European Union(hereinafter referred to as the EU) is a unique international entity: it combines the features of an international organization and a state, but formally it is neither one nor the other. The Union is not a subject of international public law, but it has the authority to participate in international relations and plays a significant role in them.
The EU is not an interstate association based on international law. The system of European integration institutions has a completely different political, economic and legal nature. It is based on the principle of supranationality, i.e., the transfer by national states of part of their sovereignty to supranational institutions and bodies. The EU is, above all, common law, common institutions and common policies.
The idea of creating a united Europe has a long history. The idea of the unity of Europe was formed over thousands of years, but only the Second World War and its devastating consequences created a real basis for European integration. For the countries that were defeated in the war, the urgent need was to restore their own political positions and international prestige. In connection with the beginning of the Cold War, rallying was also seen as an important step in containing Soviet influence in Western Europe.
By the end of World War II, two fundamental approaches to European integration had emerged: federalist and confederal. Proponents of the first path sought to build a supranational European federation or the United States of Europe. The second approach envisaged limited integration based on the principles of interstate consent, while maintaining the sovereignty of the participating countries. For the supporters of this approach, the unification process was reduced to a close economic and political union while maintaining their own governments, authorities and military forces. The whole course of European integration is a constant struggle between these two concepts.
In 1948, France, Great Britain and the Benelux countries establish the Western European Union, directed primarily against the threat from Germany. A year later, at the initiative of the United States, a fundamentally different way of solving security was chosen. Western Europe, the essence of which is not to isolate Germany, but to involve it in a common rather large association - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO - 1949), which includes West Germany. Thus, pan-European organizations in the political, economic and defense fields were created almost simultaneously.
2.Characteristics of the main constituent treaties of the European Union.
Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Six states became its participants: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. It was signed on April 18, 1951 for a period of 50 years. The European Coal and Steel Community is the first integration association in Europe, which initiated the process of European integration and the creation of the EU.
Approximately one third of all articles of the Treaty were devoted to the practical problems of collective management of the steel and coal industries - finance, investment, production, prices, intra-industry agreements and concentration, regulation of competition conditions, wages and labor mobility, transport, trade policy.
At first glance, the Association set itself relatively narrow goals, solving a special range of tasks and problems associated with the development of the steel and coal industries. At the same time, the ECSC was a kind of experiment, during which the most important theoretical constructions were tested in practice and, above all, the problem of the correlation of the supranational and the international in Western European integration was solved. In order to achieve the set goals, the member states took a radical step - limiting their sovereignty, transferring power to supranational bodies.
The ECSC was endowed with the status of a legal entity, and international legal capacity was recognized for it. To manage the Association, a system of institutions was created, the main scheme of which was subsequently adopted by the European Economic Community (EEC). It included the Highest Governing Body, the General Assembly (future European Parliament), Special Council Ministers (Council) and the Court.
The European Coal and Steel Community ceased to exist on June 23, 2002 due to the expiration of the Treaty on its establishment, concluded for 50 years and not renewed by the parties, since the pace of development of the European Communities made the existence of the ECSC irrelevant. On this day, the ECSC flag was solemnly lowered in Brussels.
Convinced by the example of the ECSC of the reality of economic integration, its architects came to the conclusion that it is necessary to expand integration to other areas of the economy. As a result, on March 25, 1957, two more agreements were signed in Rome - the Treaty on the Establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the Treaty on the Establishment of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which, at the place of signing, received the name of the Treaty of Rome.
Of particular importance was the Treaty on the Establishment of the European Economic Community, which formulated the fundamental foundations of the integration association, defined the conditions and procedure for its functioning, and fixed the most important achievements in the field of economic, social and legal development. If the ECSC and Euratom treaties contained provisions intended for relatively narrow areas of cooperation between states, then the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community had a universal character. He laid the foundations of a new legal order, the beginning of a legal system that regulates the relationship of its subjects both within these associations and the relationship of communities with the outside world.
The Treaty of Rome on the European Economic Community emphasized its purely economic objectives. Conceptually, it represented a consistent program of economic integration. The first step along this path was to be the creation of a customs union, which was formed ahead of schedule - by mid-1968. The EEC member states agreed to establish a common external customs tariff and transfer to the Community the authority to implement the common trade policy of the EEC.
During this period, the creation of a “common market” (freedom of movement of goods, persons, services and capital) unfolds, the basic principles of European law are formed and approved, the system of judicial control over its application and observance begins to function. During this second stage, normative provisions are developed that ensured the creation and functioning of a unified system of institutions, and a new system of financial support for communities is legally formalized. In the same period, there is a significant increase in the number of members of the European communities, which naturally entails an expansion of the scope of European law.
A transitional period of 12-15 years was established for the implementation of the measures envisaged by the Treaty of Rome.
