Russians in Livonia faced a coalition of states that did not want to give up their new possessions. Having not yet managed to capture a significant part of Livonia, including its main ports (Riga and Revel), Ivan IV found himself in an unfavorable situation. But he continued the fight, hoping to separate his opponents.

Second stage (1562-1569)

The most implacable opponent of Ivan IV was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was not satisfied with the capture of Livonia by the Russians, since in this case they received control over the export of grain (through Riga) from the Principality of Lithuania to European countries. Lithuania and Poland feared even more the military strengthening of Russia by receiving strategic goods from Europe through Livonian ports. The intransigence of the parties on the issue of the division of Livonia was also facilitated by their long-standing territorial claims to each other. The Polish-Lithuanian side also tried to seize northern Estonia in order to control all the Baltic trade routes leading to Russia. With such a policy, a clash was inevitable. By claiming Revel, Lithuania spoiled relations with Sweden. This was taken advantage of by Ivan IV, who concluded peace agreements with Sweden and Denmark. Having thus ensured the safety of the port of Narva, the Russian tsar decided to defeat his main competitor, the Principality of Lithuania.

In 1561-1562. hostilities between Lithuanians and Russians took place in Livonia. In 1561, Hetman Radziwill recaptured the Travast fortress from the Russians. But after the defeat near Pernau (Pernava, Pernov, now Pärnu), he was forced to leave it. The next year passed in petty skirmishes and fruitless negotiations. In 1563 Grozny himself took over the task and led the army. The goal of his campaign was Polotsk. The theater of operations moved to the territory of the Lithuanian principality. The conflict with Lithuania significantly expanded the scope and goals of the war for Russia. The long-standing struggle for the return of ancient Russian lands was added to the battle for Livonia.

Capture of Polotsk (1563). In January 1563, the army of Ivan the Terrible (up to 130 thousand people) set out for Polotsk. The choice of the purpose of the campaign was not accidental for a number of reasons. Firstly, Polotsk was a rich trading center, the capture of which promised great booty. Secondly, it was the most important strategic point on the Western Dvina, which had a direct connection with Riga. He also opened the road to Vilna and defended Livonia from the south. The political aspect was no less important. Polotsk was one of the princely centers of Ancient Russia, the lands of which were claimed by the Moscow sovereigns. There were also religious considerations. Large Jewish and Protestant communities settled in Polotsk, which was located near the Russian borders. The spread of their influence within Russia seemed highly undesirable for the Russian clergy.

The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. The decisive role in its capture was played by the power of Russian artillery. The volleys of two hundred of its guns were so strong that the cannonballs, flying over the fortress wall on one side, hit from the inside on the opposite side. Cannon shots destroyed a fifth of the fortress walls. According to eyewitnesses, there was such a cannon thunder that it seemed as if "the sky and the whole earth fell on the city." Having taken the settlement, the Russian troops laid siege to the castle. After the destruction of part of its walls by artillery fire, the defenders of the fortress surrendered on February 15, 1563. The wealth of the Polotsk treasury and the arsenal were sent to Moscow, and the centers of other faiths were destroyed.
The capture of Polotsk was the biggest political and strategic success of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. "If Ivan IV had died ... at the moment of his greatest successes on the Western Front, his preparations for the final conquest of Livonia, historical memory would have given him the name of the great conqueror, the creator of the world's largest power, like Alexander the Great," wrote historian R. Whipper. However, after Polotsk, a series of military failures followed.

Battle of the Ulla River (1564). After unsuccessful negotiations with the Lithuanians, the Russians launched a new offensive in January 1564. The army of governor Peter Shuisky (20 thousand people) moved from Polotsk to Orsha to join up with the army of Prince Serebryany, which was coming from Vyazma. Shuisky did not take any precautions during the campaign. No reconnaissance was conducted, people walked in discordant crowds without weapons and armor, which were carried on sledges. Nobody thought about the attack of the Lithuanians. Meanwhile, the Lithuanian governors Trotsky and Radziwill received accurate information about the Russian army through scouts. The governors lay in wait for him in a wooded area near the Ulla River (not far from Chashnikov) and unexpectedly attacked on January 26, 1564 with relatively small forces (4 thousand people). Not having time to take battle order and properly arm themselves, Shuisky's soldiers succumbed to panic and began to flee, leaving their entire convoy (5 thousand carts). Shuisky paid for his carelessness with his own life. The famous conqueror of Dorpat died in the beating that began. Upon learning of the defeat of Shuisky's troops, Serebryany retreated from Orsha to Smolensk. Shortly after the defeat at Ulla (in April 1564), a major Russian military leader fled from Yuryev to the side of Lithuania, close friend young years of Ivan the Terrible - Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky.

