Topographic maps and plans depict various objects of the area: the contours of settlements, orchards, orchards, lakes, rivers, road lines, power lines. The collection of these objects is called situation. The situation is portrayed conventional signs.
Standard symbols, mandatory for all institutions and organizations compiling topographic maps and plans, are established Federal Service geodesy and cartography of the Russian Federation and are published either separately for each scale, or for a group of scales.
Symbols are divided into five groups:
1. Areal symbols(Fig. 22) are used to fill the areas of objects (for example, arable land, forests, lakes, meadows); they consist of a sign of the object boundary (a dotted line or a thin solid line) and images that fill it or conditional coloring; for example, symbol 1 shows a birch forest; the numbers (20/0.18) *4 characterize the stand, (m): the numerator is the height, the denominator is the thickness of the trunk, 4 is the distance between the trees.
Rice. 22. Areal symbols:
1 - forest; 2 - felling; 3 - meadow; 4 - garden; 5 - arable land; 6 - orchard.
2. Linear symbols(Fig. 23) show objects of a linear nature (roads, rivers, communication lines, power transmission lines), the length of which is expressed in a given scale. Conditional images show various characteristics objects; for example, highway 7 (m) shows: the width of the carriageway - 8 and the entire road - 12; on single-track railway 8: +1.800 - embankment height, -2.900 - excavation depth.
Rice. 23. Linear symbols
7 - highway; 8 - railway; 9 - communication line; 10 - power line; 11 - main pipeline (gas).
3. Off-scale symbols(Fig. 24) are used to depict objects whose dimensions are not expressed on a given scale of a map or plan (bridges, kilometer posts, wells, geodetic points). As a rule, off-scale signs determine the location of objects, but they cannot be used to judge their size. Various characteristics are given on the signs, for example, the length of 17 m and the width of 3 m of the wooden bridge 12, the mark of 393.500 points of the geodetic network 16.
Rice. 24. Off-scale symbols
12 - wooden bridge; 13 - windmill; 14 - plant, factory;
15 - kilometer post, 16 - geodetic network point
4. Explanatory symbols are digital and alphabetic inscriptions characterizing objects, for example, the depth and speed of the flow of rivers, the carrying capacity and width of bridges, the type of forest, the average height and thickness of trees, the width of highways. These signs are put down on the main areal, linear, off-scale.
5. Special symbols(Fig. 25) establish the relevant departments of the branches of the national economy; they are used to compile specialized maps and plans for this industry, for example, signs for mine surveying plans for oil and gas fields - oilfield facilities and installations, wells, field pipelines.
Rice. 25. Special symbols
17 - track; 18 - plumbing; 19 - sewerage; 20 - water intake column; 21 - fountain
To make the map or plan more visual, colors are used to depict various elements: for rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue; forests and gardens - green; highways - red; improved dirt roads are orange. The rest of the situation is given in black. On survey plans, underground utilities (pipelines, cables) are colored.
Terrain relief and its representation on topographic maps and plans
terrain called the set of irregularities of the physical surface of the Earth.
Depending on the nature of the relief, the area is divided into mountainous, hilly, flat. The whole variety of landforms is usually reduced to the following main forms (Fig. 26):
Rice. 26. Basic landforms
1. Mountain - dome-shaped or conical elevation of the earth's surface. The main elements of the mountain:
a) peak - the highest part, ending either in an almost horizontal platform, called a plateau, or a sharp peak;
b) slopes or slopes, diverging from the top in all directions;
c) sole - the base of the hill, where the slopes pass into the surrounding plain.
The small mountain is called hill or hill; an artificial hill is called mound.
2. Basin- a bowl-shaped, concave part of the earth's surface, or unevenness, opposite the mountain.
In the basin there are:
a) bottom - the lowest part (usually a horizontal platform);
b) cheeks - lateral slopes, diverging from the bottom in all directions;
c) the outskirts - the border of the cheeks, where the basin passes into the surrounding plain. The small basin is called depression or pit.
3. Ridge- a hill, elongated in one direction and formed by two opposite slopes. The meeting line of the slopes is called ridge axis or watershed line. The descending parts of the spinal line are called passes.