The next stage came with the signing of the Single European Act (EEA), which entered into force in 1987.
As a result, there was a noticeable expansion of the scope of the European Communities, changes were made to their institutional structure and the main contours of the development of cooperation between the Member States in the field of foreign policy and security. The single European act was a decisive step towards creating a legal basis for the transition to a new, higher level of cooperation between states - the establishment of the European Union.
The Single European Act expanded the framework of the integration process, which was extended to such new areas as monetary policy, assistance to less developed countries and regions of the EU, environmental protection, as well as the coordination of the foreign policy of member states through the Secretariat for Political Cooperation, which operated informally in office of the EU Commission since 1970.
The next stage is associated with the signing on February 27, 1992 and the entry into force on November 1, 1993 of the Treaty on the European Union. At the place of signing in the Dutch city of Maastricht, it is also called the Maastricht Treaty.
The Maastricht Treaty formulated the following main objectives:
creation of an economic and monetary union;
formation of a common social policy;
transformation of the European Economic Community into the European Community with the expansion of its competence;
supplementing supranational economic integration construction with cooperation in the field of foreign policy and security, as well as in the field of justice and internal affairs.
The Maastricht Treaty provided for the need to further clarify the parameters of the Union, the procedure for its functioning and the interaction of member states with EU institutions in new areas. As a follow-up to these resolutions, an Intergovernmental Conference was convened, which in a relatively short time frame prepared a new founding treaty that amended the Treaty on European Union. This new Treaty was signed on October 2, 1997 in Amsterdam and entered into force on May 1, 1999. It was named the Amsterdam Treaty after the place of its signing. This Treaty expanded the scope of EU law.
The Treaty of Amsterdam established the indisputable obligation of all Member States to strictly observe and protect fundamental human rights. The institutions of the Union, according to the Treaty, are obliged to combat such violations. Citizens affected by them have the right to legal protection from the EU Court of Justice.
An innovation under the Treaty was the introduction of the post of High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy.
If the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 established a new organization based on the communities - the European Union, then the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997 carried out a serious reform of its legal foundations, aimed at increasing the efficiency and democracy of the Union and communities.
The decision to create a special commission for the development of the European Charter was taken at an extraordinary summit of the European Union in Tampere (Finland) on October 15-16, 1999. All international documents on the protection of human rights were to become its base. The Heads of State and Government emphasized during the European Council that the Charter will become the "philosophical and political basis" for the creation of a "European area of freedom, security and the rule of law".
The main feature and difference of this document was that the Charter was intended to protect a person from the arbitrariness of the supranational institutions of the European Union, while previous international declarations, charters, international human rights treaties and relevant sections in national constitutions were adopted in order to protect the individual from abuses of the state authorities.
The most important distinguishing feature of the Charter is its universal character. It consolidates all three groups of fundamental rights and freedoms, both personal (civil) and political, as well as socio-economic and cultural rights.
The drafters of the Charter broke with the tradition of making a distinction between civil and political rights, on the one hand, and economic and social rights, on the other. In the structure of the Charter, all rights are distributed around several main principles: human dignity, fundamental freedoms, equality, solidarity, citizenship and justice.
The Charter entered into force on December 18, 2000. The Charter not only protects the rights of citizens of the European Union, but also gives individual rights to any individual located on the territory of the Union, regardless of citizenship and place of residence. Most of the personal as well as socio-economic rights act as such rights. The Charter grants separate rights not only to individuals, but also to legal entities.
The direct recipients of the obligations under the Charter are the institutions and bodies of the Union. National authorities are also bound by fundamental rights recognized by the European Union.
The main shortcoming of the new Charter is that it is not legally binding.
In an effort to continue the process of preparing the institutions of the Union for functioning in an expanded composition, initiated by the Amsterdam Treaty, the Member States on December 11, 2000 approved the Treaty of Nice, which entered into force after completion of its ratification in the participating countries.
The Treaty of Nice does not establish new organizations. In its content, it is a set of amendments to the founding treaties of the European Communities and the European Union and is designed to deepen integration within the Union and improve its legal foundations.
The Treaty of Nice, whose leitmotif was the preparation of the EU for enlargement, outlined the number of candidate countries (13) for EU accession and determined the time of the conference, during which conditions and the approximate date of accession of new members should be developed and approved.
Such a conference was convened in 2003, which resulted in the new Athens Treaty of February 1, 2003 between the EU countries and the accession candidates (10 countries) that became full members of the EU on May 1, 2004.
The most important part of the Athens Treaty is the Act regarding the conditions of accession and amendments to the treaties on which the EU is based. This act in Art. 1 divides the parties to the Treaty into existing Member States of the Union and new Member States of the EU. In accordance with it, 10 new countries join all the founding treaties of the EU and recognize as valid on their territory all acts adopted in the EU, incl. Treaty on the European Union (Article 49) and the "Copenhagen Criteria" (formulated at the EU summit in Copenhagen in 1993), which set the conditions for admission to the EU.
