Chinese culture rightfully considered one of the most ancient. The oldest period of Chinese culture, information about which has come down to our days in the form of written sources, begins in the 18th century BC and is associated with the rule of the Shang-Yin Dynasty (??). The living conditions of the Chinese have been unchanged for many centuries. Therefore, continuity, traditionalism and isolation are among the most important features of the development of Chinese culture. Even in the era of antiquity, all the basic ideals and values ​​of Chinese national culture were formed, which are still observed.

As is known, the formation of national culture is largely influenced by the climatic conditions of the life of the people. The fight against constant floods, droughts, typhoons united people, thus forming such basic qualities of the Chinese nation as collectivism, solidarity, discipline, patience. As a result of natural disasters, people were constantly limited in resources, which led to the formation of such qualities as frugality, pragmatism and prudence among the Chinese.

It should be noted that the presence of hieroglyphic writing was also an important factor in ensuring stability cultural property, a unity of people living in a rather vast territory and speaking little similar dialects. Even after the capture of Northern China by the Manchus, during the reign of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), the people managed to preserve their integrity, their language, their culture. The Mongols, despite the official lockdown of interethnic marriages, assimilated rather quickly, began to speak Chinese and readily accepted the teachings of Confucius.

The closed nature of the development of ancient Chinese culture provided it with stability, self-sufficiency, conservatism, love for a clear organization and order, and also predetermined the exclusive role of traditions, customs, rituals and ceremonies. "Of course, in ... a society ... where there are traditions dating back to ancient times, a significant place is occupied by rigidly formulated stereotypes of behavior, historically established norms of relationships, principles of social structure and administrative and political structure. But only in China, ethical and ritual principles and the corresponding forms of behavior were already hypertrophied to such an extent in ancient times that over time they replaced the ideas of religious and mythological perception of the world, so characteristic of all early societies. ... The place of the cult of great gods was taken by the real cult of clan and family ancestors , and the "living gods" were supplanted by a few abstract deities-symbols, the first and foremost among which was the impersonal naturalistic Sky.

Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher (born approximately 551 - died 479 BC), created a whole doctrine - Confucianism, which reflected the importance of traditions and rituals in the life of the Chinese. The main provisions of his teachings are set forth in the book "Lun Yu" (translated into Russian "Conversations and Judgments"), which was written by his students and contains the sayings of the philosopher. The ideas of Confucius are presented in a rather unsystematic and contradictory way, like his teaching itself, where one of his postulates may conflict with another.

Confucianism is an ethical and political doctrine. According to him, the family is a small model of the state with a strict hierarchy: father - son, parents - children, elders - younger. This approach to the structure of the state is reflected even in the language, "the state" (??) is translated as "the state and the family." "Junior" (according to social status, positions) are "children", "senior" (officials, ruler) are their "parents". The basis of Chinese society is not the equality of all members of society, but the inviolability of the norms of behavior on which relations are built in the state - the "family", where the younger obeys the elder, respects him, and the elder takes care of the younger.

Confucius believed that if you lead the people not with the help of laws, but guided by virtue ("philanthropy"), the rules of conduct, then "the people will know shame and correct themselves." By virtue is meant moral re-education, as it is done in the family, and by the rules of behavior - the system of tribal relations.

As for the ethical part of the teaching, Confucius created a certain image of an ideal person - a "noble man" (??), who has such moral qualities as philanthropy ("zhen"), justice ("i"), prudence and wisdom ("zhi"), sincerity and openness ("xin"), and also observes the ritual ("li"). All these qualities are brought up in the environment of the family, it plays a decisive role in the formation of personality. In general, all qualities are interconnected and determine each other. Ritual is the source of moral principles and their main criterion. The person who follows the ritual has philanthropy. Justice balances philanthropy, gives firmness to the "noble husband", and sincerity prevents hypocrisy in the performance of the ritual. Wisdom is a quality somewhat isolated and even opposed to philanthropy. The book "Lun Yu" says: "The wise man loves the mountains, the one who loves humanity enjoys the mountains. The wise man is in motion, the philanthropist is at rest..."

"Noble man" is opposed to "low man" (??). If the "noble man" first thinks about duty and subordinates to him the receipt of benefits, seeing the benefit, he thinks about the duty, then the "low man" is only interested in the benefit.