Battle of the Lakes (1564). The next failure of the Russians was the battle near the town of Ozerishche (now Ezerishche), 60 km north of Vitebsk. Here, on July 22, 1564, the Lithuanian army of voivode Pac (12 thousand people) defeated the army of voivode Tokmakov (13 thousand people).
In the summer of 1564, the Russians set out from Nevel and laid siege to the Lithuanian fortress Ozerishche. An army under the command of Pac moved from Vitebsk to help the besieged. Tokmakov, hoping to easily deal with the Lithuanians, met them with only one of his cavalry. The Russians crushed the advanced Lithuanian squad, but could not withstand the blow of the main army approaching the battlefield and retreated in disorder, losing (according to Lithuanian data) 5 thousand people. After the defeat at Ulla and near Ozerishchi, Moscow's onslaught on Lithuania was suspended for almost a hundred years.

Military failures contributed to the transition of Ivan the Terrible to a policy of repression against part of the feudal nobility, some of whose representatives at that time embarked on the path of conspiracies and outright treason. Peace talks with Lithuania also resumed. She agreed to cede part of the land (including Derpt and Polotsk). But Russia did not get access to the sea, which was the goal of the war. To discuss such an important issue, Ivan IV did not limit himself to the opinion of the boyars, but convened the Zemsky Sobor (1566). He firmly spoke in favor of continuing the campaign. In 1568, the Lithuanian army of Hetman Khodkevich launched an offensive, but its onslaught was stopped by the staunch resistance of the garrison of the Ulla fortress (on the Ulla River).

Unable to cope with Moscow alone, Lithuania concluded the Union of Lublin with Poland (1569). According to it, both countries were united into a single state - the Commonwealth. This was one of the most important and very negative results of the Livonian War for Russia, which had an impact on the future fate of Eastern Europe. With the formal equality of both sides, the leading role in this association belonged to Poland. Having left behind Lithuania, Warsaw is now becoming Moscow's main rival in the west, and the final (4th) stage of the Livonian War can be considered the first Russian-Polish war.

Third stage (1570-1576)

Combining the potentials of Lithuania and Poland sharply reduced Grozny's chances of success in this war. At that time, the situation on the southern borders of the country became seriously aggravated. In 1569, the Turkish army made a campaign against Astrakhan, trying to cut off Russia from the Caspian Sea and open the gates for expansion in the Volga region. Although the campaign ended in failure due to poor preparation, the Crimean Turkish military activity in this region did not decrease (see the Russian-Crimean wars). Relations with Sweden also worsened. In 1568, King Eric XIV was overthrown there, and he developed friendly relations with Ivan the Terrible. The new Swedish government went to the aggravation of relations with Russia. Sweden established a naval blockade of the port of Narva, which made it difficult for Russia to purchase strategic goods. Having completed the war with Denmark in 1570, the Swedes began to strengthen their positions in Livonia.

The deterioration of the foreign policy situation coincided with the growth of tension within Russia. At that time, Ivan IV received news of a conspiracy of the Novgorod leaders, who were going to surrender Novgorod and Pskov to Lithuania. Worried about the news of separatism in a region located near military operations, the tsar in early 1570 set out on a campaign against Novgorod and committed a cruel massacre there. People loyal to the authorities were sent to Pskov and Novgorod. To the inquiry on the "Novgorod case" was brought wide circle persons: representatives of the boyars, the clergy, and even prominent guardsmen. In the summer of 1570, executions took place in Moscow.

In the context of the aggravation of the external and internal situation, Ivan IV undertakes a new diplomatic move. He agrees to a truce with the Commonwealth and begins a fight with the Swedes, trying to force them out of Livonia. The ease with which Warsaw agreed to a temporary reconciliation with Moscow was explained by the internal political situation in Poland. lived there last days the elderly and childless king Sigismund-August. Expecting his imminent death and the election of a new king, the Poles tried not to aggravate relations with Russia. Moreover, Ivan the Terrible himself was considered in Warsaw one of the likely candidates for the Polish throne.

