DURER (Durer) Albrecht (1471, Nuremberg - 1528, ibid.), German painter and graphic artist. The founder of the art of the German Renaissance. In tense-expressive forms, fantastic images embodied the expectation of world-historical changes (a series of engravings "Apocalypse", 1498), expressed humanistic ideas about the meaning of being and the tasks of art (the so-called master engravings, 1513-14). He created full of strength and energy images of a man of the Reformation era ("Portrait of a Young Man", 1521, diptych "Four Apostles", 1526), ​​people from the people (engraving "Three Peasants"). Known as a subtle, observant draftsman (over 900 drawings). Art theorist ("Four books on the proportions of man", 1528).

Biography

The son of a silversmith, a native of Hungary. He studied first with his father, then with the Nuremberg painter and engraver Michael Wolgemuth (1486-90). Mandatory for obtaining the title of master "years of wandering" (1490-94) spent in the cities of the Upper Rhine (Basel, Colmar, Strasbourg), where he entered the circle of humanists and book printers. In Colmar, not catching M. Schongauer alive, from whom he intended to improve in the technique of engraving on metal, he studied his work, communicating with his sons, also artists. Returning to Nuremberg in 1494, he married Agnes Frey and opened his own workshop. Soon he set off on a new journey, this time to northern Italy (1494-95; Venice and Padua). In 1505-07 he was again in Venice. Having met Emperor Maximilian I in 1512, apparently at the same time he began to work for him (until his death in 1519). In 1520-21 he visited the Netherlands (Antwerp, Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, Malin and other cities). Worked in Nuremberg.

Creation. Durer and Italy

Durer's creative path coincided with the culmination of the German Renaissance, the complex, largely disharmonious nature of which left an imprint on all of his art. It accumulates the richness and originality of German artistic traditions, constantly manifested in the appearance of Dürer's characters, far from the classical ideal of beauty, in preference for sharp character, in attention to individual details. At the same time, contact with Italian art was of great importance for Dürer, the secret of harmony and perfection of which he tried to comprehend. He is the only master of the Northern Renaissance who, in the direction and versatility of his interests, the desire to master the laws of art, the development of perfect proportions of the human figure and the rules of perspective construction, can be compared with the greatest masters of the Italian Renaissance.

Drawings

Dürer was equally gifted as a painter, engraver and draftsman; drawing and engraving occupy a large, sometimes even leading place in him. The heritage of Dürer as a draftsman, numbering more than 900 sheets, can only be compared with the heritage in terms of vastness and diversity. Drawing was, apparently, a part of the everyday life of the master. He brilliantly mastered all the graphic techniques then known - from a silver pin and a reed pen to an Italian pencil, charcoal, and watercolor. As for the masters of Italy, the drawing became for him the most important stage in the work on the composition, which includes sketches, studies of heads, arms, legs, draperies. This is a tool for studying characteristic types - peasants, elegant gentlemen, Nuremberg fashionistas. His famous watercolors "A Piece of Sod" and "The Hare" (Albertina, Vienna) are made with such intentness and cold detachment that they could illustrate scientific codes.

creative maturity. Painting 1494-1514

Dürer's first significant work is a series of landscapes (watercolor with gouache, 1494-95) made during a trip to Italy. These thoughtful, carefully balanced compositions with smoothly alternating spatial plans- the first "pure" landscapes in history European art. An even, clear mood, the desire for a harmonious balance of forms and rhythms determine the nature of Dürer's paintings of the late 15th century. - the beginning of the 2nd decade of the 16th century; such are the small altarpiece "Nativity" ("Paumgartner Altarpiece", c. 1498, Alte Pinakothek, Munich), "The Adoration of the Magi" (c. 1504, Uffizi), where Dürer combines a group consisting of the Madonna and the three Magi with a calm circular rhythm, smooth silhouettes, emphasized by the arch motif, repeated many times in the architectural scenery.

One of the main themes of Dürer's work in the 1500s. the search for ideal proportions human body, the secrets of which he is looking for, drawing nude male and female figures (Dürer was the first in Germany to turn to the study of the nude), summing them up in the copper engraving "Adam and Eve" (1504) and the large pictorial diptych of the same name (c. 1507, Prado) .

By the years creative maturity Durer includes his most complex, harmoniously ordered multi-figured pictorial compositions - made for one of the Venetian churches "The Feast of the Rosary" (1506, National Gallery, Prague) and "Adoration of the Holy Trinity" (1511, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). "The Feast of the Rosary" (more precisely, the "Feast of the Rose Wreaths") is one of the largest (161.5x192 cm) and the most major in tone of Dürer's paintings; it is closest to Italian art not only in motives, but also in vitality, the fullness of images (mostly portraits), the full sound of colors, the breadth of writing, and the balance of the composition. In the small altar painting "The Adoration of the Holy Trinity", a host of saints, Church fathers, angels soaring in heaven are united, as in "Disputation", by rhythmic semicircles, echoing the arched completion of the altar.

Portraits and self-portraits

The portrait occupies the most important place in Dürer's pictorial heritage. Already in the early portrait of Oswald Krehl (c. 1499, Alte Pinakothek, Munich), Dürer appears as an established master, brilliantly conveying the originality of the character, the internal energy of the model. Durer's uniqueness lies in the fact that a self-portrait occupies a leading place among his early portraits. The craving for self-knowledge, which led the hand of a 13-year-old boy ("Self-portrait", 1484, drawing with a silver pin, Albertina, Vienna) receives further development in the first three pictorial self-portraits (1493, Louvre; 1498, Prado; 1500, Alte Pinakothek, Munich), and in the last of them the master is depicted strictly in front, and his correct face, framed long hair and a small beard, reminiscent of the images of Christ the Pantocrator.

The content of the formidable raging era, its ideological achievements are deeply reflected in the work of Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), the great thinker of Germany. Dürer generalized the realistic searches of his predecessors and contemporaries into an integral system of artistic views and thus laid the foundation for a new stage in the development German art. The inquisitiveness of the mind, the versatility of interests, striving for the new, the courage of big undertakings, the intensity and breadth of perception of life put him next to the great Italians - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo. Attraction to the ideal harmonious beauty of the world, the desire to find a way to the knowledge of the rational laws of nature permeate his work.