A noble husband always takes care of the so-called "face" (??) - social reputation - of himself and those around him. "Face" is... a sign you put up to tell you what kind of communication you should expect from you and what kind of behavior you expect from others." good face"is determined not only by the presence of 5 basic qualities, but also by the position in the social hierarchy, as well as by age, and the most important is, perhaps, the position in the social hierarchy. Previously, everyone could get a position and rank by passing the state exam of one level or another, nobility of origin, wealth, of course, also mattered, but they were not determining factors. In our time, the situation has changed, but echoes of the past still make themselves felt: wealth, nevertheless, is not as important as a place in the social hierarchy and "demonstration" of their status.

According to E. Hall's theory of cultures, China belongs to the countries with a high-context culture, where great importance have communication context or non-verbal information. Even not very rich Chinese do not skimp on buying expensive, branded clothing, shoes, computers, as all this forms their "face" for others. At the same time, however paradoxical it may seem, an important characteristic of a person is modesty, self-deprecation. It is not for a decent person to demonstrate his talents and merits, to show off. One should say about oneself: "untalented", "unworthy", "incompetent", etc. The most important principle of caring for the "face" of others is the principle "do not do to others what you do not want for yourself." You must always take care of the feelings of another person, avoid conflicts in every possible way, especially in public, because by making another person "lose face" (???), you lose him yourself. It helps to avoid such a situation by observing the Confucian principle of the "golden mean", which says that between two contradictions you need to choose the "middle way", this helps to avoid, mitigate conflicts, and maintain harmony in relations between people.

Describing the features of modern Chinese national culture, it is impossible not to say about the political events taking place in the country since the 70s of the last century, since the influence of these events on Chinese culture is quite large, they contributed to some change in traditional values, the imposition of new values ​​on them, the formation of new human qualities. The policy of reform and opening up, the development of a mixed market economy, and private enterprises contributed to the penetration of European ideals into Chinese society and the formation of new qualities, such as individualism, the achievement of personal gain, prosperity and success.

However, some values ​​remain unchanged, such as, for example, patriotism. The Chinese have always been convinced of their exclusivity. Since ancient times, they believed that the Earth is one large continent, surrounded on all sides by the deep sea. In the center of it is the Middle Empire -??, and around, in climatic conditions not suitable for life, live barbarians, "semi-humans". In addition, the Chinese also considered the presence of writing, a calendar, and the prevailing way of life as evidence of their superiority over their neighbors. The attitude of modern Chinese to their country and to foreigners has not changed much since ancient times. For example, instead of the official ???(waiguoren) - a foreigner - do the Chinese call foreigners ?? (laowai) - "old stranger", thus expressing his jokingly dismissive attitude towards foreigners. Another sign of patriotism is that among the Chinese it is considered very prestigious to serve in the army. A Chinese will never condemn the policy of his state, even if he does not agree with it. It is believed that everything is done for the good of the Motherland, that a person is just a cog in the billion-dollar mechanism of the state. The interests of the state are above all.

Conclusion

The main ideals and values ​​of Chinese society are such qualities as collectivism, solidarity, discipline, patience. They were formed in ancient times, and thanks to the cyclical development of Chinese culture, its isolation, all have survived to this day.

Great influence on national culture China had Confucianism. Confucius transferred the model family relations on relations in the state, created the image of an ideal person - a "noble man" who observes rituals - norms of behavior and possesses such moral qualities as philanthropy, sincerity, wisdom. The ideal person always thinks about duty and subordinates profit to it. He always cares about his "face" (reputation) and the "face" of others. A person forms his "face" himself. It consists of such elements as moral qualities, age (the older the person, the more respectful he is) and social position, the latter being the most important. Since China is a country with a high-contextual culture, great importance is attached to external attributes that provide information about a person, or rather, about his "face". Therefore, the Chinese do not skimp on buying expensive status items. Taking care of the "face" of the people around them, the Chinese avoid conflict situations, strive to mitigate contradictions - they follow the Confucian principle of the "golden mean".