Having concluded a truce with Lithuania and Poland, the king opposes Sweden. In an effort to enlist the neutrality of Denmark and the support of part of the Livonian nobility, Ivan decides to create a vassal kingdom on the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow. The brother of the Danish king, Prince Magnus, becomes its ruler. Having created the kingdom of Livonia, dependent on Moscow, Ivan the Terrible and Magnus begin a new stage in the struggle for Livonia. This time the theater of operations is moving to the Swedish part of Estonia.

First siege of Reval (1570-1571). The main goal of Ivan IV in this area was the largest Baltic port of Revel (Tallinn). On August 23, 1570, Russian-German troops led by Magnus (over 25 thousand people) approached the Reval fortress. The call to surrender was refused by the townspeople who accepted Swedish citizenship. The siege began. The Russians built wooden towers opposite the fortress gates, from which they fired at the city. However, this time he was not successful. The besieged not only defended themselves, but also made bold sorties, destroying the siege structures. The number of besiegers was clearly insufficient to take such a large city with powerful fortifications.
However, the Russian governors (Yakovlev, Lykov, Kropotkin) decided not to lift the siege. They hoped to succeed in the winter, when the sea would be frozen over and the Swedish fleet would be unable to supply reinforcements to the city. Not taking active actions against the fortress, the allied troops were engaged in the devastation of the surrounding villages, restoring the local population against them. Meanwhile, the Swedish fleet managed to deliver a lot of food and weapons to the Revalians before the cold weather, and they endured the siege without much need. On the other hand, murmuring increased among the besiegers, who did not want to endure the difficult conditions of winter standing. After standing at Revel for 30 weeks, the allies were forced to retreat.

Capture of Wittenstein (1572). After that, Ivan the Terrible changes tactics. Leaving Revel alone for the time being, he decides to first completely oust the Swedes from Estonia in order to finally cut off this port from the mainland. At the end of 1572, the tsar himself led the campaign. At the head of an 80,000-strong army, he besieges the stronghold of the Swedes in central Estonia - the Wittenstein fortress (the modern city of Paide). After a powerful shelling, the city was taken by a fierce attack, during which the tsar's favorite, the famous guardsman Malyuta Skuratov, died. According to the Livonian chronicles, the tsar, in a rage, ordered the captured Germans and Swedes to be burned. After the capture of Wittenstein, Ivan IV returned to Novgorod.

Battle of Lod (1573). But hostilities continued, and in the spring of 1573, Russian troops under the command of the voivode Mstislavsky (16 thousand people) converged in an open field, near Lode Castle (Western Estonia), with the Swedish detachment of General Klaus Tott (2 thousand people). Despite a significant numerical superiority (according to the Livonian chronicles), the Russians could not successfully resist the martial art of the Swedish warriors and suffered a crushing defeat. The news of the failure at Lod, which coincided with the uprising in the Kazan region, forced Tsar Ivan the Terrible to temporarily stop hostilities in Livonia and enter into peace negotiations with the Swedes.

Fighting in Estonia (1575-1577). In 1575 a partial truce was concluded with the Swedes. It assumed that until 1577 the theater of military operations between Russia and Sweden would be limited to the Baltic states and not spread to other areas (primarily Karelia). Thus, Grozny was able to concentrate all his efforts on the struggle for Estonia. In the campaign of 1575-1576. Russian troops, with the support of Magnus' supporters, managed to capture the whole of Western Estonia. The central event of this campaign was the capture by the Russians at the end of 1575 of the fortress of Pernov (Pärnu), where they lost 7 thousand people during the assault. (according to Livonian data). After the fall of Pernov, the rest of the fortresses surrendered almost without resistance. Thus, by the end of 1576, the Russians actually took over all of Estonia, with the exception of Revel. The population, weary of the long war, rejoiced at peace. It is interesting that after the voluntary surrender of the powerful Gabsal fortress, the locals staged dances that so impressed the Moscow nobles. According to a number of historians, the Russians were amazed at this and said: “What a strange people the Germans are! If we Russians surrendered such a city without need, we would not dare to raise our eyes on an honest person, and our tsar did not know what kind of execution to execute us And you Germans are celebrating your shame."

Second siege of Reval (1577). Having mastered all of Estonia, the Russians in January 1577 again approached Revel. The troops of the governor Mstislavsky and Sheremetev (50 thousand people) approached here. The city was defended by a garrison led by the Swedish general Gorn. This time, the Swedes prepared even more thoroughly for the defense of their main stronghold. Suffice it to say that the besieged had five times as many guns as the besiegers. For six weeks, the Russians bombarded Revel, hoping to set it on fire with red-hot cannonballs. However, the townspeople took successful measures against fires, creating a special team that monitors the flight and fall of shells. For their part, the Reval artillery responded with even more powerful fire, inflicting severe damage on the besiegers. One of the leaders of the Russian army, voivode Sheremetev, who promised the tsar to take Revel or die, also died from a cannonball. The Russians attacked the fortifications three times, but each time unsuccessfully. In response, the Reval garrison made bold and frequent sorties, preventing serious siege work from being carried out.