Excitedly perceiving the turbulent events of our time, Dürer was aware of its inconsistency with classical ideals and created deeply national typical images of the people of his country, full of inner strength and doubt, strong-willed energy and thought. Observing reality, Dürer became convinced that living nature cannot fit into classical formulas. Dürer's work strikes with contrasts. It combines rationality and feeling, craving for the monumental and attachment to details. Living on the verge of two eras, Dürer reflected in his art the tragedy of social crises that ended in the defeat of the peasant war.

Dürer was born in Nuremberg. FROM early years in the workshop of his father, a goldsmith, then with the artist Wolgemut and during the years of wandering around the German lands, Dürer absorbed the heritage of German art of the 15th century, but nature became his main teacher. For Dürer, as for Leonardo, art was a form of knowledge. Hence his extraordinary interest in nature, in everything that the artist encountered during his travels. Dürer was the first in Germany to draw a naked body from nature. He created landscape watercolors, depicted animals, draperies, flowers, etc. His impeccably accurate drawings are imbued with a touching and loving attitude to details. Durer studied mathematics, perspective, anatomy, was interested in natural science and the humanities. Twice Dürer traveled to Italy and created a number of scientific treatises (Guide to Measurement, 1525; Four Books on Human Proportions, 1528).

The artist's innovative aspirations manifested themselves during his travels to southern Germany, Switzerland and Venice. Upon returning to Nuremberg, where Dürer founded his workshop, his many-sided activities unfolded. He painted portraits, laid the foundations of the German landscape, transformed traditional biblical and gospel stories, putting new life content into them. Special attention the artist was attracted by engraving: first woodcut, and then engraving on copper. Dürer expanded the subject of graphics, attracting literary and everyday subjects. Images of peasants, townspeople, burghers, knights, etc. appeared in his engravings. The highest creative achievement of these years is a series of woodcuts of sixteen sheets on the theme of the Apocalypse (1498), popular among the German masses of that time. This series of Dürer intertwined medieval religious beliefs with disturbing moods caused by social events of our time. The terrible scenes of death and punishment described in the Apocalypse acquired topical meaning in pre-revolutionary Germany. Dürer introduced many subtle observations of nature and life into engravings: architecture, costumes, types, landscapes of modern Germany. The breadth of the world, its pathetic perception, the tension of forms and movements, characteristic of Dürer's engravings, were not known to the German art of the 15th century; at the same time, the restless spirit of late German Gothic lives in most of Dürer's sheets. The complexity and complexity of the compositions, the stormy ornamentation of the lines, the dynamism of the rhythms seem to be in tune with the mystical exaltation of the visions of the Apocalypse.

Terrible pathos emanates from the sheet "Four Horsemen". In terms of the all-destroying force of impulse and gloomy expression, this composition has no equal in the German art of that time. Death, judgment, war and pestilence rush furiously over the earth, destroying everything in its path. Sharp gestures, movements, gloomy faces are filled with rage and anger. All nature is in turmoil. Clouds, draperies of clothes, manes of horses flutter violently, tremble, forming a complex rhythmic pattern of calligraphic lines. People are horrified different ages and estates.

In the sheet “The Battle of the Archangel Michael with the Dragon”, the pathos of a fierce battle is emphasized by the contrasts of light and shadow, the restless intermittent rhythm of the lines. In the heroic image of a young man with an inspired and determined face, in a landscape illuminated by the sun with its boundless expanses, faith in the victory of a bright beginning is expressed. Using the xylography technique familiar to those times, Dürer enhanced its expressiveness by introducing some techniques of engraving on copper. The previously dominant sharp contour of the drawing, weakly filled with parallel hatching, he replaced with a more flexible drawing, filled with either a thickening or thinning line, introduced strokes that fit the shape, applied cross lines that gave deep shadows.

In 1500, a turning point occurred in the work of Dürer. The pathos and drama of the early works were replaced by balance and harmony. The role of a calm narrative, imbued with lyrical experiences, has increased (the cycle "The Life of Mary"). The artist studied proportions, worked on the problem of depicting a naked body. In the engraving on copper "Adam and Eve" (1504), Dürer sought to embody the classical ideal of beauty. The volume of the rounded, almost sculptural form is emphasized by rounded strokes, as it were, sliding across the surface across the structure of the form. The picturesquely interpreted forest landscape organically includes figures of people and animals embodying various symbols.

The same search is also distinguished by the picturesque Self-Portrait (1500, Munich, Alte Pinakothek), where Dürer transforms his image through the prism of the classical ideal, applies the principles of classical composition. At the same time, he is looking for here an expression of deep moral perfection - the traits of a preacher who calls for self-knowledge. The free composition of early self-portraits was replaced by frontal, static, strictly measured proportions, bright colors - muted brownish color. Individual traits are somewhat idealized. But the intense look, the waves of restlessly writhing hair, the nervous gesture of the hand reveal the anxiety of the mood. The Renaissance clarity of ideas about the people of this era coexisted with an excited perception of the world. Acquainted during the second trip to Venice (1506-1507) with the picturesque culture of the Venetians, Durer developed a sense of color, turned to solving the problem of light. With "the highest diligence" he worked in technology oil painting, applying five or six, and sometimes eight pads on the underpainting, executed in grisaille.

In the two-meter altar composition "The Feast of the Rosary" (1506, Prague, National Gallery), Dürer decided on a religious theme, in essence, as a group portrait of numerous donors of various classes, depicted against the backdrop of a sunny mountain landscape near the throne of Mary. The harmonious balance of the whole, the strict pyramid of figures in the central part bring the composition closer to the works of the High Renaissance. The artist achieved an unusual softness of his pictorial manner, a richness of nuances of color, an impression of the airiness of the environment. In "Portrait of a Woman" (1506, Berlin, State museums) Durer showed mastery of the art of reproducing the subtlest transitions of light and shade, bringing him closer to the painting of Giorgione. The image attracts with sincerity and richness of psychological shades.