In recent decades, China has undergone strong economic and political changes, which inevitably affected people's minds. The Chinese began to attach more importance to material values, the achievement of personal well-being, such a character trait as individualism appeared. However, the old ideals remained national traits. So, patriotism is still the most important value. The Chinese attach great importance to public interests, not personal ones, they work, first of all, for the benefit of their family and homeland. Thus, China remains a collectivist country with family type relations in a society where great importance is attached to the social hierarchy.

concept motherland language linguistic

Chinese culture is one of the oldest. The earliest cultural monuments found in China date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. One of the ancient ancestors modern man- Sinanthropus, which existed about 400 thousand years ago. However, civilization Ancient China formed somewhat later than in and India - only in 11 thousand BC. For a long time, it was of a non-irrigated type: only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Chinese began to create irrigation systems. In addition, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Chinese civilization existed in isolation, in isolation from other ancient civilizations.

Like other cultures, chinese culture original and unique. Unlike the Indian one, it is more rational, pragmatic, addressed to the values ​​of real earthly life. Its second characteristic feature is its exceptional, huge and defining the role of traditions, customs in rituals and ceremonies. Hence the existing expression - "Chinese ceremonies."

Another feature of Chinese culture is related to religion and attitude to nature. As in other religions, in Chinese beliefs, primarily the forces of nature are deified. The supreme deity for the Chinese is Heaven, the main temple is the temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. They have a cult of the Sun and other luminaries. Since ancient times, the Chinese have worshiped mountains and waters as holy places.

However, along with the deification of nature, Chinese culture, like no other, is characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. That is why in it first of all arise landscape painting, lyrics and architecture. One might even say that landscape view extends in China to all phenomena of life. In terms of the depth of aesthetic and poetic penetration into the life of nature, Chinese culture knows no equal.

The culture of Ancient China existed from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. and until 220 AD, when the Han empire collapsed. Its immediate predecessor was culture Yangshao (III millennium BC) - a culture of the late Neolithic. Already at this stage, the Chinese tamed animals, cultivated fields, built dwellings buried in the ground, mastered many crafts, and mastered pictographic writing. They revered the cults of the Sun, the Moon, mountains and other natural phenomena; they had a cult of ancestors. Pottery reached a high level during this period. Ceramic vessels - dishes, bowls, amphoras, jugs - are decorated with complex geometric (zigzags, rhombuses, triangles, circles) and zoomorphic patterns.

In the II millennium BC, along with the emergence of civilization, Chinese culture is undergoing profound changes. During this period, the collapse primitive society and the formation of the first early class states. One of them was the city-state of Shan, which was at the head of a large association. The remains of this city, discovered near Anyang, indicate that the cities were distinguished by a clear layout, surrounded by an adobe wall up to 6 m thick. The palace of the ruler (“van”) of the “great Shang clan” towered on an adobe platform, and its roof rested on rows of wooden columns, the bases of which were bronze discs. Stone sculptures of people and animals (bull, tiger), wall paintings in bright red, black and white colors were also found in this palace.

IN Shang era the Chinese invented the technique of bronze casting, created a system of hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the ancient written monuments- inscriptions on stones, bones of sacrificial animals, turtle shields. Religious and mythological ideas about the world become much more complicated. In particular, belief in the afterlife and the significance of the cult of ancestors are growing. Burials become more complex. The tomb of the Shan ruler consists of two underground chambers located one above the other, guarded by totem guards in the form of half-animals, half-humans. The cells contained utensils made of bronze, ceramics and jade, there were swords and axes, chariots and many other items necessary in the afterlife, so that it would not differ from earthly life.

Widespread in the Shang Dynasty bronze products also testify to the complication of the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Chinese. In particular, massive and heavy bronze vessels intended for sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors and the spirits of nature are decorated with a geometric ornament, which is only a background, against which patterns close to a bas-relief stand out, depicting a bull, a ram, a snake, a bird, a dragon and a mask of a fantastic beast taote. The handles, lids and corners of such vessels are made in the form of bull heads and torsos of dragons, and on the vessels themselves prickly teeth, fins and scales are depicted, which multiplies their magical meaning. Of all the totem animals, the main patrons of man are the tiger, the ram and the dragon.

In the 1st millennium BC in all areas of life in ancient China, the most significant shifts and changes take place. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Shang kingdom was conquered by the Western Zhou, as a result of which a large but fragile public educationWestern Zhou, whose rulers adopted the title "van" from the Shants.