4. Hollow- recess, elongated in one direction; the shape is opposite to the ridge. In the hollow, they distinguish: two slopes and a thalweg, or water-connecting line, which often serves as the bed of a stream or river.
A large wide hollow, with a slightly inclined thalweg, is called valley; a narrow hollow with steep slopes, rapidly descending, and a thalweg cutting through the ridge, is called gorge or gorge. If it is located in a plain, then it is called ravine. A small hollow with almost sheer slopes is called girder, rut or ravine.
5. Saddle- the meeting place of two or more opposite hills, or opposite hollows.
6. Ledge or terrace- an almost horizontal platform on the slope of a ridge or mountain.
The top of the mountain, the bottom of the basin, the lowest point of the saddle are characteristic points of the relief.
The watershed and thalweg are characteristic lines of relief.
Currently, for large-scale plans, only two methods of depicting the relief are accepted: signing marks and drawing contour lines.
horizontal called a closed curved line of terrain, all points of which have the same height above sea level or above a conditional level surface.
The contours are formed like this (Fig. 27). Let the hill be washed by the surface of the sea with a mark equal to zero. The curve formed by the intersection of the water surface with a hill will be a horizontal line with a mark equal to zero. If we mentally cut the mountain, for example, by two level surfaces with a distance between them h = 10 m, then the traces of the section of the hill by these surfaces will give horizontal lines with marks of 10 and 20 m. If we project the traces of the section of these surfaces onto a horizontal plane in a reduced form, we get the plan of the hill in the horizontals.
Rice. 27. Image of relief by contour lines
On the horizontal plan, elevations and depressions have the same appearance. To distinguish a hill from a depression, short strokes are placed perpendicular to the horizontals in the direction of lowering the slope - indicators of the slopes. These strokes are called berghashes. The lowering and raising of the terrain can be set and the signatures of the contour lines on the plan. The image of the main landforms is presented in Figure 28.
In cases where the slope elements are not reflected by the section of the main contour lines, half-horizontals and quarter-horizontal lines are drawn on the plan at the height of half and a quarter of the main section.
For example, the ledge and the bottom of the slope of a hill are not reflected by the main contours. The drawn semi-horizontal reflects the ledge, and the quarter-horizontal reflects the sole of the ramp.
Rice. 28. Image of the main landforms by contour lines
The main horizontal lines are drawn in brown ink with thin solid lines, semi-horizontals - broken lines, quarter horizontal - short dash-dotted line (Fig. 27). For greater clarity and ease of counting, some horizontal lines are thickened. With a section height of 0.5 and 1 m, each horizontal line is thickened, a multiple of 5 m (5, 10, 115, 120 m, etc.), when the relief is cut through 2.5 m - horizontal lines that are multiples of 10 m (10, 20 , 100 m, etc.), with a section of 5 m thicken the horizontals, multiples of 25 m.
To determine the height of the relief in the gaps of the thickened and some other contour lines, their marks are signed. At the same time, the bases of the digits of the horizontal marks are placed in the direction of lowering the slope.
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a plan of the area.
Area plan. Geographic map
Map- a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or the celestial sphere, built on a scale and projection.
Terrain plan- a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1: 5000 and larger).
When constructing plans, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account, because small areas or areas of terrain are depicted.
The difference between a local plan and a geographical map:
1) the plans depict small areas of the terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Geographic maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;
2) the plan depicts the area in detail, keeping the exact outlines of the depicted objects, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. On a map that has a smaller scale, all objects cannot be plotted, therefore, when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, in contrast to the plan, are depicted with off-scale conventional signs;
3) when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account, since a small area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain is depicted. When building a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain cartographic projections;
4) there is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be put on the map;
5) on the plan, the direction to the north is by default considered the direction up, the direction to the south - down, to the west - to the left, to the east - to the right (sometimes on the plan the direction north - south is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the direction up - down). On the maps, the north-south direction is determined by the meridians, the west-east by the parallels.
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Ways of depicting objects and phenomena on geographical maps
Conventional signs- designations used on maps to depict various objects and their quality and quantitative characteristics. Symbolically denoted as real objects(for example, settlements) and abstract (for example, population density). Conventional signs are intended to indicate the type and some characteristics of the objects (phenomena) depicted on the map and determine their position in space.