Study of works Italian masters led Dürer to overcome the remnants of late Gothic art, but from the ideal classical images, he again turned to highly individual, full of drama. Three master engravings on copper appeared - "Knight, Death and the Devil" (1513), "Saint Jerome" (1514), "Melancholy" (1514), which mark the pinnacle of his work. In traditional plots full of symbols and allusions, Dürer generalized the idea of ​​the humanists of that time about the various aspects of human spiritual activity. The engraving "Saint Jerome" reveals the ideal of a humanist who devoted himself to the comprehension of higher truths. In solving the theme, in everyday interpretation of the scientist's image, the leading role is played by the interior, transformed by the artist into an emotional poetic environment. The figure of Jerome immersed in translations sacred books, - the focus of compositional lines, subordinating many everyday details of the interior, protecting the scientist from the unrest and bustle of the world. Jerome's cell is not a gloomy ascetic refuge, but a modest room modern home. The everyday intimate democratic interpretation of the image of Jerome is given outside the official church interpretation, perhaps under the influence of the teachings of the reformers. The rays of the sun bursting through the window fill the room with a quivering movement. The elusive play of light and shadow gives life to space, organically connects the forms of objects with it, inspires the environment, creates the impression of comfort. The stable horizontal lines of the composition emphasize the mood of peace.

The engraving "Knight, Death and the Devil" reveals the world of acutely conflicting relations between man and environment, his understanding of duty and morality. The path of the armored rider is fraught with danger. From the gloomy thicket of the forest, ghosts jump across him - the devil with a halberd and death with an hourglass, reminding him of the transience of everything earthly, of the dangers and temptations of life. Paying no attention to them, the rider resolutely follows the chosen path. In its stern appearance - the tension of the will, illuminated by the light of reason, the moral beauty of a person who is faithful to duty, courageously confronting danger.

The idea of ​​"Melancholia" has not yet been revealed, but the image of a powerful winged woman impresses with its significance and psychological depth. Woven from many semantic shades, the most complex symbols and hints, it awakens disturbing thoughts, associations, experiences.

Melancholy is the embodiment of a higher being, a genius endowed with intellect, owning all the achievements of human thought of that time, striving to penetrate the secrets of the universe, but obsessed with doubts, anxiety, disappointment and longing that accompany creative searches. Among the numerous objects of the scientist's office and the carpenter's workshop, the winged Melancholy remains inactive. A gloomy cold sky illuminated by the phosphorescent light of a comet and a rainbow flying over the bay bat- a harbinger of twilight and loneliness - enhance the tragedy of the image. But behind the deep thoughtfulness of Melancholia lies an intense creative thought, boldly penetrating the secrets of nature. The expression of the boundless power of the human spirit brings the image of Melancholia closer to the dramatic images of the ceiling Sistine Chapel, Medici Tombs. "Melancholia" belongs to the number of works that "threw the whole world in amazement" (Vasari).
Dürer's artistic language in copper engravings is subtle and varied. Durer used parallel and cross strokes, dotted lines. Thanks to the introduction of the drypoint technique (engraving "Saint Jerome"), he achieved amazing transparency of shadows, richness of halftone variations and a feeling of vibrating light. By 1515-1518, Durer's experiments in a new, then only emerging etching technique, belong.

A large place in the work of Dürer belongs to portraits, executed in drawing, engraving and painting. The artist emphasized the most essential characteristic features of the model. In the “Portrait of a Mother” (1514, Berlin, State Museums, Engraving Cabinet), executed in charcoal, in an asymmetrical senile face with emaciated features, traces of life's hardships and destruction are imprinted in the eyes. Tense curly expressive lines exacerbate the bright expressiveness of the image. Sketchy, in some places thick and black, in some places a light stroke gives the drawing a dynamic look.

In the 20s of the 16th century, the trends of the formidable and courageous era of the peasant wars and the Reformation became more noticeable in the art of Dürer. In his portraits were people of a mighty spirit, rebellious, aspiring to the future. In their posture - the tension of the cry, in their faces - the excitement of feelings and thoughts. Such are the strong-willed, full of high spiritual impulses and anxiety, Bernhard von Resten (1521, Dresden, Picture gallery), energetic Holtzschuer (1526, Berlin-Dahlem, Art Gallery), "Unknown Man in a Black Beret" (1524, Madrid, Prado) with the seal of indomitable passions in imperious lines. Durer's creative search was completed by The Four Apostles (1526, Munich, Alte Pinakothek). The images of the apostles: strong-willed, courageous, but gloomy, with an angry look of Paul, phlegmatic, slow Peter, philosophically contemplative, with a spiritualized face of John and excitedly active Mark are highly individual, full of inner burning. At the same time, they embody the features of the advanced people of the era of the German Peasants' War, which "prophetically indicated the coming class battles." These are civic images of champions of truth. Sonorous color contrasts of clothes - light green, bright red, light blue, white - enhance the expression of images. Closing the mighty, life-size figures, calmly standing within the narrow two-meter doors, the artist achieves spiritual tension, an expression of restrained grandeur. This later work of Dürer surpasses in monumentality everything he had previously done in painting.

Dürer's work determined the leading trend in the art of the German Renaissance. His influence on contemporary artists was great; it penetrated even into Italy, into France. Simultaneously with Dürer and after him, a galaxy of major artists appeared. Among them were Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), who subtly feels the harmony of nature and man, and Matthias Gotthardt Neithardt, endowed with great power of imagination, known as Mattpas Grunewald (1475–1528), associated with mystical folk teachings and the Gothic tradition. Dürer's work is imbued with the spirit of rebellion, desperate frenzy or jubilation, high intensity of feelings and painful expression of flashing, then fading, then fading, then flaming color and light.

The future father of the artist came to Germany from the small Hungarian village of Eytas in 1455. He decided to settle in the progressive, business and wealthy city of Germany at that time - Nuremberg, which was part of Bavaria.

View of Nuremberg. Schedel's World Chronicle, 1493

In 1467, when he was already about 40 years old, he married the young daughter of the goldsmith Jerome Holper. At that time, Barbara was only 15.

Portraits of the father - Albrecht Durer the Elder, 1490 and 1497.

Their brilliant son was born in Nuremberg on May 21, 1471 and was the third child in the family. In total, Barbara Dürer gave birth to 18 children during her marriage. Albrecht was lucky - he was one of those three boys who survived to adulthood. He did not have his own children at all, like his two brothers Endres and Hans.

The father of the future artist worked as a jewelry master. His name was also Albrecht Dürer (1427–1502). Mother was engaged in housework, diligently attended church, gave birth a lot and was often sick. Some time after the death of her father, Barbara Dürer moved to live with Albrecht the Younger. She helped in the implementation of the work of her son. She died in his house on May 17, 1514 at the age of 63. Durer respectfully spoke of his parents as great workers and pious people.