At this time, the development of the religious doctrine of the divine origin of "royalty" and the sacred right to power of the Chou vans, which was based on mythological ideas and proceeded from the Chou cult of the sky as the supreme deity, was being completed. Thus, for the first time, a single and harmonious mythological history of China was created, which included the cult of the first ancestors and tells about the golden age of the wise rulers of antiquity. The Zhou van was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He endowed magic power de, which made him an intermediary between heaven and people, as well as the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Later, in the 8th century BC, Western Zhou is under the rule of Eastern Zhou, however, this new formation and many other states recognized the sacred priority of the Zhou ruler as the Son of Heaven over themselves. By the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. on the territory of the Middle Kingdoms, the Huasya ethnic group is formed and an idea arises of its superiority over the peoples of the rest of the periphery - the "barbarians of the four countries of the world." The emerging cultural ethnocentrism further intensifies even more.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. China is experiencing rapid socio-economic growth. New centers of trade are emerging, the population of many cities is approaching half a million. The smelting of iron and the use of iron tools reach a high level. Crafts are successfully developing, hydraulic structures are being built. Irrigation systems are widely used in agriculture.

The so-called era deserves special mention. "Wrestling Realms"- "Zhanguo" (V-III century BC), when there was a struggle for hegemony between several strong states. In this struggle, a special role was played by kingdom of qin: after the name of this kingdom, all the ancient Chinese are called "qin". It also served as the basis for the name of China in European languages: Latin Sin, French Shin, German Chin, English China.

The era of the "Warring States" is considered a classic in the history of the culture of ancient China. It is also called the era of "the rivalry of a hundred schools." The country is really experiencing an unprecedented spiritual and intellectual upsurge. is accelerating development of scientific knowledge. In astronomy, the duration of the solar year is specified, a lunisolar calendar is created, a star catalog is compiled, lunar eclipses are calculated, and the concept of the movement of celestial bodies - "tao" - is formed.

Mathematics and other sciences are developing successfully. In particular, the Treatise on Mountains and Seas is published. Height scientific knowledge leads to a weakening of religious-mythological thinking, even causes some religious skepticism. This is evidenced by the treatise "Questions to Heaven", where criticism of mythological ideas sounds.

The era of Zhangguo , during this period, all the main philosophical currents are formed - Confucianism, Taoism and legalism.

The founder - Kung Tzu (551-479 BC) - chose the topic of his reflections not the problem of being or knowledge, but the relationship between people. Observing around him the endless struggle of all against all, he saw the way to establish peace, order, social harmony in the revival of centuries-old traditions, customs and rituals. He believed that the main task of educating a person is to master the strict norms and rules of relations between equal and unequal, older and younger, higher and lower, father and children.

He was a resolute opponent of any innovations and reforms. In his opinion, it is the past, the forgotten ancient wisdom that holds the keys to solving the problems of the present. Mastering the experience of the past and traditions should help a person to correctly understand his place in life and understand the simple truth: "The ruler must be the ruler, the father must be the father, the son must be the son." Confucius considered the society-state as a large family, where the main bearer of the norms and rules of behavior is a humane ruler.

The teachings created by Confucius and his followers go beyond philosophy and religion and form the basis of the entire way of life. In it you can find the answer to the question about the meaning of life, and how to behave in a particular situation. Confucianism will play a decisive role in the creation of the ancient Chinese education system, where a clear preference was given to the humanities. Thanks to this system, a fairly wide class of educated officials was formed in Chinese society, which constituted a privileged elite and resembled in its social role priestly caste in India. Confucianism contributed to the strengthening of Chinese cultural ethnocentrism.

Approximately simultaneously with Confucianism, another influential religious and philosophical trend arose in China - Taoism, the founder of which is considered the legendary Lao Tzu. In teaching, the main attention is paid to the laws that operate in nature. Taoism is based on the idea of ​​the Tao way, or the doctrine of "the way of nature”, about the eternal variability of the world. Jlao-Tzu formulates his credo as follows: “Man follows the laws of Heaven. Heaven follows the laws of Tao. and the Tao follows itself.”

Like Confucianism, Taoism is not limited to philosophy and religion, but is special image life. He borrowed a lot from Buddhism and yoga, in particular the system of physical and breathing exercises. In this regard, the ultimate goal for its adherents is to achieve immortality. Taoism develops the theory of passivity and non-action, encourages to refuse active participation in life, to escape from the hustle and bustle of everyday life, to contemplation. The principle of non-action also applies to the ruler: "The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists."