Symbols are:
— off-scale(used to depict objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale). Are these drawings or geometric figures, the shape of which usually resembles the depicted object (Fig. 1). Alphabetic symbols also refer to off-scale conventions. The position of the object on the ground corresponds to the center of the sign of a symmetrical shape, the middle of the base of the sign with a wide base, the top of the corner of the sign with the base in the form of a right angle, the center of the bottom figure of the sign, which is a combination of several figures;
— linear(used to depict objects of a linear nature - rivers, roads, borders, pipelines, etc.). On a scale, they convey only the length and shape of the object, their width is exaggerated, so it cannot be measured (Fig. 2);
— areal, or contour(used to depict geographical objects that occupy a certain area - a lake, an array of forests, etc.). The actual value of the objects is transmitted (Fig. 3).
They consist of a contour (forest, swamp, etc.) and its filling (color, shading).
Explanatory conventional signs (for example, arrows showing the direction of the river flow, figures of deciduous and coniferous trees, etc.), signatures, alphabetic and numeric designations also carry certain information on the map.
Cartographic imaging methods
Quality background method. It is used to display on the map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth's surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that on the map areas that are homogeneous in terms of a certain feature (features) are distinguished (for example, natural areas) and painted over (or hatched) in the colors selected for them (hatching).
Area method. area- the area of \u200b\u200bdistribution on the earth's surface of a phenomenon (for example, the territory on which a certain animal lives, or the territory on which this or that agricultural crop is grown, etc.).
The isoline method. Contours(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on maps passing through points with the same value of any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; Contours are lines connecting points on the earth's surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that on the map points with the same values of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., contour lines are drawn.
Movement lines. Lines (arrows) show the direction of movement of any objects - air masses, winds, ocean currents, rivers, etc.
Determination of directions, measurement of distances on the plan and map
On the plan, north-south is indicated by an arrow. If there is no arrow on the plan, then it is considered that north is above, south is below.
On the map, directions are determined using a degree network. The north-south direction corresponds to the direction of the meridians, the west-east direction corresponds to the parallels.
Azimuth measurements according to the cards are produced using a protractor. Azimuth- the angle formed at a given point or on the map between the direction to the north and any object and counted clockwise.
So, if the object is strictly north of the point where the observer is located, then the azimuth to it will be 0 °, to the east - 90 °, to the south - 180 °, to the west - 270 °. Azimuths can have values from 0° to 360°. In order to measure the azimuth on the map, it is necessary to draw a line parallel to the north-south direction through the starting point of the direction being determined. Then, also through the point, draw a line connecting the point and the object to which you want to determine the azimuth. And then, using a protractor, measure the resulting angle (azimuth), given that the azimuth is always counted clockwise.
Determination of geographical coordinates
Gradient network and its elements. Degree network of the Earth- a system of meridians and parallels on geographical maps and globes, which serves to count the geographical coordinates of points on the earth's surface - longitudes and latitudes - or to map objects by their coordinates.
To create a degree network, certain reference points are needed. The spherical shape of the Earth determines the existence of two fixed points on the earth's surface - the poles. An imaginary axis passes through the poles, around which the Earth rotates.
Geographic poles- mathematically calculated points of intersection of the imaginary axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface.
Equator- an imaginary line on the earth's surface, obtained by mentally dissecting the ellipsoid into two equal parts (Northern and Southern hemisphere). All points on the equator are equidistant from the poles. The plane of the equator is perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation and passes through its center. The hemispheres are mentally separated by many more planes parallel to the plane of the equator. The lines of their intersection with the surface of the ellipsoid are called parallels. All of them, like the plane of the equator, are perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the planet. Parallels on the map and the globe can be drawn as many as you like, but usually on training maps they are drawn at intervals of 10-20 °. Parallels are always oriented from west to east. The circumference of the parallels decreases from the equator to the poles. It is highest at the equator and zero at the poles.
When the globe is crossed by imaginary planes passing through the axis of the Earth perpendicular to the plane of the equator, large circles are formed - meridians. Meridians can also be drawn through any point of the ellipsoid. All of them intersect at the points of the poles (Fig. 4). The meridians are oriented from north to south. Average arc length of 1° meridian: 40,008.5 km: 360° = 111 km. All meridians are the same length. The direction of the local meridian at any point can be determined at noon by the shadow of any object. In the Northern Hemisphere, the end of the shadow always shows the direction to the north, in the Southern - to the south.