Portraits of the mother - Barbara Dürer (nee Holper), 1490 and 1514.

The creative and life path of Albrecht Dürer

Albrecht Dürer is the largest painter and unsurpassed engraver not only in Germany, but also in all Western European art of the Renaissance in Northern Europe. He possessed a unique technique of carved copper engraving.

What was the path that led Dürer to such high recognition?

The father wanted his son to continue his business and become a jeweler. From the age of eleven, Dürer the Younger studied in his father's workshop, but the boy was attracted to painting. At the age of thirteen, he created his first self-portrait with a silver pencil. The technique of working with such a pencil is very difficult. The lines drawn by him cannot be corrected. Dürer was proud of this work and later wrote: “I painted myself in a mirror in 1484, when I was still a child. Albrecht Durer. Moreover, he made the inscription in a mirror image.

Self-portrait of Albrecht Dürer, 1484

Dürer the Elder had to yield to the interests of his son. At the age of fifteen, the young man, under an agreement between his father and the hereditary Nuremberg artist Mikael Wolgemut, entered his studio to study. With Wolgemuth, he studied both painting and wood engraving, helping to create stained glass windows and altarpieces. Upon graduation, Dürer went on a journey as an apprentice to get acquainted with the experience of masters from other regions, improve his skills and broaden his horizons. The trip lasted from 1490 to 1494 - in his so-called "wonderful years" of his formative years. young artist. During this time he visited such cities as Strasbourg, Colmar and Basel.

He is looking for his own art style. From the mid-1490s, Albrecht Dürer designated his work with the initials "AD".

He perfected the technique of engraving on copper in Colmar with three brothers. famous master Martin Schongauer. He himself was no longer alive. Then Dürer moved to the fourth brother of Schongauer in Basel - one of the then centers of book printing.

In 1493, during his student journey, Dürer the Younger created another self-portrait, this time painted in oil, and sent it to Nuremberg. He depicted himself with a thistle in his hand. According to one version, this plant symbolized fidelity to Christ, according to another, male fidelity. Perhaps with this portrait he presented himself to his future wife and made it clear that he would be a faithful husband. Some art historians believe that this portrait was a gift to the bride.

Self-portrait with a thistle, 1493. Dürer is 22 years old.

After that, Albrecht returned to Nuremberg to marry. The father arranged a marriage with the daughter of a wealthy local merchant. On July 7, 1494, the wedding of Albrecht Dürer and Agnes Frey took place.

Portrait of Dürer's wife, My Agnes, 1494

Some time after the conclusion of the marriage, another trip followed a longer route. This time through the Alps to Venice and Padua. There he gets acquainted with the work of outstanding Italian artists. Makes copies of engravings by Andrea Mantegna and Antonio Pollaiolo. Also, Albrecht is impressed that in Italy, artists are no longer considered simple artisans, but have a higher status in society.

In 1495 Dürer sets out on his return journey. Along the way, he paints landscapes in watercolor.

Having returned home from Italy, he can finally afford to have his own workshop.

For the next few years, his painting style reflects the influence of Italian painters. In 1504, he painted the canvas "The Adoration of the Magi". This painting is today considered one of the most outstanding paintings of Albrecht Dürer from the period 1494-1505.

From 1505 until the middle of 1507 he once again visited Italy. Visited Bologna, Rome and Venice.

In 1509, Albrecht Dürer acquires a large house in Nuremberg and spends almost twenty years of his life there.

In July 1520, the artist travels to the Netherlands, taking his wife Agnes with him. He visits the ancient centers of Dutch painting - Bruges, Brussels, Ghent. Everywhere he makes architectural sketches, as well as sketches of people and animals. Meets with other artists, gets acquainted with the greatest scientist Erasmus of Rotterdam. Dürer has long been famous and is received everywhere with respect and honors.

In Aachen, he witnesses the coronation of Emperor Charles V. Later he meets with him to extend the privileges previously received from the previous emperor Maximilian I, whose orders he carried out.

Unfortunately, during a trip to the Netherlands, Dürer catches a "wonderful disease", presumably malaria. He is tormented by seizures and one day he sends the doctor a drawing with his image, where he points to a painful place with his finger. The figure is accompanied by an explanation.

Engravings by Albrecht Dürer

Among his contemporaries, Albrecht Dürer makes a name for himself primarily in the creation of engravings. His virtuoso works are distinguished big size, fine and precise pattern, grasping of characters, complex composition. Durer perfectly mastered the technique of engraving both on wood and on copper. From beginning to end, the master performs all the work on creating engravings himself, incl. carving with unprecedented detail and fine lines. In doing so, he uses tools made according to his own drawings. Makes numerous prints, circulations of which are widely distributed throughout Europe. So he became a publisher of his works. His engravings were widely known, very popular and sold well. Significantly strengthened his prestige a series of engravings "Apocalypse" in 1498 edition.

Dürer's masterpieces are recognized as "Master Engravings": in 1513 he cut out an engraving on copper "Knight, Death and the Devil", and in 1514 two whole ones: "St. Jerome in the Cell" and "Melancholy".

Perhaps the most famous image of a rhinoceros is the so-called "Dürer's Rhino", created in 1515. He himself did not see this strange animal for Germany. The artist imagined his appearance from descriptions and other people's drawings.

"Dürer's Rhinoceros", 1515

Albrecht Dürer's magic square

In 1514, as mentioned above, the master created the engraving "Melancholia" - one of his most mysterious works. The image is filled with mass symbolic details still leaving room for interpretation.

In the upper right corner, Dürer cut out a square with numbers. Its peculiarity is that if you add numbers in any direction, then the resulting amounts will always be equal to the 34th. The same figure is obtained by counting the numbers in each of the four quarters; in the middle quadrangle and when adding numbers from the cells in the corners of the large square. And in the two central cells of the bottom row, the artist entered the year the engraving was created - 1514.

Engraving "Melancholia" and Dürer's magic square,1514

Drawings and watercolors by Dürer

In one of his early landscape watercolors, Dürer depicted a mill and a drawing workshop on the banks of the Pegnitz River, in which copper wire was made. Across the river are villages in the vicinity of Nuremberg, mountains are blue in the distance.

Drawhouse on the River Pegnitz, 1498

One of the most famous drawings, "The Young Hare", was drawn in 1502. The artist indicated the date of its creation and put his initials "AD" right below the image of the animal.