The circle of interests of Taoism included not only natural science, but also the so-called occult sciences, in particular alchemy. The experiments of Chinese alchemists eventually led to the invention of gunpowder. Also occupied a special place geomancy - the science of the connection between space and the earth's relief. Here, the knowledge and recommendations of Chinese magicians were not only of great importance for farmers and architects, but also led to the invention of the compass. Important role also belonged to astrology, especially in the preparation of horoscopes for all occasions.

Many of the principles of Taoism formed the philosophical basis of the well-known Chinese martial arts. including u-shu. It was Taoism that played a key role in the aestheticization and poeticization of nature, which became one of the main principles of man's relationship to nature in Chinese culture.

Another influential philosophical trend was legalism, which initially opposed Confucianism, but subsequently almost completely disappeared into it. Unlike Confucianism legalism in building a strong state, he relied not on morality and tradition, but on strict and harsh laws, believing that politics is incompatible with morality.

For legalists, the main ways of managing a person, society and the state were coercion, the strictest discipline, diligence and obedience, cruel punishments, personal responsibility and merit. The Legists developed the concept of a despotic state, which, with Confucian amendments, was implemented in ancient China and, with minor changes, lasted until the beginning of the 20th century.

Artistic culture of ancient China

The Warring States era is also characterized by significant events in the field of artistic culture. IN During this period, the range of topics covered by art expanded significantly. The first treatise on architecture"Jouli". which establishes strict principles for a clear layout of the city, indicating the size and location of buildings, the width of the main streets and roads.

Achieves great success literature. By this time, the creation of the famous monument of Chinese literature - the "Book of Songs" - "Shijing" (X1-VI centuries BC), which included more than 300 neses and verses, the selection and editing of which is attributed to Confucius, is being completed.

During this period, the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC) created, who was both a lyricist and a tragic poet. The sources of his work were folk poetry and myths. His works are distinguished by exquisite form and deep content. Once in exile, Qu Yuan created the ode "Sorrow of the Exile", which became a poetic confession of an old man. The second great poet was Sup Yu (290-222 BC), whose works are filled with hope and cheerfulness. He became the first singer female beauty and love.

The culture of ancient China reaches its highest rise at its final stage - from the 111th century. BC. up to 111 c. AD This was facilitated by profound changes in other areas of life.

The Minister of the Qin Kingdom, Shang Yang, based on the ideas of legalism, initiated broad reforms, as a result of which uniform legislation and legal proceedings were established; abolished hereditary titles and privileges; the place of chariots and bronze weapons in the army was taken by cavalry and iron weapons, etc. The reforms were carried out by methods of the most severe violence and coercion, but thanks to them, the Qin kingdom, relying on the strongest army, was able to subjugate all the other "fighting kingdoms", becoming a powerful and centralized power. In 221 BC the Qin ruler accepted new title"Huangdi" means "Emperor of Qin". In 206 BC Qin dynasty gives way to the new Han dynasty, which remains in power until the end of the existence of Ancient China - until 220 AD.

During the Han era The Chinese empire is becoming one of the strongest in the world. Its population reached 60 million inhabitants, which accounted for 1/5 of the world's population. The modern Chinese call themselves Han Chinese.

During this period, China is experiencing a real socio-economic boom. The country is covered with a network of roads that connected the centers of the provinces with the capital. Numerous channels are being built as cheap transport arteries, which stimulated trade exchange.

Agriculture uses the most advanced cultivation technologies using fertilizers and crop rotations. Crafts reach a high level. Deserves special mention silk production, where China had an absolute monopoly. Neighbors from the country tried in vain to uncover the secrets of silk technology. By the 1st century BC. silk production volumes reach enormous proportions. It becomes the main commodity of Chinese export.

Much the same can be said about lacquer production. The lacquer created by the Chinese knew no equal. It was used to cover weapons and military equipment, wood and fabrics, increasing their shelf life and giving them a beautiful aesthetic appearance. Lacquer products were in great demand both within the country and abroad.

The greatest achievement of ancient China was invention of paper(II-I centuries BC), which caused a real upheaval in the whole culture. Of no less importance was also the hieroglyphic writing brought to perfection, which was adopted in Korea, Vietnam and Japan.

In artistic crafts given period the features of mature and high perfection are affirmed, which become the main stylistic properties of subsequent eras. In particular, bronze vessels are more streamlined and simple shapes, they lose their magical meaning. The ornament gives way to inlay with multi-colored metals.

