Geographic map- a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and condition of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

• * By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the ratio between the real size of the object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring tools (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.
• * According to the content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physical-geographic maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.
• * According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of the continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).
• * By purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigational, etc.

Conventional signs are used to depict the situation (rivers, lakes, roads, vegetation, settlements, etc.) on maps and plans. They are divided into three groups: 1) contour, 2) non-scale and 3) explanatory conventional signs.

Contour conventional signs depict local objects on maps and plans, expressed on a map scale, for example, arable land, meadows, forests, vegetable gardens, seas, lakes, etc. The outlines (contours) of such objects are depicted on a large-scale map and on a plan by similar figures. The boundaries of these figures are drawn with a dotted line if they do not coincide with lines that are somehow marked on the ground (roads, hedges, ditches).

The areas inside the contours on the map or plan are filled with established monotonous icons, which are contour symbols.

In non-scale conventional signs are used to depict local objects or points on a map or plan that cannot be expressed on a map scale. These conventional signs are called off-scale because they depict objects without maintaining scale. Off-scale conventional signs depict such objects on a map or plan as roads, bridges, kilometer posts, road signs, wells, geodetic points, etc.

These conventional signs indicate the exact position of the objects they designate, which makes it possible to measure the distances between the latter on the map.

The third group of conventional signs are explanatory conventional signs. These include symbols on the map that give additional characteristics of local items. Explanatory signs are always used in combination with contour and off-scale symbols.

An explanatory symbol is, for example, the inscription 0.3/PK at the ford. It means that the depth of the river at the ford is 0.3 m and that the bottom is sandy and rocky.

Conventional signs, used on Soviet topographic maps, are almost the same for all scales, differing only in size.

A whole world can fit on one sheet of the map, with all the oceans, continents, mountains and plains, countries, cities, minerals, animals and birds. You just need to be able to read the map correctly. In this lesson, we will learn what maps were in antiquity, and what types of maps are now, what are the advantages of a map over a globe, what is a scale, a map legend. We will learn how to use the scale of depths and heights, determine the coordinates of terrestrial objects.

Subject: The planet we live on

People started drawing maps even before they thought about whether the Earth is round or flat. Scientists have discovered in Kamchatka a drawing on a bone depicting a path to a place rich in prey. This is probably one of the oldest maps. Maps were drawn on pieces of bark, cut out on wooden boards, which were convenient to take on the road. Some peoples scratched cards with a sharp object on damp clay tiles, which, after drying, became strong, with a clear image.

This world map, in the center of which the city of Babylon is located, more than 3 thousand years.

Rice. 1. World map of Ancient Babylon ()

Rock paintings of the area were also found in caves where people lived thousands of years ago.

Rice. 2. Rock drawing of the area ()

With the invention of paper, cards began to be drawn on it. All the information received by scientists and travelers during their wanderings in different lands was applied to the maps.

Rice. 3. Ancient map of the world on paper ()

Making a map was a long process, because all the details were drawn by hand, so the cards were very expensive.

For a long period of time, only four were present on the maps: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America. Many years passed before navigators discovered Australia and Antarctica.

When you look for any country on the globe, you see only one hemisphere. And to see something else, the globe must be rotated.

It is impossible to designate a large number of geographical objects on a globe without increasing its size. A globe big size not suitable for travel use.

Scale- this is the ratio of the length of the lines on the map or drawing to the actual length. The scale of the physical map of Russia tells us that each centimeter of the map corresponds to 200 km on the ground.

Rice. 7. Physical map of Russia ()

On the map you can show two halves of the Earth at once. If you divide the globe along the equator, you get map of the northern and southern hemispheres,

Rice. 5. Northern and Southern Hemispheres

and if along the line of the zero meridian - Western and Eastern Hemispheres.

Rice. 6. Western and Eastern Hemispheres

On the mineral map special icons mark the places of mineral deposits.

Rice. 9. Map of minerals ()

On the animal habitat maps habitats indicated. various kinds birds and animals.

Rice. 10. Bird and animal habitat map ()

On the contour maps no color designations and depicted, but not signed, all kinds of geographic features. They are convenient for laying routes.

Rice. 11. Contour map

On the political map of the world depict countries and their borders.