In 1508, he painted white on blue paper with his own hands folded in prayer. This image is still the most frequently replicated and even translated into a sculptural version.

Hands in supplication, 1508

According to experts, more than 900 drawings by Albrecht Dürer have been preserved to this day.

Durer, proportions and nudity

Durer is fascinated by the desire to find the ideal proportions of the human figure. He carefully examines the naked bodies of people. In 1504 he creates an outstanding copper engraving "Adam and Eve". For the image of Adam, the artist takes as a model the pose and proportions of the marble statue of Apollo Belvedere. This ancient statue was found at the end of the 15th century in Rome. The idealization of proportions distinguishes Dürer's work from the then accepted medieval canons. In the future, he still preferred to depict real forms in their diversity.

In 1507 he wrote a picturesque diptych on the same subject.

He became the first German artist to depict naked people. A portrait of Dürer is kept in the Weimar Castle, in which he depicted himself as frankly as completely naked as possible.

Self-portrait of a naked Dürer, 1509

self-portraits

Albrecht Dürer painted self-portraits from boyhood to old age. Each of them has its own zest, and often innovation. Self-portrait that shocked contemporary artist public, written in 1500. On it, the 28-year-old Albrecht appears in a daring manner, because he resembles the image of Christ himself.

Self-portrait, 1500. Dürer is 28 years old.

In addition, the portrait is written in full face. At that time, such a pose was used to write images of saints, and secular portraits in Northern Europe were created in a three-quarter turn of the model. Also in this portrait, the artist's ongoing search for ideal proportions can be traced.

The death of Albrecht Dürer and his memory

The artist died in his Nuremberg home on April 6, 1528, a month and a half before his 57th birthday. His departure was a huge loss not only for Germany, Albrecht Dürer was mourned by all the great minds of Europe at that time.

He was buried in the Nuremberg cemetery of St. John. A friend of his life, the German humanist Willibald Pirkheimer wrote for the tombstone: "Under this hill lies what was mortal in Albrecht Dürer."

Gravestone of Albrecht Dürer

Since 1828, the Albrecht-Dürer-Haus Museum has been operating in the Dürer House.

In his hometown, on Albrecht Dürer Platz, a monument to the great countryman was erected.

In the reliquary of the Vienna Academy of Arts is a strand of Dürer's hair.

The era of Albrecht Dürer

Albrecht Dürer is an outstanding German artist of extraordinary talent, graphic artist, engraver, draftsman, humanist, scientist and art theorist. His versatile creative thought covers a wide field of research: he studied architecture, mathematics, mechanics, sculpture, music, literature, studied the construction and construction of defensive fortifications.

In their last years this outstanding creator wrote more about art than he created new works. His last oil painting is The Four Apostles (or The Four Saints). It was completed in 1526 and presented by Dürer as a gift to the City Council of Nuremberg.

Albrecht continues to accumulate experience while traveling around Europe. In Colmar, he makes a close acquaintance with the sons of Martin Schongauer, whose work Albrecht Dürer constantly admired. A wide range of ideas and interests allowed Dürer to occupy his own niche among book printers and humanists. The volume of artistic heritage left by him is estimated at 900 sheets of images, which is comparable to the work of Rembrandt and Leonardo da Vinci.

Dürer's career

The very first serious order of the master was the painting of the house of Sebald Schreyer. It was so successful that it attracted the attention of the wealthy patricians of Nuremberg, each of whom sought to commission a portrait from Dürer. In imitation of the European tradition, all his models were depicted against the backdrop of a landscape in a three-quarter spread. The main working materials were watercolor, silver point and pencil.

Having opened his own painting workshop in his homeland, the artist begins to assign engravings a special place in his craft. Experimenting with various techniques the master ensured that in 1498 he received an order from the famous edition of the Apocalypse. The woodcuts made made the author widely known throughout Europe. The Venetian Council, wishing to leave the creator in Italy, offered him a very large reward, but loyalty to the homeland turned out to be stronger.

The decisive factor for the creative genius was the meeting with the crowned lady Maximillian I. The latter, for the excellent work on the portrait, appointed the artist an impressive award, which allowed Dürer to completely immerse himself in engraving and scientific research. The fine art of Northern Europe in the 16th century is inconceivable without artwork, which is distinguished by the recognizable writing style of this German artist.

Personal life

Being an opponent of the institution of marriage, Albrecht Dürer eventually marries. In fact, this happens at the insistence of the father. Wife Agnes Frey has always been cold to art and did not understand the creative nature of her husband. Throughout life together, in which there was no place for offspring, the couple remained emotionless in relation to each other.

Albrecht Dürer (German Albrecht Dürer, May 21, 1471, Nuremberg - April 6, 1528, Nuremberg) - German painter and graphic artist, one of the greatest masters Western European Renaissance. Recognized as the largest European master of woodcuts, who raised it to the level of real art. The first art theorist among Northern European artists, the author of a practical guide to fine and decorative arts on German, who advocated the need for the diversified development of artists. Founder of comparative anthropometry. The first European artist to write an autobiography.

Biography of Albrecht Dürer

The future artist was born on May 21, 1471 in Nuremberg, in the family of the jeweler Albrecht Dürer, who arrived in this German city from Hungary in the middle of the 15th century, and Barbara Holper. The Dürers had eighteen children, some, as Dürer the Younger himself wrote, died "in their youth, others when they grew up." In 1524, only three of the Durer children were alive - Albrecht, Hans and Endres.

The future artist was the third child and the second son in the family. His father, Albrecht Dürer the Elder, literally translated his Hungarian surname Aytosi (Hungarian Ajtósi, from the name of the village of Aytosh, from the word ajtó - “door.”) into German as Türer; subsequently it was transformed under the influence of the Frankish pronunciation and began to be written Dürer. Albrecht Dürer the Younger remembered his mother as a pious woman who lived a difficult life. Possibly weakened. frequent pregnancies She was in a lot of pain. Dürer's godfather was the famous German publisher Anton Koberger.

For some time, the Dürers rented half of the house (next to the city's central market) from the lawyer and diplomat Johann Pirckheimer. Hence the close acquaintance of two families belonging to different urban classes: the Pirckheimer patricians and the Durer artisans. With the son of Johann, Willibald, one of the most enlightened people in Germany, Dürer the Younger was friends all his life. Thanks to him, the artist later entered the circle of Nuremberg humanists, whose leader was Pirkheimer, and became his own person there.