European integration- this is a process of industrial, political, legal, economic (also in some cases social and cultural) integration of powers that are wholly or partially located in Europe. European integration predominantly carried out through the European Union and the Council of Europe.
In political science, there are several approaches to the definition of the concept of European integration: intergovernmental, institutional and communicative approaches.
Supporters intergovernmental approach assign a priority role in the process of integration to national states. The result of their interaction at the intergovernmental level is a special Environment, which influences the emergence of common institutions. As part of institutional approach(Ernst Haas) European integration is seen as a process of transformation of national practices of interaction between institutions, which leads to the creation of a special multi-level management system with many decision-making centers (governance). Communicative approach interprets European integration as a process of creating social communities through effective interaction between their members in various fields. As a result, a security community is being formed, in which political factors are oriented towards the creation of a new political center. This political center and will have to coordinate the work of the participants.
The idea of a united Europe has occupied the minds of European politicians for a long time, and only in the second half of the 20th century did it find its practical implementation. Integration cannot be the result of a single political will; certain prerequisites are necessary for its development.
Tab.: Prerequisitescreation of a united Europe
European integration is a clear example of vertical integration, which has several aspects: economic, political, military. It has been actively developed since the early 1950s. It began with the implementation of the Marshall Plan. In April 1948, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established, which in September 1950 was supplemented by the European Payments Union (EPU), which in 1961 was replaced by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
The transition from a mere international European cooperation to a truly supranational community began on May 9, 1950, when Robert Schuman took the initiative to publicize the plan developed by Jean Monnet to create an industrial association of six countries (France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The novelty of this association was the creation of a European governing body independent of the governments of the countries.
The next step was the creation 25March 1957 of the European Economic Community ("Common Market") and the European Atomic Energy Community (ECAE), or "Euroatom".
Treaty of Rome 1957
Determined to lay the foundations for a closer union among European nations;
Determined to work together to secure the economic and social progress of their countries by removing the barriers that divide Europe;
Setting as the main goal of their efforts the constant improvement of the living and working conditions of their peoples.
Recognizing that the removal of existing barriers requires a concerted effort to ensure stable economic growth, fair trade and fair competition;
Concerned about strengthening the union of economies and ensuring their harmonious development while reducing the gap between different regions and lagging behind countries in the worst situation;
Desiring to promote, through common trade, a policy of gradual lifting of restrictions on international trade;
Desiring to reaffirm the solidarity that unites Europe and the countries of other continents, and Desiring to ensure their development and prosperity in accordance with the UN Charter;
Determined to strengthen, through the implementation of this complex, peace and freedom, and calling on the other peoples of Europe who share these ideals to join in this effort;
We decided to create the European Economic Community.
Purpose of the EEC- Promote the development of national economies and protect Europe from the dominance of American capital. The conditions for joining the EEC is the liquidation of unprofitable enterprises and state subsidies. The participating countries jointly develop economic policies, interstate projects, customs tariffs that regulate the financial system, establish a system of international specialization in order to ensure the profitability of production, and create a single labor market.
In the second half of the 60s, the structures of the ECSC, the EEC, and Euroatom were united in order to create unified bodies (Council, Commissions, the Court, etc.). In 1968, a single customs union was formed.
Further development of the EEC goes the way deepening economic and political integration (Maastricht agreements establishing the European Community, 1992).
The process of formation of the EEC was long accompanied by crisis phenomena caused by structural changes in the economies of countries, the process of developing an integration system.
There were also many opponents of the EEC. So, in 1960, in opposition to the Common Market, Great Britain formed the European Free Trade Association, which included Great Britain, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, and Portugal.
In the 1960s, a fierce competition broke out between the EEC and EFTA. In this struggle, the EEC received a convincing victory: for ten years (1960-1970), the fate of the EEC in world production increased from 26% to 32%, while the fate of the EFTA decreased from 16.5% to 15%. As a result, the EFTA collapsed, and its members one by one began to move into the EEC, and the first of them was Great Britain itself.
In the 1970s Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland joined the EEC. In the 80s - Greece, Spain, Portugal.
The transition from confrontation to cooperation between the states of the world, the end of the Cold War (second half of the 80s - 90s), gave a new impetus to the integration processes in Europe. They developed in two directions: deepening the integration processes and expanding the EU (attracting new members at the expense of countries Central, Northern, Eastern Europe.