The degree network is necessary for counting the geographical coordinates of points on the earth's surface - latitude and longitude.
Geographic latitude- distance along the meridian in degrees from the equator to any point on the surface of the Earth. The equator is the starting point. The latitude of all points on it is 0. At the poles, the latitude is 90°. North latitude is measured north of the equator, south latitude is measured south.
Geographic longitude- distance along the parallel in degrees from the prime meridian to any point on the earth's surface. All meridians are equal in length, so for the reference it was necessary to choose one of them. They became the Greenwich meridian, passing near London (where the Greenwich Observatory is located). Longitude is measured from 0° to 180°. To the east of the zero meridian to 180 °, eastern longitude is counted, to the west - western.
Thus, using a degree network, it is possible to accurately determine geographical coordinates - quantities that determine the position of a point on the earth's surface relative to the equator and the prime meridian. For example, the geographic coordinates of Cape Chelyuskin (the northernmost point of Eurasia) are 78° N. sh. and 104° E. d.
Determination of distances on the map
scale called the ratio of the length of the line in the drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line in reality. The scale shows how many times the distance on the map is reduced relative to the actual distance on the ground. If, for example, the scale of a geographical map is 1:1,000,000, this means that 1 cm on the map corresponds to 1,000,000 cm on the ground, or 10 km.
There are numerical, linear and named scales.
Numerical scale is depicted as a fraction, in which the numerator is equal to one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the lines on the map (plan) are reduced relative to the lines on the ground. For example, a scale of 1:100,000 shows that all linear dimensions on the map are reduced by 100,000 times. Obviously, the larger the scale denominator, the smaller the scale; with a smaller denominator, the scale is larger. The numerical scale is a fraction, so the numerator and denominator are given in the same measurements (centimeters).
Linear scale is a straight line divided into equal segments. These segments correspond to a certain distance on the depicted terrain; divisions are indicated by numbers. The measure of length along which the divisions on the scale bar are marked is called the base of the scale. In our country, the scale base is taken equal to 1 cm. The number of meters or kilometers corresponding to the scale base is called the scale value. When constructing a linear scale, the number 0, from which the counting of divisions begins, is usually placed not at the very end of the scale line, but retreating one division (base) to the right; on the first segment to the left of 0, the smallest divisions of the linear scale are applied - millimeters. The distance on the ground corresponding to one smallest division of the linear scale corresponds to the accuracy of the scale, and 0.1 mm corresponds to the maximum accuracy of the scale. The linear scale compared to the numerical one has the advantage that it makes it possible to determine the actual distance on the plan and map without additional calculations.
Named Scale- the scale expressed in words, for example, in 1 cm 250 km. (Fig. 5):
Measuring distances on the map and plan. Measuring distances with a scale. To measure the distance, you need to draw a straight line (if you need to know the distance in a straight line) between two points and use a ruler to measure this distance in centimeters, and then multiply the resulting number by the scale value. For example, on a map with a scale of 1: 100,000 (in 1 cm 1 km), the distance is 5 cm, i.e. on the ground, this distance is 1.5 = 5 (km). If you need to measure the distance between objects marked with off-scale conventional signs, then measure the distance between the centers of the conventional signs.
Measuring distances using a degree network. To calculate distances on a map or globe, the following quantities can be used: the length of an arc of 1° of the meridian and 1° of the equator is approximately 111 km. The total length of the earth's meridian is 40,009 km. Due to the fact that the Earth is flattened at the poles (polar compression), the length of an arc of 1 ° along the meridian at the equator (110.6 km) is less than at the poles (111.7 km). It is believed that the average length of 1 ° meridian is 111.1 km. The length of the arc 1° along the parallels decreases towards the poles. At the equator, it can also be taken equal to 111 km, and at the poles - 0 (because the pole is a point). To determine the distance in kilometers between two points lying on the same meridian, calculate the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply the number of degrees by 111.1 km. To determine the distance between two points on the equator, you also need to determine the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply by 111.1 km. To determine the distance between two points located on the same parallel, it is necessary to know the number of kilometers corresponding to the length of 1 ° arc of each particular parallel.