From 1477 Albrecht attended a Latin school. At first, the father attracted his son to work in a jewelry workshop. However, Albrecht wished to paint. The elder Dürer, despite regretting the time spent on teaching his son, yielded to his requests, and at the age of 15 Albrecht was sent to the studio of the leading Nuremberg artist of that time, Michael Wolgemuth. Dürer himself spoke about this in the “Family Chronicle”, created by him at the end of his life, one of the first autobiographies in the history of Western European art.

Wolgemut Dürer mastered not only painting, but also engraving on wood. Wolgemuth, together with his stepson Wilhelm Pleidenwurff, made engravings for Hartmann Schedel's Book of Chronicles. In the work on the most illustrated book of the 15th century, which experts consider the Book of Chronicles, Wolgemut was helped by his students. One of the engravings for this edition, "Dance of Death", is attributed to Albrecht Dürer.

Creativity Altdorfer

Painting

Albrecht, who had dreamed of painting since childhood, insisted that his father send him to study as an artist. After his first trip to Italy, he still did not fully accept the achievements of the Italian masters, but in his works one can already feel an artist who thinks outside the box, always ready to search. The title of master (and with it the right to open his own workshop) Dürer received, probably, having completed the paintings in the "Greek manner" in the house of the Nuremberg citizen Sebald Schreyer. The young artist was noticed by Frederick the Wise, who instructed him, among other things, to paint his portrait. Following the elector of Saxony, the Nuremberg patricians also wished to have their own images - at the turn of the century, Dürer worked a lot in the portrait genre. Here, Dürer continued the tradition that had developed in the painting of Northern Europe: the model is presented in a three-quarter spread against the backdrop of a landscape, all details are depicted very carefully and realistically.

After the publication of the Apocalypse, Dürer became famous in Europe as a master of engraving, and only during his second stay in Italy received recognition as a painter abroad. In 1505 Jacob Wimpfeling in his " German history"Wrote that Durer's paintings are valued in Italy "... as highly as the paintings of Parrasius and Apelles." The works completed after a trip to Venice demonstrate Dürer's success in solving the problems of depicting the human body, including the nude, complex angles, and characters in motion. The Gothic angularity characteristic of his early works disappears. The artist relied on the execution of ambitious pictorial projects, taking orders for multi-figured altarpieces. The works of 1507-1511 are distinguished by a balanced composition, strict symmetry, “some rationality”, and a dry manner of depiction. Unlike his Venetian works, Dürer did not seek to convey the effects of the light-air environment, he worked with local colors, possibly yielding to the conservative tastes of his customers. Received by Emperor Maximilian into the service, he received some material independence and, leaving painting for a while, turned to scientific research and engraving work.

self-portraits

The name of Dürer is associated with the formation of the North European self-portrait as independent genre. One of the best portrait painters of his time, he highly valued painting for the fact that it allowed the image of a particular person to be preserved for future generations. Biographers note that, having an attractive appearance, Dürer especially liked to portray himself in his youth and reproduced his appearance not without "a vain desire to please the viewer." A picturesque self-portrait for Durer is a means to emphasize his status and a milestone marking a certain stage in his life. Here he appears as a person who, in terms of intellectual and spiritual development, stands above the level that was determined by his class position, which was uncharacteristic for self-portraits of artists of that era. In addition, he once again affirmed the high importance of fine arts (unfairly, as he believed, excluded from the "seven free arts") at a time when in Germany it was still considered a craft.

Drawings

About a thousand (Julia Bartrum says about 970) of Durer's drawings have survived: landscapes, portraits, sketches of people, animals and plants. Evidence of how carefully the artist treated the drawing is the fact that even his student works have survived. Durer's graphic heritage, one of the largest in the history of European art, is on a par with the graphics of da Vinci and Rembrandt in terms of volume and significance. Free from the arbitrariness of the customer and his desire for the absolute, which introduced a share of coldness into his paintings, the artist most fully revealed himself as a creator precisely in the drawing.

Dürer tirelessly exercised in layout, generalization of particulars, construction of space. His animalistic and botanical drawings are distinguished by high craftsmanship, observation, fidelity in the transfer of natural forms, characteristic of a natural scientist. Most of them are carefully worked out and are finished works, however, according to the custom of the artists of that time, they served as auxiliary material: Dürer used all his studies in engravings and paintings, repeatedly repeating the motifs of graphic works in large works. At the same time, G. Wölfflin noted that Dürer transferred almost nothing from the truly innovative discoveries made by him in landscape watercolors to his paintings.

Durer's graphics are made with different materials, he often used them in combination. He became one of the first German artists to work with white brush on colored paper, popularizing this Italian tradition.

Bibliography

• Bartrum D. Dürer / Per. from English. - M.: Niola-Press, 2010. - 96 p. - (From the collection of the British Museum). - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-366-00421-3.
• Benois A. History of painting of all times and peoples. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House"Neva", 2002. - T. 1. - S. 297-314. - 544 p. - ISBN 5-7654-1889-9.
• Berger J. Durer. - M.: Art-Rodnik, 2008. - 96 p. - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-88896-097-4.
• Albrecht Durer. Engravings / Prev. A. Bore, approx. A. Bore and S. Bon, trans. from fr. A. Zolotova. - M.: Magma LLC, 2008. - 560 p. - 2000 copies. - ISBN 978-593428-054-4.
• Brion M. Durer. - M .: Young Guard, 2006. - (Life of wonderful people).
• Zuffi S. Big atlas of painting. Fine arts 1000 years / Scientific editor S. I. Kozlova. - M.: OLMA-PRESS, 2002. - S. 106-107. - ISBN 5-224-03922-3.
• Durus A. Heretic Albrecht Dürer and three "godless artists" // Art: magazine. - 1937. - No. 1.
• Zarnitsky S. Durer. - M .: Young Guard, 1984. - (Life of wonderful people).
• Nemirovsky E. The world of the book. From ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century / Reviewers A. A. Govorov, E. A. Dinershtein, V. G. Utkov. - M.: Book, 1986. - 50,000 copies.
• Lvov S. Albrecht Durer. - M.: Art, 1984. - (Life in art).
• Liebman M. Durer and his era. - M.: Art, 1972.
• Koroleva A. Durer. - M.: Olma Press, 2007. - 128 p. - (Gallery of geniuses). - ISBN 5-373-00880-X.
• Matvievskaya G. Albrecht Durer - scientist. 1471-1528 / Rev. ed. cand. Phys.-Math. Sciences Yu. A. Bely; Reviewers: acad. Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR V. P. Shcheglov, Dr. Phys.-Math. Sciences B. A.
• Rosenfeld; USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.: Nauka, 1987. - 240, p. - (Scientific and biographical literature). - 34,000 copies. (in trans.)
• Nevezhina V. Nuremberg engravers of the 16th century. - M., 1929.
• Nesselstrauss C. Dürer's Literary Heritage // Dürer A. Treatises. Diaries. Letters / Translated by Nesselshtraus Ts .. - M .: Art, 1957. - T. 1.
• Nesselstrauss Ts. Dürer's drawings. - M.: Art, 1966. - 160 p. - 12,000 copies.
• Nesselstrauss Z. Durer. - M.: Art, 1961.
• Norbert W. Durer. - M.: Art-Rodnik, 2008. - 96 p. - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-9794-0107-2.
• Sidorov A. Durer. - Izogiz, 1937.
• Chernienko I. Germany at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries: the era and its vision in the work of Albrecht Durer: abstract of the dissertation for the degree of candidate of historical sciences: 07.00.03. - Perm, 2004.