The active defense of the Revelians, as well as cold and illness, led to significant losses in the Russian army. On March 13, it was forced to lift the siege. Leaving, the Russians burned their camp, and then conveyed to the besieged that they were not saying goodbye for good, promising to return sooner or later. After the siege was lifted, the Revel garrison and local residents raided the Russian garrisons in Estonia, which, however, was soon stopped by the approach of troops under the command of Ivan the Terrible. However, the king moved no longer to Reval, but to the Polish possessions in Livonia. There were reasons for that.

Fourth stage (1577-1583)

In 1572, the childless Polish king Sigismund-August died in Warsaw. With his death, the Jagiellonian dynasty ended in Poland. The election of a new king dragged on for four years. Anarchy and political anarchy in the Commonwealth temporarily made it easier for the Russians to fight for the Baltics. During this period, Moscow diplomacy was actively working to bring the Russian tsar to the Polish throne. The candidacy of Ivan the Terrible enjoyed a certain popularity among the petty gentry, who were interested in him as a ruler capable of putting an end to the dominance of the big aristocracy. In addition, the Lithuanian nobility hoped to weaken the Polish influence with the help of Ivan the Terrible. Many in Lithuania and Poland were impressed by rapprochement with Russia for joint defense against the expansion of Crimea and Turkey.

At the same time, Warsaw saw in the choice of Ivan the Terrible a convenient opportunity for the peaceful subjugation of the Russian state and the opening of its borders for Polish noble colonization. So, for example, it has already happened with the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under the terms of the Union of Lublin. In turn, Ivan IV sought the Polish throne, primarily for the peaceful annexation of Kyiv and Livonia to Russia, with which Warsaw categorically disagreed. The difficulties of combining such polar interests ultimately led to the failure of the Russian candidacy. In 1576, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory was elected to the Polish throne. This choice destroyed the hopes of Moscow diplomacy for a peaceful solution to the Livonian dispute. In parallel, the government of Ivan IV negotiated with the Austrian emperor Maximilian II, trying to get his support in terminating the Union of Lublin and separating Lithuania from Poland. But Maximilian refused to recognize Russia's rights to the Baltic states, and the negotiations ended in vain.

However, Batory did not meet with unanimous support in the country. Some regions, primarily Danzig, refused to recognize it unconditionally. Taking advantage of the turmoil that broke out on this soil, Ivan IV tried to annex southern Livonia before it was too late. In the summer of 1577, the troops of the Russian tsar and his ally Magnus, violating the truce with the Commonwealth, invaded the southeastern regions of Livonia controlled by Poland. The few Polish units of Hetman Khodkevich did not dare to join the battle and retreated beyond the Western Dvina. Encountering no strong resistance, the troops of Ivan the Terrible and Magnus captured the main fortresses in southeastern Livonia by autumn. Thus, all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina (with the exception of the regions of Riga and Revel) was under the control of the Russian tsar. The campaign of 1577 was the last major military success of Ivan the Terrible in the Livonian War.

The tsar's hopes for a long turmoil in Poland did not come true. Batory turned out to be an energetic and decisive ruler. He laid siege to Danzig and obtained an oath from the locals. Having suppressed the internal opposition, he was able to direct all his forces to the fight against Moscow. Having created a well-armed, professional army of mercenaries (Germans, Hungarians, French), he also concluded an alliance with Turkey and the Crimea. This time, Ivan IV was unable to separate his opponents and found himself alone in the face of strong hostile powers, whose borders stretched from the Don steppes to Karelia. In total, these countries surpassed Russia both in terms of population and military power. True, in the south the situation after the formidable 1571-1572. deflated somewhat. In 1577 Khan Devlet Giray, an implacable enemy of Moscow, died. His son was more peaceful. However, the peacefulness of the new Khan was partly due to the fact that his main patron - Turkey - was at that time busy with a bloody war with Iran.
In 1578, the governors of Bathory invaded southeastern Livonia and managed to recapture almost all of their last year's conquests from the Russians. This time, the Poles acted in concert with the Swedes, who almost simultaneously attacked Narva. With this turn of events, King Magnus betrayed Grozny and went over to the side of the Commonwealth. An attempt by Russian troops to organize a counteroffensive near Wenden ended in failure.