Definition of standard and zone time
Time Zones. Local and standard time. Solar time at points located on the same meridian is called local . Due to the fact that at each moment of the day it is different on all meridians, it is inconvenient to use it. Therefore, according to the international agreement, standard time was introduced. The entire surface of the Earth was divided along the meridians into 24 zones of 15 ° longitude. Belt (the same within each belt) time is the local time of the median meridian of this belt. Zero belt - this is a belt, the median meridian of which is the Greenwich (zero) meridian. From it, the belts are counted to the east.
Since 2014, 11 time zones have been established on the territory of Russia. The starting point for calculating the local time of time zones is Moscow time- time of the II time zone (see map). Thus, the difference in time between the first time zone and the eleventh is 10 hours.
It is conditionally believed that a new day begins in the 12th time zone (through which the 180 ° meridian passes - the date line). To the west of the international date line, a new day begins (according to the calendar). Therefore, in the logbook of a ship that sails from west to east, one day should be counted twice, and a ship moving from east to west, as it were, "skips" one day, after December 31 it immediately falls into January 2.
The use of statistical materials to determine trends in the development of geographical processes and phenomena
To reflect trends in the development of processes, statistical tables are often used, where data are presented as a percentage of the previous year - the volume of last year's production is 100%. Therefore, if any number greater than 100 is indicated for the next year in the table, then the volume of production in this year was greater than in the previous one.
Building a relief profile on a map
The image of the relief on the maps. The relief on the maps is depicted by contour lines, special symbols and elevation marks.
Contours- lines on the map along which all points of the earth's surface have the same absolute height. The difference between two heights of adjacent horizontals is called the relief section. The smaller the cross section of the relief, the more detailed it is depicted. The size of the relief section depends on the scale of the map and on the nature of the relief itself. The most detailed relief is depicted on topographic maps. For example, on a map at a scale of 1:25,000 (at 1 cm 250 m), solid contour lines are drawn through 5 m, and on a map at a scale of 1: 100,000 (at 1 cm 1 km), a relief section of 20 m is used for flat areas and 40 m for mountain. On small-scale maps, an uneven section of the relief is usually used: more frequent in flat areas and enlarged in mountainous areas. So, on the physical map of Russia at a scale of 1:25,000,000, horizontal lines are drawn at a height of 0, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 m. Isobaths (depth contours) are also shown.
Horizontally, one can easily determine the absolute height of any point on the earth's surface and the relative height of two points (the excess of one over the other). Contours also help determine the steepness of slopes. The closer the horizontals are to each other, the steeper the slope. Additional information about the relief on topographic maps give berghashes- small strokes drawn perpendicular to the horizontals, indicating in which direction the relief is lowering.
For the depiction of relief forms that are not expressed by horizontal lines (for example, sharp ledges, cliffs, ravines, etc.), special conventional signs are used.
Absolute heights peaks or troughs on the maps are signed with numbers. Absolute heights are given in meters.
Understand general character relief changes are helped by elements of hydrography - for example, if a river is depicted on the map, then, as a rule, there is a general lowering of the relief of the right left bank to its channel. The direction of the river flow also indicates the direction in which the absolute height of the points decreases.
"Plan of the area. Conventional signs»
6th grade
Today we start learning new topic"Plan of the area. Conditional signs. Knowledge of this topic will be useful to you in the future. Terrain images are of several types: drawing, photograph, aerial photograph, satellite image, map, terrain plan (topographic plan).
Use to create topographic plans modern technology(helicopters, planes, satellites) (Fig. 1).
Fig.1. Aircraft M-101T "Sokol" - designed for shooting terrain
(http://www.gisa.ru)
Photographs obtained as a result of aerial photography of the earth's surface are called aerial photographs.
Consider an aerial photograph (Fig. 2) and a topographic plan (Fig. 3) of the same area (the channel of the Moskva River in the Vorobyovy Gory area). Which image gives us more complete information about geographical objects? What type of image is more convenient to use to take a walk around Moscow?
The comparison will allow us to conclude that it is from the terrain plan that we can find out detailed information about geographical objects (for example, the name of a river, the names of streets, metro stations, parks).