A. Durer (1471-1528) - a great German artist, and in the last years of his life and an art theorist. His biography and work are closely connected with the Renaissance. The works of Albrecht Dürer still attract many connoisseurs of painting today. Do you want to know more about it? The life and work of Albrecht Dürer are presented in this article.

short biography

His father was a native of Hungary, a silversmith. Albrecht studied first with his father and then with Michael Wohlgemuth, a painter and engraver from Nuremberg. 1490-1494 - "years of wandering", mandatory in order to obtain the title of master. Albrecht spent this time in the cities of the Upper Rhine (Strasbourg, Colmar, Basel). Here he entered the circle of printers and humanists. It is known that Dürer wanted to improve in engraving on metal with M. Schauer in Colmar, but did not find him alive. Then Albrecht began to study the work of this master, communicating with his sons, who were also artists.

In 1494 Albrecht Dürer returned to Nuremberg. His biography and work were noted at this time important events. It was then that the marriage to Agnes Frey took place, as well as the opening of her own workshop. After some time, Albrecht decided to make a new journey, this time choosing Northern Italy. He traveled to Padua and Venice in 1494-95. Dürer traveled to Venice in 1505 and stayed there until 1507. Albrecht's acquaintance with I dates back to 1512. Apparently, at the same time, Dürer began to work for him, until the death of Maximilian, which occurred in 1519. It is known that Albrecht also visited the Netherlands. In the period from 1520 to 1521 he visited such cities as Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges, Malin and others.

Creativity Dürer

And whose work coincides with the heyday of the German Renaissance, could not stay away from the trends of his time. It was a difficult, largely disharmonious period. His character left an imprint on all kinds of art. The revival in Albrecht's work accumulates the originality and richness of German artistic traditions. They appear in the guise of Dürer's characters, far from beauty from the point of view of the classical ideal. In addition, the master prefers everything sharp, pays great attention to individual details. Great value for Albrecht it has at the same time contact with the art of Italy. The work of Albrecht Dürer is marked by the fact that he tried to comprehend the secret of his perfection and harmony. Durer is the only representative who, in terms of the versatility and orientation of interests, the desire to comprehend the laws of art, to create the perfect proportions of the human figure, can be put on a par with the great masters of the Italian Renaissance.

Drawings

The work of Albrecht Dürer is diverse. He was gifted as a draftsman, engraver and painter. At the same time, engraving and drawing sometimes even occupy a leading place with him. More than 900 sheets are the legacy of Dürer the draftsman. In terms of diversity and vastness, it can only be compared with the works of Leonardo da Vinci. Apparently drawing was part of Everyday life masters. Dürer perfectly mastered all the graphic techniques of that time - from charcoal, watercolor, to a reed pen and a silver pin. As for the Italian masters, the drawing became for Dürer the most important step in creating a composition. This stage included studies, sketches of heads, legs, arms, draperies.

For Dürer, drawing was a tool with which he studied the characteristic types - Nuremberg fashionistas, smart gentlemen, peasants. The famous works of Albrecht Dürer are the watercolors of the master "Hare" (pictured above) and "Piece of Sod". They are made with a cold detachment and such intentness that they could become illustrations for scientific codes.

Landscape Series

The first significant work of the master is a series of landscapes of 1494-95. These works by Albrecht Dürer were made in watercolor and gouache during his trip to Italy. They are carefully balanced, thoughtful compositions, with spatial plans smoothly alternating with each other. These works by Albrecht Dürer are the first "pure" landscapes in the history of European art.

"Christmas", "Adoration of the Magi", "Adam and Eve"

A clear, even mood, the author's desire for a harmonic balance of rhythms and forms - that's characteristics painting by Dürer from the end of the 15th century to the beginning of the second decade of the 16th century. These are the "Nativity" altarpiece, made around 1498, and the work "Adoration of the Magi" dating back to 1504, in which Dürer unites a group of three magi and the Madonna with smooth silhouettes, a calm circular rhythm, as well as an arch motif that is repeated repeatedly in the architectural scenery. In the 1500s, one of the main themes of Albrecht's work was the desire to find the ideal proportions of the human body. He seeks their secrets by painting nude female and male figures. Note that it was Albrecht who was the first in Germany to study the nude. These searches were summarized in the 1504 engraving "Adam and Eve", as well as in a large pictorial diptych made around 1507 of the same name.