In the Qin-Han era, China establishes broad and intensive ties with other states. played a special role in this Great Silk Road with a length of 7 thousand km, along which trade caravans went in Central Asia, India, Iran and Mediterranean countries. In addition to silk, China supplied iron, nickel, precious metals, lacquer, bronze, ceramics and other products to the international market.

During the Han period favorable conditions for development of science. Chinese scientists, as it were, sum up, systematize the already accumulated knowledge about the world and boldly move on. IN mathematics the treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books” is created, where for the first time in the history of mathematical science, negative numbers are spoken of and rules for operations on them are given.

IN astrology the map of the starry sky is refined and expanded, on which 28 constellations are marked, a record is made of the observation of sunspots, the first celestial globe is invented. IN medicine a catalog of medical books is compiled, which lists 36 treatises. containing information on various diseases, the first Chinese treatise on pharmacology is being written. Added to this is the invention of the world's first seismograph.

No less successfully developed humanitarian sciences. In particular, philology and poetics arose, and the first dictionaries were compiled. Sima Qian (145-86 BC) - the "father" of Chinese history - creates the fundamental work "Historical Notes" (130 volumes), which not only outlines almost the entire ancient Chinese history, but also provides information on the history of neighboring countries and peoples.

An unprecedented rise is going through art culture. In the Qin-Han era, the classical forms of traditional Chinese architecture that persist to this day. Urban planning reaches a high level. The main centers of the empire - Luoyang and Chang-an - are distinguished by a clear layout and the beauty of the streets. Chinese architects successfully built houses of two or three floors or more, with a multi-tiered roof made of colored tiles. the most famous architectural monument ancient China has become The great Wall of China. Its most famous section (750 km) is located near Beijing, where it has a width of 5-8 m and a height of up to 10 m. The entire length of the wall with all branches is more than 6 thousand km.

No less amazing monument is the burial complex of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. It amazes not only with its grandiose scale, but also with the contents of a giant underground palace. The rooms of this palace are filled with rows of life-size figures of ceramic warriors, horses and chariots standing shoulder to shoulder. All this clay army has three thousand foot soldiers and horsemen.

reaches a significant level sculptural relief. The most interesting are the reliefs from Shandong, discovered in the funerary temple of the noble Wu family, as well as the stone reliefs of their tombs in Sichuan. The first ones depict plots on religious and mythological themes, scenes of battles, hunting, receiving guests, etc. On the second, there are scenes from folk life - harvesting, hunting, hard work in salt mines.

In the Han period appears easel painting , as evidenced by the found part of the painting depicting a girl, a phoenix and a dragon on silk. For the development of painting and visual arts the invention of the hairbrush and ink was of great importance.

The Han era was the heyday of literature, and its last decades (196-220 AD) are considered the golden age of Chinese poetry. Many emperors encouraged the development of literature and art. brought the best poets, writers and scientists closer to the court. This is exactly what Emperor Wudi did. created in his court big library and a music chamber, where they collected and processed folk songs new musical works were created.

The most prominent poet of the Han era was Sima Xiangru (179-118 BC). He sang of the boundless expanses and beauty of the Empire, its power, as well as the “great man” himself - Emperor Wudi. Most famous works are the ode "Beauty" and the song "Fishing Rod", created in imitation of folk lyrical songs. Lu Jia and Jia Yi were also brilliant poets. Along with poetry, the first major works were created in the Han period. fiction, legends, fairy tales, books of miracles and fantasy.

Chinese culture will reach its highest rise and flourishing later, in the middle of the century, however, all the necessary foundations and prerequisites were laid already in ancient times. Chinese civilization and culture. The era of Zhangguo-Qin-Han had for China and the whole East Asia about the same importance as the Greco-Roman culture for Western Europe.

China is a country with ancient culture and a unique history, a people with an original mysterious and even more amazing culture than other peoples, a religion, a land of indescribable beauty. Over the centuries, this unique culture China. Over the centuries-old history of the country on the territory of modern China, many ethnic groups and nationalities with their own culture, with which many of his cultures are associated.

Mythology and Spirituality in Chinese Culture

Mythology and spirituality have always been the most significant elements in the life of the Chinese. Therefore, it can be said that religion had the most profound influence on the traditions, customs and culture of the Chinese people. The main religious movements in China are Taoism, Confucianism and Mohism, which appeared in Chinese culture around 500 BC. e. and are an integral part of it.