In 1987, the members of the EEC put into effect the "Single European Act", according to which they eliminated existing obstacles to economic cooperation, created a single tax system, and abolished differences in their legislations. In addition, the EEC countries in May 1992 signed an agreement with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) on the formation of the European Economic Area (EEA). Here capital, goods, services and labor force move freely. On February 6, 1992 in Maastricht (Netherlands), the EEC member countries signed agreements, according to which, from January 1, 1993, the single market began to function. At the same time, an agreement on the European Union (EU) came into force, on the basis of which in 1999 the creation of a single currency area was completed - instead of national currencies introduced a single "European currency unit" - "euro". The community plans to develop a common defense policy and introduce a single European citizenship. Consequently, a European House should be formed, which will be led by the European Council, the Council of the EU, the European Commission, the European Parliament, the European Court.
Introduction………………………………………………………………………3
1. Economic integration of European countries………………………3
2. Political integration in the EU………………………………………..10
3. Relations between the European Union and Russia………………..11
Conclusion………………………………………………………………..15
List of used literature…………………………………….16
Introduction
Economic integration is a historically established community that has evolved over many years. It is a broad interstate association, which has its own organizational structure. A deeper division of labor is carried out between the participants in the integration, an intensive exchange of goods, services, capital, and labor is carried out. The idea of a close relationship between countries found its political expression even in ancient countries.
The ideas of integration and cooperation, the creation of a single economic space, the restoration and development of cooperation between countries - traditional partners, have become top priorities in the CIS countries. And this is natural. For integration processes in the economy are the imperative of the times.
1. Economic integration of European countries.
Integration (from lat. integrum - whole; lat. integratio- restoration, replenishment) - in the general case, it means unification, interpenetration. Combining any elements (parts) into a whole. The process of mutual rapprochement and the formation of relationships.
Economic integration - the process of developing sustainable relations between neighboring states, leading to their gradual economic merger, based on the implementation by these countries of a coordinated interstate economy and policy.
Integration types and features:
| Integration type | signs |
| Free Trade Zone | A form of agreement when the participants agree on the removal of customs tariffs and quotas in relation to each other. At the same time, each has its own policy towards third countries. Examples: NAFTA, EEC. |
| customs union | Uniform customs policy towards third countries. However, there are also more serious internal contradictions. An example is the EEC. |
| common market | Complete removal of obstacles to the movement of all factors of production between the participating countries. In the process of solution are such issues as: full coordination of economic policy, etc., alignment of economic indicators. |
| economic union | Occurs at a stage of high economic development. A coordinated (or even unified) economic policy is being pursued, and on this basis all obstacles are being removed. Interstate (suprastate) bodies are being created. Major economic transformations are taking place in all participating countries. |
| monetary union | A form of economic union and at the same time a major component of the economic union. The salient features of a monetary union are: 1. coordinated (joint) floating of national currencies; 2. establishment by agreement of fixed exchange rates, which are purposefully supported by the Central Banks of the participating countries; 3. creation of a single regional currency; 4. formation of a single regional bank, which is the emission center of this international currency unit. In developing countries, a monetary union is understood as a clearing agreement. |
| Full economic integration | A single economic policy and, as a result, the unification of the legislative framework. Conditions: the general tax system; availability of uniform standards; unified labor legislation; |
European integration is a process of interaction between the social and political institutions of the states of Europe, stimulating the creation of a new political system(European Union). The process of European integration is seen as effective method to avoid war between the states of Europe and became a response to the military upheavals of the 20th century.
In political science, there are several approaches to the definition of the concept of European integration: intergovernmental, institutional and communicative approaches.
Supporters intergovernmental approach assign a priority role in the process of integration to national states. The result of their interaction at the intergovernmental level is a special environment that influences the emergence of common institutions. As part of institutional approach(Ernst Haas) European integration is seen as a process of transformation of national practices of interaction between institutions, which leads to the creation of a special multi-level management system with many decision-making centers (governance). Communicative approach interprets European integration as a process of creating social communities through effective interaction between their members in various fields. As a result, a security community is being formed, in which political factors are oriented towards the creation of a new political center. This political center will have to coordinate the work of the participants.
Causes integration
1. The deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of production and capital requires a transition from a simple exchange of goods to a stable large-scale international trade in goods and services, then → to the international movement of capital and the creation of new industries → to close industrial and scientific and technical cooperation → to joint production and management.
2. An important reason for integration is scientific and technological progress, which requires significant resources: material, financial, labor, vast markets, joint work of individual countries in the scientific and technical field.
3. One of the main reasons for integration was the development of large monopolies, later TNCs. The capital of the gigantic monopolies, through integration, seeks to conquer new sales markets, markets for raw materials, to maximize its profits, while relying on the support of state power.
4. An important reason for integration is the political factor: the desire of states through integration to gain greater political weight, authority in the world community, and quickly solve their economic problems on this basis.
Goals integration
Today, there are about 20 international economic associations of integration type in the world, covering the main regions and continents of the globe. The countries included in these associations account for almost 2/3 of the planet's GDP and the bulk of international trade (about $7 trillion out of $10.5 trillion). But despite the existence of so many integration groups, their goals basically coincide.