Battle of Wenden (1578). In October, Russian troops under the command of governor Ivan Golitsyn, Vasily Tyumensky, Khvorostinin and others (18 thousand people) tried to recapture Venden (now the Latvian city of Cesis) taken by the Poles. But arguing about which of them is more important, they lost time. This allowed the Polish troops of Hetman Sapieha to connect with the Swedish detachment of General Boye and arrive in time to help the besieged. Golitsyn decided to retreat, but on October 21, 1578, the Poles and Swedes decisively attacked his army, which barely had time to line up. The Tatar cavalry was the first to waver. Unable to withstand the fire, she fled. After that, the Russian army retreated to their fortified camp and fired from there until dark. At night, Golitsyn fled to Dorpat with his close associates. Following rushed and the remnants of his army.
The honor of the Russian army was saved by artillerymen under the command of the okolnichi Vasily Fedorovich Vorontsov. They did not abandon their guns and remained on the battlefield, determined to fight to the end. The next day, the surviving heroes, who were joined by the detachments of governor Vasily Sitsky, Danilo Saltykov and Mikhail Tyufikin, who decided to support their comrades, entered the battle with the entire Polish-Swedish army. Having shot the ammunition and not wanting to surrender, the Russian gunners hanged themselves on their guns. According to the Livonian chronicles, the Russians lost 6022 people killed near Wenden.

The defeat at Wenden forced Ivan the Terrible to seek peace with Batory. Resuming peace negotiations with the Poles, the tsar decided in the summer of 1579 to strike at the Swedes and finally take Revel. For the march to Novgorod, troops and heavy siege artillery were drawn up. But Batory did not want peace and was preparing to continue the war. Determining the direction of the main attack, the Polish king rejected proposals to go to Livonia, where there were many fortresses and Russian troops (up to 100 thousand people). Fighting in such conditions could cost his army heavy losses. In addition, he believed that in Livonia, devastated by many years of war, he would not find enough food and booty for his mercenaries. He decided to strike where he was not expected and take possession of Polotsk. By this, the king provided a safe rear for his positions in southeastern Livonia and received an important springboard for a campaign against Russia.

Defense of Polotsk (1579). In early August 1579, Batory's army (30-50 thousand people) appeared under the walls of Polotsk. Simultaneously with his campaign, Swedish troops invaded Karelia. For three weeks, Batory's troops tried to set fire to the fortress with artillery fire. But the defenders of the city, led by the governors Telyatevsky, Volynsky and Shcherbaty, successfully extinguished the fires that arose. This was also favored by the established rainy weather. Then the Polish king, with the promise of high rewards and booty, persuaded his Hungarian mercenaries to storm the fortress. On August 29, 1579, taking advantage of a clear and windy day, the Hungarian infantry rushed to the walls of Polotsk and managed to light them with the help of torches. Then the Hungarians, supported by the Poles, rushed through the flaming walls of the fortress. But its defenders have already managed to dig a moat in this place. When the attackers broke into the fortress, they were stopped at the moat by a volley of cannons. Having suffered heavy losses, Batory's soldiers retreated. But this failure did not stop the mercenaries. Enticed by the legends about the huge wealth stored in the fortress, the Hungarian soldiers, reinforced by the German infantry, again rushed to the attack. But this time the fierce assault was repulsed.
Meanwhile, Ivan the Terrible, interrupting the campaign against Revel, sent part of the search to repel the Swedish onslaught in Karelia. The tsar ordered the detachments under the command of the governor Shein, Lykov and Palitsky to rush to the aid of Polotsk. However, the governors did not dare to engage in battle with the Polish avant-garde sent against them and retreated to the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe Sokol fortress. Having lost faith in the help of their search, the besieged no longer hoped for the protection of their dilapidated fortifications. Part of the garrison, headed by the voivode Volynsky, entered into negotiations with the king, which ended with the surrender of Polotsk on the condition of a free exit for all military people. Other governors, together with Bishop Cyprian, locked themselves in the church of Hagia Sophia and were captured after stubborn resistance. Some of those who voluntarily surrendered went to the service of Batory. But the majority, despite the fear of reprisals from Ivan the Terrible, chose to return home to Russia (the tsar did not touch them and placed them in border garrisons). The capture of Polotsk brought about a turning point in the Livonian War. From now on, the strategic initiative passed to the Polish troops.