"Adoration of the Holy Trinity" and "Feast of the Rosary"

The most complex works, harmonically ordered pictorial compositions of many figures, were completed already in the years of creative maturity by Albrecht Dürer. Notable works it includes the Feast of the Rosary created in 1506, and in 1511 the Adoration of the Holy Trinity. "The Feast of the Rosary" is one of Dürer's largest works (161.5 x 192 cm). In addition, this is one of the most major intonation paintings. The work is close to the art of the masters of Italy not only in terms of motives, but also in its vitality, the fullness of colors, the fullness of images (mainly portraits), the balance of the composition, and the breadth of writing. In the painting entitled "Adoration of the Holy Trinity", which is a small altar work, rhythmic semicircles, which echo the arched completion of the altar, unite the angels soaring in heaven, the fathers of the Church and the host of saints. This painting is reminiscent of Raphael's Dispute.

early portraits

Without portraits, it is difficult to imagine the work of Albrecht Dürer. His paintings in this genre are numerous and very interesting. Albrecht is already early work, made around 1499 (portrait of Oswald Krehl) appears to be an established master. It perfectly conveys the internal energy of the model, the originality of character. The uniqueness of Albrecht Dürer lies in the fact that the self-portrait occupies a leading place in early period his portrait work. Back in 1484, he created the silver point drawing presented at the beginning of the article. Here Albrecht is depicted as a 13-year-old child. Already at that time, Dürer's hand was guided by a craving for self-knowledge, which was further developed in his first three picturesque self-portraits. We are talking about the works of 1493, 1498 and 1500. AT latest work(her photo is presented above) Albrecht is depicted strictly in front. Framed by a small beard and long hair, his regular face reminds us of images of Christ the Pantocrator.

engravings

The work of Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) is interesting in that he performed engravings equally successfully on both copper and wood. Albrecht turned engraving, following Schongauer, into one of the main forms of art. In the works of Dürer, the restless, restless spirit of his creative nature was expressed, as well as the dramatic moral collisions that worried him. In sharp contrast to the clear and calm early paintings of the master was the first large-scale graphic series, consisting of 15 engravings on the theme of the Apocalypse. These woodworks were created by Albrecht in 1498. Dürer, in his engravings, much more than in paintings, relies on German traditions. They are manifested in the tension of angular, abrupt movements, excessive expression of images, the rhythm of swirling, swift lines and breaking folds. The image of Fortuna from the engraving "Nemesis", dating back to the beginning of the 1500s, has a formidable character. This engraving is one of the the best works Durer.

"Life of Mary", "Great Passions" and "Small Passions"

In the graphic cycle "The Life of Mary", created around 1502-05, the author's interest in genre details is noticeable, as well as an abundance of details - features characteristic of the German artistic tradition. This graphic cycle is the most clear and calm in mood. The other two, dedicated to the passion of Christ, are distinguished by dramatic expression. These are the "Great Passions" made on wood (about 1498-1510), as well as two series of engravings on copper "Small Passions" (the years of creation - 1507-13 and 1509-11). These works by Dürer were best known among his contemporaries.

Triptych 1513-1514

The engraving of 1513 "Knight, Death and the Devil", as well as two works of 1514 ("Jerome in the cell" and "Melancholy") occupy an important place in the legacy of Albrecht. They form a kind of triptych. These works are made by the master with virtuoso subtlety. They are distinguished by a rare figurative concentration and conciseness. Apparently, Dürer did not intend to create them as a single cycle. Nevertheless, these works are united by a moral and philosophical subtext, which is very complex (many works are devoted to its interpretation today). Apparently, the treatise "Guide of the Christian Warrior" by E. Rotterdam inspired the author with the image of a middle-aged stern warrior who is moving towards an unknown goal, despite the Devil following him on his heels, as well as the threats of Death. The warrior is presented against the backdrop of a rocky wild landscape. The work of Albrecht Dürer is not always easily perceived. Summary the aforementioned treatise is important to know to understand the image of a warrior.

St. Jerome (pictured above), who has completely gone into scientific studies, is the personification of a contemplative life and spiritual introspection. The majestic winged Melancholia, immersed in its gloomy reflection, is presented against the backdrop of a chaotic heap of symbols of the fleeting time and sciences, tools of the craft.

It is usually interpreted as the personification of the creative, restless spirit of a person. Note that the humanists of the Renaissance found in people with a melancholy temperament, the "divine obsession" of genius, the embodiment creativity. Therefore, we can say that the work of Albrecht Dürer is also within the framework of the general trend. Let us briefly characterize his later works.

Later works

Dürer worked at the court of Maximilian I after 1514 (above is his portrait by Albrecht). At this time, Albrecht Dürer carried out many official orders. The works he created required great skill, but the most laborious of them was a colored lithograph made on 192 boards. This work is called "Arch of Maximilian I". She worked on its creation, except for Durer, large group artists. After a trip to the Netherlands, made in 1520-21, Albrecht began a new creative upsurge. At this time, a lot of cursory sketches appeared. In addition, Albrecht Dürer's works were replenished with a number of beautiful ones. Their list is as follows: made in 1520 with charcoal, as well as the work of 1521 "Luke of Leiden" (made with a silver pencil), "Agnes Dürer", which was created using a metal pencil, etc.

Portraits from the 1520s

Portrait in the 1520s becomes the main genre in the work of Dürer. At this time, Albrecht Dürer created images in copper engraving of the most prominent humanists of his time. The main works are as follows: in 1526 - a portrait of Philip Melanchthon, in 1524 - by Willibald Pirkheim, in 1526 - Erasmus of Rotterdam. In painting in 1521 appears "Portrait of a Young Man", in 1524 - " male portrait", in 1526 -" Hieronymus Holtschuer "and other works. These small works are distinguished by impeccable composition, classical perfection, and chiselled silhouettes. They are effectively complicated by the outlines of huge velvet berets or wide-brimmed hats. The compositional data center of the work is a close-up face created by subtle transitions of shadows and light. In barely noticeable facial expressions, in the look of wide-open eyes, in the outlines of lips slightly curved in a smile or half-open lips, in the energetic pattern of the cheekbones and the movement of frowning eyebrows, one can see traces of an intense spiritual life. The fortitude discovered by Albrecht in his contemporaries takes on a large scale in the diptych "Four Apostles" (pictured below), the last painting work of the master (1525). It was written by Dürer for the Nuremberg City Hall. Huge figures of the Evangelist Paul, Peter and John are presented, which personify, according to the master's contemporaries, 4 temperaments.

Theoretical works, the meaning of creativity

In the last years of his life, Albrecht published theoretical works: a manual on measuring with a ruler and a compass (in 1525), on strengthening fortresses, castles and cities (1527), and in 1528 the work Four Books on Human Proportions appeared. Albrecht Dürer, whose work and fate we have considered, died in Nuremberg on April 6, 1528.

Dürer strongly influenced the development of all German art in the first half of the 16th century. His engravings were also a huge success in Italy - even their fakes were produced. Many Italian artists have been influenced by his work, including Pordenone and Pontormo.