1. Taking advantage of economies of scale. Ensure market expansion, cost reduction and other benefits based on the theory of economies of scale.
An economy of scale, as you know, is the development of production, in which an increase in the cost of factors per unit leads to an increase in production by more than one unit.
The integrating countries hope to attract more foreign direct investment, which is more willing to go to markets of significant size, where it makes sense to create independent production.
2 . Creation of a favorable foreign policy environment. The most important goal of most integration associations is to strengthen mutual understanding and cooperation between the participating countries in the political, military, social, cultural and other non-economic fields. Having good relations with neighboring countries, backed up by mutual economic commitments, is a top political priority for these countries.
3. Solving the problems of trade policy. It is believed that concerted speeches on behalf of a bloc of countries (for example, in WTO negotiations) have more weight and lead to more desirable trade policy outcomes.
4. Promoting economic restructuring. The inclusion of countries creating a market economy or carrying out deep economic reforms to regional trade agreements of states with a higher level of development is seen as the most important channel for the transfer of experience and a guarantee of the chosen course for market reforms. More developed countries, uniting with their neighbors, are also interested in accelerating their market reforms and creating full-fledged and capacious markets there. Such goals were pursued by many countries of Western Europe (Spain, Portugal, Greece, etc.), joining the EU in one form or another.
5. Support for young sectors of the national industry. Even if the integration association does not provide for discriminatory measures against third countries, it is often seen as a way to support local producers, for whom a wider regional market is emerging as a result of integration.
Stages of integration
Today, integration processes in the world have reached a fairly high level of development, they have covered most of the countries of the planet, but all integration associations, as a rule, go through the same steps and stages in their movement.
1. Preparatory stage- the stage at which countries sign agreements providing for more favorable treatment for each other in trade. Customs tariffs may apply. At the same time, no interstate bodies are created to manage such preferential agreements.
2. Free trading zone- this is a level of integration at which the participating countries agree on the complete mutual abolition of customs tariffs and quotas in trade between themselves. At the same time, each state pursues its own trade and economic policy towards third countries.
3. Customs Union- this is the stage at which the member countries of the association not only eliminate customs tariffs and quotas within the union, but also establish uniform customs tariffs for third countries. This is the main difference between a customs union and a free trade zone.
4. Common Market- the stage at which countries agree on the freedom of movement not only of goods and services, but also of factors production - capital and labor force. Freedom of interstate movement under the protection of the common external tariff requires a higher level of interstate coordination of economic policy. Such coordination is carried out at periodic meetings (usually once or twice a year) of the heads of state and government of the participating countries, much more frequent meetings of heads of ministries of finance, central banks and other economic departments.
5. economic union- this is a more developed stage of integration, when, in addition to what is available within the framework of the general market, there is an agreement, coordination of the economic policies of the participating countries through periodic meetings, meetings of heads of state and government, heads of various ministries. At this stage, there is a need for bodies endowed with more than just the ability to coordinate actions and monitor economic development but also to make operational decisions on behalf of the group as a whole. Governments agree to give up part of their functions and thereby concede part of state sovereignty in favor of non-state bodies.
6. Complete economic integration - this is the stage that combines all the considered types of integration plus the implementation of a single economic policy by all member countries of the group, which requires the unification of legal legislation within this integration union. Full economic integration implies a common monetary policy for all participating countries, i.e. a single currency system with single currency relations and a single currency mechanism: a single currency, common rules for regulating exchange rates, a common central bank, etc.
2. Political integration in the EU.
Political integration- the process of rapprochement of two or more political structures, directed towards mutual cooperation, in a narrower sense, this is the formation of some integral complex of political systems at the interstate level. One of the characteristic results of such integration is the unification of these structures. At the same time, it is necessary to have both formal and informal institutions for the joint solution of any issues. It is assumed that in the integrated community, the level of transactions between the participants of integration and the increase in the commonality of interests and values increase.
Karl Deutsch sees in integration that conflicts between states will be peacefully resolved if the states have stable mutual expectations. Thus, he sees integration as both a state and a process. Integration as a state is better seen as a political community.
The integration process allows to achieve maximum mutual benefit with minimum costs for all entities that participate in it. Nevertheless, integration requires significant preparation of all subjects for this process, as well as good quality managing them.
Prerequisites
When creating new political integrations, it is necessary to reduce the influence of the previous state, which can significantly slow down the process of integration. Therefore, the prerequisite for this process is disintegration, which liberates subjects from former stereotypes.
Types of political integration
Political integration has two main forms: intrastate and interstate. At the same time, within each of these forms, integrations can occur on more low levels, for example, cross-party integration, usually leading to the creation of one sufficiently powerful and cohesive party.