  Rice. 2. Aerial photo shot (http://maps.google.ru) |
 Rice. 3. Plan of the area (http://maps.google.ru) Scale 1:50 000 At
River word designations |
Imagine that you are going on a hike far from the city. You need to prepare for the conditions of an unknown area in which you have never been, you need to think about what equipment, what clothes to take, perhaps - prepare for crossing a river, a ravine, etc. You can get information about the hiking area by reading the map correctly.
Before you are two different images of the earth's surface: a satellite image (Fig. 1) and topographic map(land plan) (Fig.4-5).
Let's find out comparing satellite image And terrain plan. Find similarities and differences.
Using figures 4 and 5, we will fill in the table "Features of the image of the area."
|
Image features |
Terrain plan |
aerial view |
|
1. Top view |
+ |
+ |
|
2. You can find out the name of the settlement, river, lake, etc. |
+ |
_ |
|
3. You can determine the type of vegetation, the names of tree species |
+ |
_ |
|
4. All shown visible objects above |
_ |
+ |
|
5. Only important objects are shown |
+ |
_ |
|
6. You can recognize the sides of the horizon |
+ |
_ |
|
7. Objects are depicted by conventional signs |
+ |
_ |
To summarize - what is a topographic map or terrain plan?
Let's write down the definition of the concept of "land plan" in a notebook.
Terrain plan or topographic plan (from lat. "planum" - plane) - an image on a plane of a small area of \u200b\u200bthe earth's surface in a reduced form using conventional signs.
In order to work with a topographic plan, you need to be able to read it. The "alphabet" of the topographic plan are conventional signs. The symbols used to build terrain plans are the same for all countries of the world, which makes them easier to use even if you don't know the language.
Conventional signs- designations used on maps or plans to depict various objects and their quantitative and qualitative characteristics. In other words, conventional signs designate objects on the plan and are similar to these objects.
What can be learned using this terrain plan (Fig. 6)?
Rice. 6. Plan of the area (T. P. Gerasimova, N. P. Neklyukova, 2009)
And much more!
Topographic symbols are usually divided into: large-scale (or areal ), off-scale , linear And explanatory .
Z 
Draw the following diagram in your notebook:
large-scale
, or areal
conventional signs serve to depict such topographic objects that occupy a significant area and whose dimensions in terms of plan can be expressed in
scale given map or plan. An areal symbol consists of a boundary symbol of an object and symbols that fill it or a symbolic coloring. The outline of an object is shown as a dotted line (outline of a forest, meadow, swamp), a solid line (outline of a reservoir, settlement) or a symbol of the corresponding boundary (ditch, fence). Filling characters are located inside the contour in a certain order (arbitrarily, in a checkerboard pattern, in horizontal and vertical rows). Areal symbols allow not only to find the location of an object, but also to evaluate its linear dimensions, area and shape ( http://www.spbtgik.ru).
Z Let's draw examples of conventional signs and complete our scheme!
|
Village |
Orchard
Bush
Meadow
vyr
ubka
L
eu deciduous
R
hodwheel
ABOUT
zero
Garden
arable land
Swamp
Windmill
Well
School
Forester's house
Monument
Power station
wooden bridge
metal bridge
standalone tree
Spring
Factory
Building
Railroad station
|
Village |
|
Linear conventional signs are designed to depict extended objects on the ground, such as railways and roads, clearings, power lines, streams, borders, and others. They occupy an intermediate position between large-scale and off-scale conventional signs. The length of such features is expressed at the scale of the map, while the width on the map is not to scale. Usually it turns out to be greater than the width of the depicted terrain object, and its position corresponds to the longitudinal axis of the symbol. Linear topographic symbols also depict horizontal lines.
Let's draw examples of conventional signs and complete our scheme!
|
Village
|
Windmill Well School Forester's house Monument Power station wooden bridge metal bridge standalone tree Spring Factory Building
|
Highway clearing Trail Line power transmission
River
Ravine
|
Explanatory
conventional signs are used to additionally characterize the local objects shown on the map. For example, the length, width and carrying capacity of the bridge, the width and nature of the road surface, the average thickness and height of trees in the forest, the depth and nature of the ford soil, etc. Various inscriptions and proper names of objects on the maps are also explanatory; each of them is performed in a set font and letters of a certain size.