Rice. 12. Political map of Eurasia ()

On the synoptic maps conditional icons show observations of the weather.

Rice. 13. Synoptic map ()

Various cards are combined into atlases.

Rice. 14. Geographic atlas ()

The maps depict different territories. There are maps of districts, cities, regions, states, continents, oceans, maps of the hemispheres and world maps.

Conventions on the map are the same as on the globe. They're called legend and are usually placed at the bottom of the map.

Let's find the West Siberian Plain on the physical map of Russia.

Rice. 16. West Siberian Plain ()

Small horizontal lines covering a large part of its territory mean swamps.

Here are some of the most big world swamps - Vasyugan. The lines represent rivers, borders and roads, the circles represent cities.

Rice. 17. Vasyugan swamps

The seas and mountains have real outlines and are painted in different colors. Blue and blue - reservoirs, yellow - hills, green - lowlands, brown- the mountains.

At the bottom of the map, a scale of depths and heights is placed, with which you can see what height or depth means this or that shade of color on the map.

The deeper the ocean, the darker the color. On the map of the Arctic Ocean, the most dark shade blue in the Greenland Sea, where the depth reaches 5 thousand 527 meters; the lightest shade of pale blue, where the depth of the sea is 200 meters.

Rice. 18. Physical map of the Arctic Ocean

The higher the mountains, the darker the color they are marked with. Thus, the Ural Mountains, which are considered relatively low (the highest peaks from 1000 to 2000 m above sea level), are colored light brown on the map.

Rice. 19. Ural Mountains

Himalayas - the highest mountains in the world (10 peaks with a height of more than 8 km) are indicated in dark brown.

Rice. 20. Himalayan mountains

In the Himalayas is located Chomolungma (Everest) - the highest peak in the world (8848 m).

Using the height scale, it is easy to determine the height of the Caucasus Mountains.

Rice. 23. Caucasus Mountains

Their brown color indicates that the height of the mountains is more than 5 thousand meters. The most famous peaks - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) and Mount Kazbek (5033 m) are covered with eternal snow and glaciers.

Using the map, you can determine the exact location of any object. To do this, you need to know coordinates: latitude and longitude, which are determined by the degree grid formed by parallels and meridians.

Rice. 26. Degree grid

The equator serves as a reference point - on it the latitude is 0⁰. Latitude is measured from 0⁰ to 90⁰ on either side of the equator and is called north or south. For example, the coordinate 60⁰ North means that this point lies in the Northern Hemisphere and is at an angle of 60⁰ to the equator.

Rice. 27. Latitude

Longitude is measured from 0⁰ to 180⁰ on both sides of the Greenwich meridian and is called western or eastern.

Rice. 28. Longitude

St. Petersburg coordinates - 60⁰ N, 30⁰ E

Moscow coordinates - 55⁰ N, 37⁰E

Rice. 29. Political map of Russia ()

1. Vakhrushev A.A., Danilov D.D. The world 3. M.: Ballas.
2. Dmitrieva N.Ya., Kazakov A.N. The world around 3. M .: Publishing house "Fedorov".
3. Pleshakov A.A. Surrounding world 3. M .: Enlightenment.

1. Academician ().
2. survival().

1. Locate the Pacific Ocean on the physical map of the world. Determine its deepest place, indicate its name and depth. Describe how you identified this place.
2. Make a short test (4 questions with three answers) on the topic "Geographic maps".
3. Prepare a memo with the rules for working with cards.

Topographic maps and plans depict various objects of the area: the contours of settlements, orchards, orchards, lakes, rivers, road lines, power lines. The collection of these objects is called situation. The situation is portrayed conventional signs.

Standard symbols, mandatory for all institutions and organizations compiling topographic maps and plans, are established Federal Service geodesy and cartography of the Russian Federation and are published either separately for each scale, or for a group of scales.

Symbols are divided into five groups:

1. Areal symbols(Fig. 22) are used to fill the areas of objects (for example, arable land, forests, lakes, meadows); they consist of a sign of the object boundary (a dotted line or a thin solid line) and images that fill it or conditional coloring; for example, symbol 1 shows a birch forest; the numbers (20/0.18) *4 characterize the stand, (m): the numerator is the height, the denominator is the thickness of the trunk, 4 is the distance between the trees.