Interstate
Internationalization taking place in modern world, is, as it were, an impetus to the beginning of interstate integration. After the collapse of socialism, the paradigm of development in the world changes, and society creates a system of polycentricity from two hostile macro-states. The regrouping of political forces carried out in this way allows states to find their places in the world community.
Intrastate
Intrastate integration is similar in form to interstate integration, but differs significantly in content. In the post-socialist countries, the former unity is disintegrating. It is this system that makes it possible to create fundamentally new political subjects that can consciously solve the necessary tasks aimed at developing integration within their regions and subjects.
3. Relations between the European Union and Russia
Relations between the European Union and modern Russia have a short history, you can say this story has just begun. In my opinion, a fifteen-year period of attempts aimed at effective cooperation between Russia and the EU member states is not yet a period. Both the European Union and Russia are interested in further integration, but approach this issue cautiously and slowly, as they are in search of mutually beneficial ways of cooperation.
Despite the fact that the former Soviet Union and, in the recent past, the European Economic Community were neighbors in terms of their geographical location, there were no proposals for cooperation from either side until a certain period. At that time, the EEC and the USSR had a completely different structure of the economy, different political regimes, they distinguished the structure of civil society in their states in different ways. The Soviet Union occupied a strong position on the international plane, opposing the United States of America, the European Community was somewhere in the middle, closer to the USA, further from the USSR.
It should be noted that Russia took the place of a country with a transitional market unstable economy on this path, was of interest to the EU as a source of raw materials. In fact, this position of Russia has not undergone a global change.
Today there is no need to talk about Russia becoming a member of the European Union. Despite the fact that the EU is now preparing to expand, to include new states, the process of joining the EU is very complicated.
The European Union puts before the states wishing to join it a number of requirements concerning the political system of the state, the economy, the recognition of the state as legal, the participation of the state in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950). Some of the requirements for Russia are realistically feasible. But still, the main requirement in its significance is the economy. It was the mutually beneficial economic interest of the EU member states that made it possible to unite.
Accession to the European Union does not bring automatic benefits that seem obvious, especially in the field of the common market, customs union, etc. Therefore, joining the European Union takes time to achieve economic growth. Long-term growth depends on structural reforms, which are more difficult than controlling inflation or macroeconomic stabilization in any other way, because structural reforms are linked to political ones. The sequence of adaptation must be carefully calibrated, compromises cannot be avoided here, otherwise countries will take on obligations that they cannot fulfill, or will fulfill them at the cost of losing stability.
The partnership agreement between the EU and Russia has led to a significant liberalization of access for Russian goods and services to the EU market. Reduced EU market tariff protection for Russian exports. However, in reality, the EU market is still wide open for Russian exports only with its current commodity structure. Anti-dumping procedures are especially harmful to exports to the EU.
Cooperation in the field of nuclear energy and trade in nuclear cycle goods is a growing area. It's about here only about the use of vigorous energy for peaceful purposes. The EU includes the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which, as a result of its formation, was called upon to promote the growth of the nuclear industry in the EU countries and compete with the two nuclear powers - the USA and the USSR.
Technical cooperation continues
Many important questions are left out
The positive signals of this summit may contribute to the overall improvement of Russian-European relations. However, despite such a cautiously optimistic assessment of the Stockholm summit, one should not forget that much was left out of the one-day meeting in the Swedish capital: a new agreement on partnership and cooperation has not yet been prepared; legal guarantees for Europe's energy supply through an energy charter remain unclear; Europe is silent on Russia's proposal to create a new European security architecture; mutual visa regime; the European Neighborhood Policy ("Eastern Partnership"), which, according to Russia, ignores it, and, not least, questions about the territorial integrity of Georgia, as well as the role of Ukraine as a transit country for Russian gas supplies to Europe. The memorandum signed a few days ago on the establishment of a Russian-European early warning system in the field of energy supply is the right step in the right direction, but it is by no means a solution to the problem. Here, too, many questions remain open.
The list of important topics in EU-Russia relations is getting longer and the topics themselves more and more urgent. Both sides must, in their own interests, overcome the stagnation. Maybe the next EU-Russia summit will make significant progress, especially since it will be the first summit after the entry into force Lisbon Treaty. It is relations with the EU's largest immediate neighbor that will show whether the Treaty of Lisbon will improve the European Union's foreign policy capacity.
Conclusion
As life shows, the formation of European regulation mechanisms is a long-term and ongoing process, which not only did not end with the conclusion of the Agreement on the European Union, but gained new strength. The methods of such regulation are rather heterogeneous, since they should cover all spheres of life in the EU countries, but, nevertheless, they are focused on one goal - united Europe. European regulation includes both economic, political and social methods, but all of them are designed to ensure maximum efficiency of all initiated processes in the European Union.