Defense of the Falcon (1579). Having taken Polotsk, Batory on September 19, 1579 laid siege to the Sokol fortress. The number of its defenders by that time had significantly decreased, since the detachments of the Don Cossacks, sent along with Shein to Polotsk, arbitrarily left for the Don. During a series of battles, Batory managed to defeat the manpower of the Moscow army and take the city. On September 25, after a heavy shelling by Polish artillery, the fortress was engulfed in fire. Her defenders, unable to stay in the burning fortress, made a desperate sortie, but were repulsed and after a fierce fight, they ran back to the fortress. A detachment of German mercenaries burst in behind them. But the defenders of the Falcon managed to slam the gate behind him. Lowering the iron bars, they cut off the German detachment from the main forces. Inside the fortress, in fire and smoke, a terrible slaughter began. At this time, the Poles and Lithuanians rushed to the aid of their comrades who were in the fortress. The attackers broke the gate and broke into the burning Falcon. In a ruthless battle, his garrison was almost completely exterminated. Only the voivode Sheremetev was captured with a small detachment. The governors Shein, Palitsky and Lykov died in a battle outside the city. According to the testimony of an old mercenary, Colonel Weyer, in none of the battles did he see such a number of corpses lying in such a limited space. They counted up to 4 thousand. The chronicle testifies to the terrible abuse of the dead. So, the German women-canners cut out fat from dead bodies to make some kind of healing ointment. After the capture of Sokol, Bathory made a devastating raid on the Smolensk and Seversk regions, and then returned back, ending the campaign of 1579.

So, this time Ivan the Terrible had to expect strikes on a broad front. This forced him to stretch his forces, which had thinned over the years of the war, from Karelia to Smolensk. In addition, a large Russian group was in Livonia, where Russian nobles received land and started families. A lot of troops stood on the southern borders, waiting for the attack of the Crimeans. In a word, the Russians could not concentrate all their forces to repel the onslaught of Batory. The Polish king also had another serious advantage. It's about about the quality of combat training of his soldiers. main role Batory's army was played by professional infantry, which had a wealth of experience in European wars. She was trained in modern combat techniques with firearms, possessed the art of maneuver and interaction of all branches of the armed forces. Of great (sometimes decisive) importance was the fact that the army was personally led by King Bathory - not only a skilled politician, but also a professional commander.
In the Russian army, the main role continued to be played by the horse and foot militia, which had a low degree of organization and discipline. In addition, the dense masses of cavalry, which formed the basis of the Russian army, were highly vulnerable to infantry and artillery fire. There were relatively few regular, well-trained units (archers, gunners) in the Russian army. Therefore, the total significant number did not at all speak of his strength. On the contrary, large masses of insufficiently disciplined and united people could more easily panic and flee from the battlefield. This was evidenced by the unsuccessful, in general, for the Russian field battles of this war (at Ulla, Ozerishchi, Lod, Wenden, etc.). It is no coincidence that the Moscow governors sought to avoid battles in the open field, especially with Batory.
The combination of these unfavorable factors, along with the increase internal problems(the impoverishment of the peasantry, the agrarian crisis, financial difficulties, the fight against the opposition, etc.), predetermined the failure of Russia in the Livonian War. The last weight thrown on the scales of the titanic confrontation was the military talent of King Batory, who turned the tide of the war and snatched the cherished fruit of his many years of efforts from the tenacious hands of the Russian Tsar.

Defense of Velikie Luki (1580). The following year, Batory continued his attack on Russia in a northeasterly direction. By this, he sought to cut off the communication of the Russians with Livonia. Starting the campaign, the king had hopes for the dissatisfaction of part of society with the repressive policies of Ivan the Terrible. But the Russians did not respond to the king's calls to raise an uprising against their king. At the end of August 1580, Batory's army (50 thousand people) laid siege to Velikie Luki, which covered the path to Novgorod from the south. The city was defended by a garrison headed by the governor Voeikov (6-7 thousand people). 60 km east of Velikiye Luki, in Toropets, there was a large Russian army of governor Khilkov. But he did not dare to go to the aid of Veliky Luki and limited himself to individual sabotage, waiting for reinforcements.
Meanwhile, Bathory launched an attack on the fortress. The besieged responded with bold sorties, during one of which they captured the royal banner. Finally, the besiegers managed to set fire to the fortress with red-hot cannonballs. But even under these conditions, its defenders continued to fight valiantly, turning around to protect themselves from fire with wet skins. On September 5, the fire reached the fortress arsenal, where gunpowder was stored. Their explosion destroyed part of the walls, which made it possible for Batory's soldiers to break into the fortress. The fierce battle continued inside the fortress. In a ruthless massacre, almost all the defenders of Velikiye Luki fell, including the governor Voeikov.