Taoism, as an element of culture, is based on the idea special way for each person - the way of Tao. Its essence boils down to the fact that Nature, the Universe and Man are one, and all processes occurring in nature occur without human intervention. The second philosophical doctrine China- Confucianism - can be simplistically interpreted as a collection of instructions about the life and actions of a person in certain situations. The essence of Moism is universal love for everything - for plants, for animals, for people. By the way, all these religious movements have received almost the same distribution in the culture of China.

Chinese Cultural Heritage

Naturally so developed Chinese culture could not fail to give many of the greatest applied discoveries. The property of Chinese culture is gunpowder and silk, paper and ink for writing, compass, porcelain for many centuries was the monopoly production of Chinese artisans. The country is replete with huge architectural heritage left to the Chinese people from their ancestors, which indicates a high degree of development of Chinese culture.

First of all, it is of course the Great Chinese Wall − heritage of culture Inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987, this imperial palace in Beijing is an integral part of China's culture

The most outstanding cultural and historical monuments of China, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List:

1. Gugong Imperial Palace
2. Sinanthropus parking
3. The Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huang and the "Terracotta Army" - the result high development Chinese culture
4. Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang
5. Mountain resort and temples of Chengde
6. House, temple and tomb of Confucius in Qufu
7. Ancient architectural complex on Wudang mountain
8. Potala Palace - a special value in the culture of China
9. Lushan Mountain Scenic Area
10. Ancient city Lijiang
11. Pingyao ancient city
12. Classical gardens of Suzhou city - heritage of culture
13. summer palace
14. The Temple of Heaven is an integral part of China
15. Carved sculptures in Dazu
16. Mount Taishan
17. Mount Huangshan
18. Mount Emei and Leshan Big Buddha are an important part of Chinese culture
19. Mount Hui

Nature of China

1. wulingyuan scenic spot
2. Jiuzhaigou Gorge
3. Huanglong Scenic Spot
4. We suggest taking a look at

Chinese culture is one of the most interesting and certainly unique oriental cultures. It belongs to the circle of great river civilizations that arose in antiquity. Start cultural history China dates back to the turn of the III-II millennium BC. e. It was to this time that Chinese historiography dates the reign of the five legendary emperors, whose reign was perceived as a golden age of wisdom, justice and virtue. The continuity of the development of Chinese culture is one of its most important features, inextricably linked with such features of this culture as traditionalism and isolation. The isolation of Chinese culture is based on the belief of the Chinese in their exclusivity, in the fact that their country is the center of the inhabited earth and the entire universe. Therefore, the Chinese called it the Middle Empire. The formation of a single culture was facilitated by the fact that the ancient Chinese inhabited a single plain, an integral geographical area. This led to close communication between the peoples of China among themselves. They relatively quickly developed a single economic structure, which, in turn, predetermined the commonality of the most diverse aspects of life, starting with the appearance of dwellings and ending with the annual rhythm of holidays. The closed nature of the development of ancient Chinese culture, which ensured its stability, self-sufficiency, conservatism, love for a clear organization and order, predetermined the exclusive role of traditions, customs, rituals and ceremonies. Depending on the social status, strictly defined norms of behavior were prescribed for each person, commonly known as "Chinese ceremonies". Of all the countries and cultures known to us, it was in China that the system of mandatory and generally accepted norms of behavior was especially developed. There was even a special institution - the Chamber of Ceremonies, which strictly monitored the implementation of the rules, rituals and procedures inherited from the past. The status of a person in China could change. A commoner in China could even become an emperor, but the norms of behavior characteristic of a certain status never changed. At a very early stage in the development of culture in China, all human life began to be commensurate with nature, through the laws of which people tried to comprehend the principles of their being. Therefore, the Chinese had special treatment to nature: along with its deification, Chinese culture, like no other, was characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. To understand the specifics of Chinese culture is possible only by referring to the picture of the world that has developed in Chinese culture, its main categories, norms and values. One of the main factors explaining the peculiarities of Chinese culture is the tone-isolating language, which creates a completely different (compared to European) semantic space. The meaning of a word in Chinese depends on the tone in which it is pronounced. Therefore, one word can mean completely different things. These words are written using hieroglyphs. The total number of hieroglyphs reaches 80 thousand. Hieroglyphic writing and thinking form the basis of the symbolism of Chinese culture, since it is the hieroglyphic images that have become a means of thinking, which brings Chinese thinking closer to the thinking of primitive people. An important feature of Chinese culture is also holism - the idea of ​​the integrity and harmony of the world. The world in the view of the Chinese is a world of absolute identity of opposites, where the many and the one do not negate each other, and all differences are relative. In every natural phenomenon - be it a flower, an animal or a waterfall, the wealth of the whole world shines through.