In my opinion, regulation cannot be viewed solely as a process of control and coordination of any actions or decisions. In other words, the success of regulation does not depend solely on the authorities, legislation, programs or policies that implement it. Great importance has a factor of support for such actions on the part of citizens, who for this must not only understand the ongoing processes and approve them, but also actively participate.
List of used literature
1. Geopolitics: textbook \ edited by V.A. Mikhailov. - M., 2007
2. Modern international relations: textbook \ ed. A.V. Torkunov. - M., 2000.
3. A. Shishaev. Our business with the EU\\ international life, No. 10, 1999
5. Electronic dictionary Wikipedia.
Electronic dictionary Wikipedia
A. Shishaev. Our business with the EU \\ International life, No. 10, 1999
A serious step in the economic rapprochement of the countries of the European Union was made in 1991 with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty - the Treaty on Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Initially, it was signed by seven countries with the most stable economies: Germany, France, Holland, Belgium, Austria, Luxembourg and Ireland.
The Maastricht Treaty fixed extremely strict criteria for economic convergence (convergence) of member states that agreed to switch to a single currency. The level of inflation in these countries was not to exceed 2.6%, the state budget deficit - 3%, and the total public debt - 60% of gross domestic product (GDP). Most of the EU member states moved towards meeting the convergence criteria with great difficulty.
The difficult process of adapting to the Maastricht convergence criteria in all European countries, and especially in the countries included in the EMU, was accompanied by an increase in unemployment. But already in 1999, unemployment began to decline.
From January 1, 1991, in accordance with the convention signed in June 1990 in Schengen Castle (Luxembourg) between the Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Denmark, the Benelux countries, the borders were actually eliminated, which remained only on geographic maps; there are no border guards or customs inside the Schengen area. Since 1992, the Schengen Agreement has extended to other EU members. In Europe, a single and homogeneous economic complex was born, within which capital from one country could flow into another.
The Commission of the European Communities consists of an elected chairman and 16 members appointed by the governments of the EEC countries. The European Parliament has advisory functions, which since the 1980s. expand, he is elected by direct universal suffrage of the population of the participating countries for a period of five years according to the norms of representation in proportion to the population of the state. Monthly sessions of the European Parliament are held in Strasbourg (France), extraordinary meetings - in Brussels (Belgium), where the committees of the European Parliament work; its secretariat is located in Luxembourg.
The second stage in the implementation of the monetary and economic union began in 1995. It was marked by the establishment of the European Monetary Institute, whose task was to coordinate the monetary policy of the Union states and create the European Central Bank, which controls the new currency - the euro.
In 1997, the Amsterdam Treaty was signed, according to which, since 1999, the new currency, the third stage of integration has begun.
Much of the management of the economy has been handed over to the European Central Bank; he had to control emissions, establish basic interest rates and impose sanctions on countries that overspend or default on loans. National governments were still free to decide what to spend money on, but bank limits effectively set a limit on how much each country could spend, and no country could solve economic problems by devaluing the currency or issuing money. .
The EU countries pledged to follow a common course in the field of foreign policy and security, in matters of domestic economic policy, law enforcement, in the fight against crime, including drug trafficking, etc. A single European citizenship was established. The newly created European Monetary Institute made it possible to implement a single monetary policy. material from the site
In 1992, the European Community united 12 countries: Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, France. In 1992, the European Union was formed on its basis. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU. On May 1, 2004, 25 countries were already members of the EU. The EU includes Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Cyprus. In 2007, after the accession of Bulgaria and Romania to the EU, the total number of its members reached twenty-seven.
Western European integration in the 2nd half of the 20th century
Western Europe in the modern world
Stage 1 (1951 - 1957). April 18, 1951 in Paris - Treaty establishing the ECSC (Belgium, Germany, Holland, Italy, Luxembourg, France).
At the origins of integration - Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet. The initiator of the European integration - Fr. Schumann's plan - a coalition of stone, iron ore and metallurgist industries of a number of Western European states (May 9, 1950 min in del Fr)
ECSC: abolition of import and export duties, quantitative restrictions, discriminatory measures in the trade of coal, iron ore, steel. Uniform import duties on these goods (for non-member countries). Supranational Supreme governing body, -general regulation of coal and steel production, modernization processes. His decisions are binding, but his office was coordinated primarily with the Council of Ministers, the countries had the right to veto. The Treaty of Paris, therefore, was distinguished by the caution of passages, the gradual and gradual development of integration as a whole and its organizational forms.
The center of European heavy industry (in the Ruhr, the Saarland, Limburg, Wallonia, Luxembourg and Lorraine), ceased to be a constant source of wars and conflicts, a process of cooperation and progress began to develop there. The organization paved the way for a series of new European integration initiatives.