Battle of Toropetsk (1580). Having mastered Velikiye Luki, the king sent a detachment of Prince Zbarazhsky against the voivode Khilkov, who stood inactive at Toropets. On October 1, 1580, the Poles attacked the Russian regiments and won. The defeat of Khilkov deprived the southern regions of the Novgorod lands from protection and allowed the Polish-Lithuanian detachments to continue military operations in this area in the winter. In February 1581 they raided Lake Ilmen. During the raid, the city of Holm was captured and burned Staraya Russa. In addition, the fortresses of Nevel, Ozerische and Zavolochye were taken. Thus, the Russians were not only completely ousted from the possessions of the Commonwealth, but also lost significant territories on their western borders. These successes ended the Batory campaign of 1580.

Battle of Nastasino (1580). When Batory took Velikiye Luki, a 9,000-strong Polish-Lithuanian detachment of the local military leader Philon, who had already declared himself governor of Smolensk, set out from Orsha from Orsha. Having passed through the Smolensk regions, he planned to connect with Batory at Velikie Luki. In October 1580, Philon's detachment was met and attacked near the village of Nastasino (7 km from Smolensk) by the Russian regiments of the voivode Buturlin. Under their onslaught, the Polish-Lithuanian army retreated to the wagon train. During the night, Philo abandoned his fortifications and began to withdraw. Acting energetically and persistently, Buturlin organized the persecution. Having overtaken Philon's units 40 versts from Smolensk, on Spassky Lugah, the Russians again decisively attacked the Polish-Lithuanian army and inflicted a complete defeat on it. 10 guns and 370 prisoners were captured. According to the chronicle, Philo himself "barely walked into the forest." This single major Russian victory in the 1580 campaign protected Smolensk from a Polish-Lithuanian attack.

Defense of Padis (1580). Meanwhile, the Swedes resumed the onslaught in Estonia. In October - December 1580, the Swedish army laid siege to Padis (now the Estonian city of Paldiski). The fortress was defended by a small Russian garrison led by the governor Danila Chikharev. Deciding to defend himself to the last extreme, Chikharev ordered the death of a Swedish truce envoy who had come with an offer to surrender. Lacking food supplies, the defenders of Padis suffered a terrible famine. They ate all the dogs, cats, and at the end of the siege they ate straw and skins. Nevertheless, the Russian garrison staunchly held back the onslaught of the Swedish troops for 13 weeks. Only after the third month of the siege did the Swedes manage to storm the fortress, which was defended by half-dead ghosts. After the fall of Padis, its defenders were exterminated. The capture of Padis by the Swedes put an end to the Russian presence in the western part of Estonia.

Pskov defense (1581). In 1581, having hardly obtained the consent of the Sejm for a new campaign, Batory moved to Pskov. Through this largest city was the main connection between Moscow and the Livonian lands. By taking Pskov, the king planned to finally cut off the Russians from Livonia and end the war victoriously. On August 18, 1581, the army of Bathory (from 50 to 100 thousand people according to various sources) approached Pskov. The fortress was defended by up to 30,000 archers and armed townspeople under the command of governor Vasily and Ivan Shuisky.
The general attack began on 8 September. The attackers managed to break through the fortress wall with gun fire and capture the Svina and Pokrovskaya towers. But the defenders of the city, led by the brave governor Ivan Shuisky, blew up the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles, and then knocked them out from all positions and closed the gap. In the battle near the gap, courageous Pskovite women came to the aid of the men, who brought water and ammunition to their soldiers, and at a critical moment they themselves rushed into hand-to-hand combat. Having lost 5 thousand people, Batory's army retreated. The losses of the besieged amounted to 2.5 thousand people.
Then the king sent a message to the besieged with the words: "Surrender peacefully: you will receive honor and mercy, which you do not deserve from the Moscow tyrant, and the people will receive a benefit unknown in Russia ... In case of insane stubbornness, death to you and the people!" The answer of the Pskovites has been preserved, conveying through the centuries the appearance of the Russians of that era.