Let's draw examples of conventional signs and complete our scheme!
|
Village
|
Windmill Well School Forester's house Monument Power station wooden bridge metal bridge standalone tree Spring Factory Building
|
Highway clearing Trail Line power transmission
River
Ravine
|
|
Let's take a closer look at this type of conventional signs.
If you want to get acquainted with other conventional signs, you can download the following document (Word file)
http://irsl.narod.ru/books/UZTKweb/UZTK.html
Now apply theoretical knowledge on practice.
You must complete the following five tasks.
Exercise 1.
The site plan is used for:
A) the study of a vast territory, for example, Russia;
B) construction, agricultural work in a small area;
C) traveling around the world;
D) for planning a route if you want to go hiking.
Task 2.
The "ABC of the plan" are conventional signs. But what do they correspond to on the ground? Choose the number under which the conventional sign is shown, corresponding to the letter denoting its meaning (Fig. 7).
For example: 1-A; 2- V.
A) a break B) swamp; B) a path D) shrub; D) meadow
Rice. 7. Conventional signs of the terrain plan
(Baranchikov, Kozarenko, 2007)
Task 3.
Roads are marked on the plan:
A) black solid or dashed lines;
B) brown lines;
B) blue lines
D) green lines.
Task 4.
Scale or areal symbols on the plans of the area indicate the following objects:
A) swamp, orchard, forest, arable land;
B) a well, a school, a spring, a separate tree;
C) path, clearing, river, ravine;
D) railway, vegetable garden, factory, lake.
Task 5.
Carefully study the photograph (Fig. 8) and the plan adjacent to it (Fig. 9).
Answer the questions.
Question 1. Schoolchildren-tourists ford the river near the place where the stream flows into it?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 2. Is it possible to determine from the plan in which direction the Sona River flows?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 3. Is it possible to determine from a photograph what is the probable immediate goal of schoolchildren-tourists?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 4. Is it possible to determine from the plan of the area that tourists are heading towards the village of Sonino, where they can rest and replenish their food supplies?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 5. What lands occupy most of the territory depicted on the plan.
A) swamps
B) mixed forest;
B) shrub
List of literature used by the teacher when developing the lesson
Geography of the Earth: 6th grade: assignments and exercises: a guide for students / E.V. Baranchikov, A. E. Kozarenko, O. A. Petrusyuk, M. S. Smirnova. - M .: Education, 2007. - S. 7-11.
Elementary course in geography: textbook for grade 6. educational institutions / T. P. Gerasimova, N. P. Neklyukova. - M .: Bustard, 2010. - 174 p.
Working programs in geography. Grades 6-9 / N. V. Bolotnikova. - 2nd ed., Rev., add. - M .: Publishing house "Globus", 2009. - S. 5-13.
This material was prepared for you by the geography teacher of the Central Organ No. 109
Daria Nikolaevna Chekushkina.
E-mail address:chekushkina.
daria@
gmail.
com
Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .
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Conventional signs of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and are used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are an important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities that are engaged in planning the area and transferring the boundaries of sites.
Knowledge of conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans for the area, taking into account the new objects that have appeared.
Topographic maps are a kind of geographical maps. They carry detailed information about the terrain plan, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.
Topographic maps vary in scale. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.
The map scale is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a 1:10,000 map will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, the distance between two points is measured using a ruler and multiplied by the second indicator.
- The most detailed is the topographic plan of the area, its scale is 1:5,000 inclusive. It does not count as a map and is not as accurate as it does not take into account that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its informativeness, nevertheless, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, domestic and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soil, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
- Topographic maps at a scale of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 are considered to be the most detailed among maps. They are used for household purposes. They depict settlements, industrial and agricultural facilities, roads, hydrographic networks, swamps, fences, borders, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about objects in areas that do not have significant forest cover. The objects of management are depicted most reliably in them.
- Maps with a scale of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. It is convenient to use such maps for air navigation, compiling road routes and so on.
- Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to carry out assigned planning tasks for various operations.
- Maps with a scale of up to 1:1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.
Having decided on the task at hand, the choice of material seems to be absolutely not a difficult task. Depending on how detailed information about the area is needed, the desired map scale is also selected.
Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.
Types of conventional signs:
- areal (scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their dimensions are easy to measure on the map, correlate with the scale and obtain the necessary information about the depth, length, area;
- linear - for extended geographic objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, they are drawn as a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
- off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map would be incomplete, but in a rather arbitrary size (bridge, well, individual tree);
- explanatory - characterizing an object, for example, the depth of a river, the height of a slope, a tree that indicates the type of forest;
- depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
- special - are applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).
- the main information that the image of the settlement carries - and the location of the boundaries of the object, for this it is not necessary to mark each building, you can limit yourself to the main streets, intersections and important buildings;
- symbols of a group of homogeneous objects allow the image of only the extreme ones;
- when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which should correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
- strategically important facilities such as factories and factories are marked on the spot where the main building or factory chimney is located.
Due to the correct application of signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths, and other important information.
The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:
- correctly chosen standard symbols, if this is a special map, then the symbols should also be well-known in a certain area;
- the correct image of line elements;
- one map must be drawn in one image style;
- micro-objects must also be marked exactly, if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size on the ground, they must all be marked on the map with the same sign;
- the color indicators of the elements of the landforms must be maintained correctly - heights and lowlands are often depicted in colors, next to the map there should be a scale that shows what height on the ground this or that color corresponds to.
Conventional signs of topographic maps and plans are applied in accordance with uniform rules.
So:- Object sizes are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually placed to the left of the conventional signs. In relation to one object, two numerical indicators are given, indicating the height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects, their diameter is indicated, for signs in the form of a star, the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter of its height is given.
- The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are plotted with lines of 0.2–0.25 mm, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50,000 - with lines of 0.2 mm. The lines denoting minor signs are 0.08–0.1 mm thick. On plans and large-scale maps, signs may be increased by one third.
- The symbols of topographic maps should be clear and legible, the gaps between the inscriptions should be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.
Separate requirements are put forward to the color scheme.
So, background coloring should provide good readability, and conventional signs are indicated by the following colors:
- green - designations of glaciers, eternal snows, swamps, solonchaks, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
- brown - landforms;
- blue - water bodies;
- pink - line gaps of the highway;
- red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
- black - shading and all signs.
- Objects marked with off-scale symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to the position on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.
- object sign center correct form(round, square, triangular) on the plan;
- the middle of the base of the symbol - for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
- designation corner vertices - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pole);
- the middle of the bottom line of the sign - for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).
Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help to correctly draw up a topographic map or terrain plan, making it understandable to other users.
The designation of groups of objects by conventional signs should occur in accordance with the rules below.
- Geodetic points. These objects should be marked as detailed as possible. The mark of the centers of the points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located on an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the mound or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked with pillars and numbered on the ground, the numbering should also be displayed on the map.
- Buildings and their parts. Building outlines should be plotted on the map according to building layout and dimensions. High-rise and historically important buildings are depicted in the most detail. The number of floors is indicated starting from two floors. If the building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.
Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. Additionally, letters can indicate the materials from which the building is built, its purpose, fire resistance.
Conventional signs are used to highlight buildings under construction or dilapidated buildings, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map should be placed exactly as in reality.
In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of compiling the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.
- Industrial objects. The number of storeys in buildings does not play a role. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, it is necessary to sign their actual height.
At enterprises with mines and mining, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. The display of underground routes is carried out in agreement with the customer, indicating the working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is required.
- Railways shown with the designation of their track gauge. Inactive roads must also be marked on the maps. For electrified roads and tram tracks, a power line should be displayed nearby.
The designation of road slopes, embankments and their height, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics are applied on the map. Dead ends, turntables and road endings must be applied.
Highways are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the coverage. The roadway must be marked with a line.
- Hydrographic objects are usually divided into three groups:
- permanent;
- indefinite - existing all the time, but whose outlines often change;
- intermittent - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.
Permanent reservoirs are depicted with solid lines, the rest - with a dash-dotted line.
- Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontal lines or contour lines are used indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted similarly, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward it is a depression, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep, if they are far away - gentle.
A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly define the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the customer.
Depending on the purpose for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or minor distortions of secondary objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.