Rice. 22. Areal symbols:

1 - forest; 2 - felling; 3 - meadow; 4 - garden; 5 - arable land; 6 - orchard.

2. Linear symbols(Fig. 23) show objects of a linear nature (roads, rivers, communication lines, power transmission lines), the length of which is expressed in a given scale. On the conditional images are given various characteristics objects; for example, highway 7 (m) shows: the width of the carriageway - 8 and the entire road - 12; on single-track railway 8: +1.800 - embankment height, -2.900 - excavation depth.

Rice. 23. Linear symbols

7 - highway; 8 - railway; 9 - communication line; 10 - power line; 11 - main pipeline (gas).

3. Off-scale symbols(Fig. 24) are used to depict objects whose dimensions are not expressed on a given scale of a map or plan (bridges, kilometer posts, wells, geodetic points). As a rule, off-scale signs determine the location of objects, but they cannot be used to judge their size. Various characteristics are given on the signs, for example, the length of 17 m and the width of 3 m of the wooden bridge 12, the mark of 393.500 points of the geodetic network 16.

Rice. 24. Off-scale symbols

12 - wooden bridge; 13 - windmill; 14 - plant, factory;

15 - kilometer post, 16 - geodetic network point

4. Explanatory symbols are digital and alphabetic inscriptions characterizing objects, for example, the depth and speed of the flow of rivers, the carrying capacity and width of bridges, the type of forest, the average height and thickness of trees, the width of highways. These signs are put down on the main areal, linear, off-scale.

5. Special symbols(Fig. 25) establish the relevant departments of the branches of the national economy; they are used to compile specialized maps and plans for this industry, for example, signs for mine surveying plans for oil and gas fields - oilfield facilities and installations, wells, field pipelines.

Rice. 25. Special symbols

17 - track; 18 - plumbing; 19 - sewerage; 20 - water intake column; 21 - fountain

To make the map or plan more visual, colors are used to depict various elements: for rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue; forests and gardens - green; highways - red; improved dirt roads are orange. The rest of the situation is given in black. On survey plans, underground utilities (pipelines, cables) are colored.

Terrain relief and its representation on topographic maps and plans

terrain called the set of irregularities of the physical surface of the Earth.

Depending on the nature of the relief, the area is divided into mountainous, hilly, flat. The whole variety of landforms is usually reduced to the following main forms (Fig. 26):

Rice. 26. Basic landforms

1. Mountain - dome-shaped or conical elevation of the earth's surface. The main elements of the mountain:

a) peak - the highest part, ending either in an almost horizontal platform, called a plateau, or a sharp peak;

b) slopes or slopes, diverging from the top in all directions;

c) sole - the base of the hill, where the slopes pass into the surrounding plain.

The small mountain is called hill or hill; an artificial hill is called mound.

2. Basin- a bowl-shaped, concave part of the earth's surface, or unevenness, opposite the mountain.

In the basin there are:

a) bottom - the lowest part (usually a horizontal platform);

b) cheeks - lateral slopes, diverging from the bottom in all directions;

c) the outskirts - the border of the cheeks, where the basin passes into the surrounding plain. The small basin is called depression or pit.

3. Ridge- a hill, elongated in one direction and formed by two opposite slopes. The meeting line of the slopes is called ridge axis or watershed line. The descending parts of the spinal line are called passes.

4. Hollow- recess, elongated in one direction; the shape is opposite to the ridge. In the hollow, they distinguish: two slopes and a thalweg, or water-connecting line, which often serves as the bed of a stream or river.

A large wide hollow, with a slightly inclined thalweg, is called valley; a narrow hollow with steep slopes, rapidly descending, and a thalweg cutting through the ridge, is called gorge or gorge. If it is located in a plain, then it is called ravine. A small hollow with almost sheer slopes is called girder, rut or ravine.

5. Saddle- the meeting place of two or more opposite hills, or opposite hollows.

6. Ledge or terrace- an almost horizontal platform on the slope of a ridge or mountain.

The top of the mountain, the bottom of the basin, the lowest point of the saddle are characteristic points of the relief.

The watershed and thalweg are characteristic lines of relief.

Currently, for large-scale plans, only two methods of depicting the relief are accepted: signing marks and drawing contour lines.

horizontal called a closed curved line of terrain, all points of which have the same height above sea level or above a conditional level surface.