"Let your Majesty, the proud ruler of Lithuania, King Stephen, know that in Pskov even five years old a Christian child will laugh at your madness... us your holy Christian faith and submit to your mold? And what gain of honor is there in leaving us your sovereign and submitting to an infidel foreigner and becoming like the Jews? .. Or do you think to seduce us with crafty caress or empty flattery or vain wealth? But also the whole world of treasures we do not want for our kiss on the cross, by which we swore allegiance to our sovereign. And why do you, king, scare us with bitter and shameful deaths? If God is for us, then no one is against us! We are all ready to die for our faith and for our sovereign, but we will not surrender the city of Pskov... Get ready for the battle with us, and who will defeat whom, God will show."

A worthy response from the Pskovites finally destroyed Batory's hopes of exploiting Russia's internal difficulties. Having information about the oppositional moods of a part of Russian society, the Polish king did not have real information about the opinion of the overwhelming majority of the people. It did not bode well for the invaders. In the campaigns of 1580-1581. Batory met with stubborn resistance, which he did not count on. Acquainted with the Russians in practice, the king noted that they “did not think about life in defense of cities, cold-bloodedly took the place of the dead ... and blocked the gap with their chests, fighting day and night, eating only bread, dying of hunger, but not surrendering” . The defense of Pskov also revealed the weak side of the mercenary army. Russians died defending their land. Mercenaries fought for money. Having met with a staunch rebuff, they decided to save themselves for other wars. In addition, the maintenance of a mercenary army required huge funds from the Polish treasury, which by that time was already empty.
November 2, 1581 took place new assault. He was not distinguished by his former pressure and also failed. During the siege, the Pskovites destroyed tunnels and made 46 bold sorties. Simultaneously with Pskov, the Pskov-Caves Monastery also heroically defended, where 200 archers, led by the governor Nechaev, together with the monks, managed to repel the onslaught of a detachment of Hungarian and German mercenaries.

Yam-Zapolsky truce (signed on 15.01.1582 near Zapolsky Yam, south of Pskov). With the onset of cold weather, the mercenary army began to lose discipline and demand an end to the war. The battle for Pskov became final chord Batory's campaigns. It is a rare example of a successfully completed defense of the fortress without outside help. Having failed at Pskov, the Polish king was forced to start peace negotiations. Poland did not have the means to continue the war and borrowed money from abroad. After Pskov, Batory could no longer get a loan secured by his success. The Russian tsar also no longer hoped for a favorable outcome of the war and was in a hurry to take advantage of the difficulties of the Poles in order to get out of the fight with the least losses. On January 6 (15), 1582, the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded. The Polish king renounced claims to Russian territories, including Novgorod and Smolensk. Russia ceded the Livonian lands and Polotsk to Poland.

Defense of Nut (1582). While Batory was at war with Russia, the Swedes, having reinforced their army with Scottish mercenaries, continued offensive operations. In 1581 they finally ousted the Russian troops from Estonia. The last to fall was Narva, where 7,000 Russians perished. Then the Swedish army under the command of General Pontus Delagaree transferred hostilities to Russian territory, capturing Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. But the attempt of the Swedes to take Oreshek (now Petrokrepost) in September - October 1582 ended in failure. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the governors of Rostov, Sudakov and Khvostov. Delagardie tried to take Nut on the move, but the defenders of the fortress fought off the attack. Despite the setback, the Swedes did not retreat. On October 8, 1582, in a strong storm, they launched a decisive assault on the fortress. They managed to break the fortress wall in one place and break inside. But they were stopped by a bold counterattack by the garrison units. The autumn flood of the Neva and its strong excitement that day did not allow Delagardie to send reinforcements to the units that broke into the fortress in time. As a result, they were killed by the defenders of Nut and thrown into a stormy river.

Plyussky truce (concluded on the Plyussa River in August 1583). At that time, Russian cavalry regiments under the command of governor Shuisky were already hurrying from Novgorod to help the besieged. Having learned about the movement of fresh forces to Nut, Delagardie lifted the siege of the fortress and left the Russian possessions. In 1583, the Russians concluded the Truce of Plus with Sweden. The Swedes had not only Estonian lands, but also captured Russian cities: Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korela with districts.

Thus ended the 25-year Livonian War. Its completion did not bring peace to the Baltics, which henceforth for a long time became the object of fierce rivalry between Poland and Sweden. This struggle seriously distracted both powers from affairs in the east. As for Russia, its interest in entering the Baltic has not disappeared. Moscow saved up strength and waited in the wings until Peter the Great completed the work begun by Ivan the Terrible.