Stage 2 (late 50s - early 70s ("golden age")). March 1957 the same 6 countries - 2 Treaties of Rome on the creation of the EEC and Euratom (created according to the ECSC model and also had an industry focus).
The EEC is distinguished by the idea of expanding economic integration through the creation of a common market. Objectives of the EEC:
gradual lifting of all restrictions on trade between member countries;
establishment of a common customs tariff in trade with third countries;
elimination of restrictions on the free movement of capital, people, services;
conducting general policy in the field of agriculture and transport;
unification of tax systems;
establishing rules for competition “in the common market”;
approximation of the laws of the participating countries;
development of principles for coordinating economic policy, etc.
In Oct 1956 London said that the UK prefers the creation of a free trade area. May 4, 1960 Stockholm Declaration signed - Great Britain, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland formed the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In parallel, two types of integration began to develop in Western Europe, reflecting different interests and different ideas about the models of cooperation between the two groups of countries.
July 1, 1968 (1.5 years ahead of schedule) the EEC countries created a customs union (trade restrictions were eliminated in the mutual trade of the participating countries and a single customs tariff was established in relation to 3 countries). Harmonization of standards and those norms, coordination of economic legislation. Industrial policy converged, the process of transforming the national monopolies of the EEC countries into transnational ones accelerated, and the liberalization of the movement of capital and labor in the EEC increased.
Common agricultural policy (principles: market unity (single rules and norms), preferences for goods from the Community (common customs barrier of the EU in relation to third countries), financial solidarity (all EEC states bear the burden of a single agrarian policy). In 1962, the European Fund for Guidance and Guarantee of Agriculture (FEOGA).
Stage 3 (from the beginning of the 70s to the middle of the 80s), -contradictions and difficulties in the Community. Sluggish growth rates relative to other Western countries, the highest unemployment rate, "trade wars" between partner countries have given rise to the so-called "Europessimism" syndrome. At the same time, the EU manages to achieve considerable progress in integration.
Jan 1973 - 1 quantitative expansion of the EU - Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland.
Currency integration becomes the sphere of supranational regulation. Since 1978 the European Monetary System (EMS) is being created, based on three main elements: a) ECU; b) the “European currency snake” system, i.e. on the one hand, a mechanism closely tying the currencies of the EU countries to each other (deviations could not exceed 1.125%), on the other, a mechanism of joint fluctuations against the dollar (deviations could not exceed 2.25%); c) the creation of the European Fund for Monetary Cooperation (EFVS) by combining part (20%) of the national gold and foreign exchange reserves of the participating countries. Monetary integration is a big step in advancing regional integration and a stepping stone towards economic and monetary union.
In 1981 in the EU - Greece.
Stage 4 (from the middle of the 80s to the beginning of the 90s). Completion of the creation of a single internal market. main goal reforming the EU was the creation of a single internal market, an integral euro-economy, which was recorded in the Single European Act (EEA) (1987). The EUR was supposed to be “a space without internal borders, in which the free movement of goods, capital, services and civilians”, its creation was provided for by December 31, 1992. complete elimination of physical, technical, tax and other barriers in the EU, which practically led to the elimination of national borders, the creation of a homogeneous economic space. This task was largely completed by January 1, 1993. Spain and Portugal entered this stage in 1986.
Stage 5 (modern) - transition to the formation of an economic, monetary and political union.
In Dec 1991 The session of the European Council approved the text of the Treaty on the EU (Maastricht Treaty on the EU). The Treaty entered into force on November 1, 1993, the new name is the European Union.
Single European citizenship, political union, economic and monetary union. January 1, 1999. - introduced into the euro bank transfer, from June 1, 2002. completely replace the national currency.
In 1995, Finland, Austria and Sweden joined the EU. In 2004, 10 new member countries joined the EU. 2007 - signing of the Reform Treaty in Lisbon 2007 - the sixth enlargement of the EU (accession of Bulgaria and Romania) November 19, 2009 - the first elected Permanent President of the European CouncilDecember 1, 2009 - entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, according to which the European Union becomes a legal entity
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Start integration European about. Evolution integration processes. Main form of regional integration integration passes a series stages.
24. Ways of synthesis and integration Sciences.
Five can be identified major stages development of natural science: natural philosophy, classical natural science, synthetic stage, integrative-differential stage, informationological stage knowledge of nature.
Evolution integration processes. Main form of regional integration.
Objective foundations and essence of regional economic integration. On modern stage development, the dependence of the economies of various countries on each other is increasing ...
Start integration countries of Western Europe put the Paris Treaty on the establishment European associations at
Main form of regional integration. In its development, the international economic integration passes a series stages.
Documents developed by the Council of Europe in this area ( European convention for the protection of human rights and major freedoms 1950), are used in their activities EU.
CE and EU - integration organizations that differ in their legal nature.
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