The contours are formed like this (Fig. 27). Let the hill be washed by the surface of the sea with a mark equal to zero. The curve formed by the intersection of the water surface with a hill will be a horizontal line with a mark equal to zero. If we mentally cut the mountain, for example, by two level surfaces with a distance between them h = 10 m, then the traces of the section of the hill by these surfaces will give horizontal lines with marks of 10 and 20 m. If we project the traces of the section of these surfaces onto a horizontal plane in a reduced form, we get the plan of the hill in the horizontals.

Rice. 27. Image of relief by contour lines

On the horizontal plan, elevations and depressions have the same appearance. To distinguish a hill from a depression, short strokes are placed perpendicular to the horizontals in the direction of lowering the slope - indicators of the slopes. These strokes are called berghashes. The lowering and raising of the terrain can be set and the signatures of the contour lines on the plan. The image of the main landforms is presented in Figure 28.

In cases where the slope elements are not reflected by the section of the main contour lines, half-horizontals and quarter-horizontal lines are drawn on the plan at the height of half and a quarter of the main section.

For example, the ledge and the bottom of the slope of a hill are not reflected by the main contours. The drawn semi-horizontal reflects the ledge, and the quarter-horizontal reflects the sole of the ramp.

Rice. 28. Image of the main landforms by contour lines

The main horizontal lines are drawn in brown ink with thin solid lines, semi-horizontals - broken lines, quarter horizontal - short dash-dotted line (Fig. 27). For greater clarity and ease of counting, some horizontal lines are thickened. With a section height of 0.5 and 1 m, each horizontal line is thickened, a multiple of 5 m (5, 10, 115, 120 m, etc.), when the relief is cut through 2.5 m - horizontal lines that are multiples of 10 m (10, 20 , 100 m, etc.), with a section of 5 m thicken the horizontals, multiples of 25 m.

To determine the height of the relief in the gaps of the thickened and some other contour lines, their marks are signed. At the same time, the bases of the digits of the horizontal marks are placed in the direction of lowering the slope.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

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Definition 1

Cartographic symbols- symbolic graphic designations that are used to depict various objects and their characteristics on cartographic images (maps and topographic maps).

Sometimes symbols are called map legend.

Types of conventional signs by scale

Depending on the scale, $3$ groups of conventional signs are distinguished:

• scale (areal and linear);
• off-scale (point);
• explanatory.

With the help of areal scale signs, extended objects are displayed on a map scale. Scale signs on the map allow you to determine not only the location of the object, but also its size and shape.

Example 1

Scale marks are the territory of the state on a $1:10,000,000 scale map or a reservoir on a $1:10,000 scale map.

Linear conventional signs are used to display objects that are significantly extended in one dimension, for example, roads. Consistent with the scale on such signs, only one dimension (in which the object is the most extended), while the other is off-scale. The position of an object is determined by a conditional or explicit center line.

Out-of-scale point symbols are used on maps to represent objects whose dimensions are not expressed on the map. The largest cities on the world map are displayed as off-scale signs - dots. The actual placement of the object is determined by the main point of the point symbol.

The main point is placed at off-scale signs as follows:

• in the center of the figure near symmetrical signs;
• in the middle of the base for signs with a wide base;
• at the top of the right angle, which is the base, if the sign has such an angle;
• in the center of the lower figure, if the sign is a combination of several figures.

Explanatory signs are intended to characterize local objects and their varieties. Explanatory signs can indicate the number of paths railway the direction of the river flow.

Remark 1

On large-scale maps, the signs of individual objects are indicated separately, on smaller-scale maps, objects of the same type are grouped and applied with one sign.

Conventional signs by content

1. signs and signatures of settlements;
2. signs of individual local objects;
3. signs of individual relief elements;
4. transport infrastructure signs;
5. signs of hydrographic network objects;
6. signs of soil and vegetation cover;

Signs and signatures of settlements

On maps at a scale of $1:100,000 and larger, all settlements are indicated along with the signature of their names. Moreover, the names of cities are applied in direct capital letters, rural settlements - in lowercase letters, urban and suburban settlements - in lowercase oblique letters.

Large-scale maps display the exterior outline and layout, highlighting major highways, businesses, prominent knowledge and landmarks.

Example 2

On the $1:25 \ 000$ and $1:50 \ 000$ scale maps, the type (fireproof or non-fireproof) of the development is displayed in color.

The figure below shows signs of settlements used on maps of various eras.

Signs of individual local objects

Separate local objects, which are landmarks, are drawn on the map mainly with off-scale signs. It can be towers, mines, adits, churches, radio masts, remnant rocks.

Signs of individual relief elements

Relief elements are marked on the map with appropriate signs.

Remark 2

An object of natural origin is represented by lines and signs in brown.

Transport infrastructure signs

The objects of transport infrastructure displayed on topographic maps include the road and railway network, structures and bridges.

When plotted on a map, paved roads (motorways, improved highways, improved dirt roads) and unpaved roads are distinguished. All paved roads are plotted on the map, indicating the width and material of the pavement.

The color of the road on the map indicates its type. Highways and highways are applied in orange, improved dirt roads in yellow (occasionally orange), unpaved country roads, field, forest and seasonal roads without color.

Signs of objects of the hydrographic network

The following elements of the hydrographic network are depicted on the map - the coastal part of the seas, rivers, lakes, canals, streams, wells, ponds and other bodies of water.

Reservoirs are plotted on the map if their area on the image is more than $1 mm^2$. In another case, a body of water is applied only because of high importance, for example in dry areas. Objects are labeled with their name.

The characteristics of the objects of the hydrographic network are indicated next to the signature of the name of the object. In particular, they indicate in the form of a fraction the width (numerator), depth and nature of the soil (denominator), as well as the speed (in m / s) and direction of the current. Also indicated along with the characteristics of hydraulic structures - ferries, dams, locks. Rivers and canals are mapped in full. In this case, the type of display is determined by the width of the object and the scale of the map.

Remark 4

In particular, at a map scale of more than $1:50,000$, objects less than $5$ m wide, at a map scale of less than $1:100,000$ - less than $10$ m, are depicted by a $1$ line, and wider objects by two lines. Also, $2$ lines designate channels and ditches with a width of $3$ m or more, and with a smaller width - one line.

On large-scale maps, blue circles indicate wells, the letter “k” or “art.k” is placed next to it in the case of an artesian well. In dry areas, wells and water supply facilities are shown with enlarged signs. Water pipelines on maps are shown by lines with dots of blue color: solid lines - ground, broken - underground.

Land cover signs

Often, when displaying land cover on a map, a combination of scale and off-scale symbols is used. Signs denoting forests, shrubs, gardens, swamps, meadows, nature are large-scale, and individual objects, for example, separately standing trees- off-scale.

Example 3

The swampy meadow is displayed on the map as a combination of conventional symbols of a meadow, bushes and a swamp in a closed contour.

The contours of areas of terrain occupied by a forest, shrub or swamp are applied with a dotted line, except when the boundary is a fence, roads or other linear local object.

Forested areas indicate in green with the application of a symbol indicating the type of forest (coniferous, deciduous or mixed). Areas with forest growth or nurseries are plotted in pale green on the map.

Example 4

The image below shows a coniferous pine forest on the left with an average tree height of $25$ meters and a width of $0.3$ m, and a typical distance between tree trunks of $6$ m. The image on the right shows a deciduous maple forest with a tree height of $12$ m and a trunk width of $0.2$ m, the distance between which is $3$ meters on average.

Swamps are shown on the map with blue horizontal shading. At the same time, the type of hatching shows the degree of passability: intermittent hatching - passable, solid - difficult and impassable.

Remark 5

Swamps with a depth of less than $0.6$ m are considered passable.

Vertical shading in blue on the map indicates salt marshes. As well as for swamps, solid shading indicates impenetrable solonchaks, broken shading indicates passable ones.

Colors of symbols on topographic maps

The colors that depict objects on maps are universal for all scales. Black dashed marks - buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries, brown dashed marks - relief elements, blue - hydrographic network. Areal signs of light blue color - a mirror of waters of hydrographic network objects, green color - areas of tree and shrub vegetation, orange color - quarters with fire-resistant buildings and highways, yellow - quarters with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads.

Remark 6

Special symbols are applied on military and special maps.