The most important features of the religious structure of China were laid down in ancient times, starting from the Shang-Yin era. The Yin people had a considerable pantheon of gods and spirits, which they revered and to which they made sacrifices, most often bloody, including human ones. But over time, Shandi, the supreme deity and the legendary ancestor of the Yin people, their totem ancestor, came to the fore more and more clearly among these gods and spirits. Shandi was perceived as the first ancestor who cared about the well-being of his people. The shift in the Shandi cult of emphasis towards its functions as the ancestor played a huge role in the history of Chinese civilization: it logically led to the weakening of the religious principle and to the strengthening of the rational principle, manifested in the hypertrophy of the ancestor cult, which then became the basis of the foundations of the Chinese religious system. The Zhou people had such a religious idea as the veneration of Heaven. Over time, the cult of Heaven in Zhou finally supplanted Shandi in the main function of the supreme deity. At the same time, the notion of a direct genetic connection between divine forces and the ruler passed to Heaven: the Zhou wang began to be considered the son of Heaven, and this title was retained by the ruler of China until the 20th century. Starting from the Zhou era, Heaven, in its main function of the supreme controlling and regulating principle, became the main all-Chinese deity, and the cult of this deity was given not only a sacral-theistic, but a moral and ethical emphasis. It was believed that the great Heaven punishes the unworthy and rewards the virtuous.

There is also a cult of dead ancestors in China, a cult of the Earth, closely associated with magic and ritual symbols, with witchcraft and shamanism.

All marked systems of beliefs and cults in ancient China played a huge role in the formation of the main traditional Chinese civilization: not mysticism and metaphysical abstractions, but strict rationalism and concrete public benefit; not the emotional intensity of passions and the personal connection of the individual with the deity, but reason and moderation, the rejection of the personal in favor of the public; not the clergy, directing the emotions of believers into a channel, exalting God and reinforcing the significance of religion, but priest-officials performing their administrative functions, of which regular religious services were a part. All these specific features that took shape in the Yin-Zhou Chinese system of values ​​over a millennium, preceding the era of Confucius, prepared the country for the perception of those principles and norms of life that forever went down in history under the name of Confucianism. Confucius (Kung Tzu, 551-479 BC) was born and lived in an era of great socialist and political upheaval, when Zhou China was in a state of severe internal crisis. The highly moral Jun-tzu, constructed by the philosopher as a model, a standard for imitation, should have had two most important virtues in his view: humanity and a sense of duty. Confucius also developed a number of other concepts, including fidelity and sincerity (zheng), decency, and observance of ceremonies and rituals (li). Following all these principles will be the duty of the noble Junzi. The “noble man” of Confucius is a speculative social ideal, an instructive set of virtues. Confucius formulated the foundations of the social ideal that he would like to see in the Celestial Empire: “Let the father be the father, the son the son, the sovereign the sovereign, the official the official”, that is, let everything in this world of chaos and confusion fall into place, everyone will know their rights and duties and do what they are supposed to do. And society should consist of those who think and manage - the top, and those who work and obey - the bottom. Confucius and the second founder of Confucianism Mencius (372 - 289 BC) considered such a social order to be eternal and unchanging, coming from the sages of legendary antiquity. One of the important foundations of social order, according to Confucius, was strict obedience to elders. Any elder, be it a father, an official, finally, a sovereign - this is an unquestioning authority for a younger, subordinate, subject. Blind obedience to his will, word, desire is an elementary norm for juniors and subordinates, both within the state as a whole and in the ranks of a clan, corporation or family. Under the conditions of the Zhangguo era (5th-3rd centuries BC), when different philosophical schools fiercely competed in China, Confucianism was in the first place in terms of its significance and influence. But, despite this, the methods of governing the country proposed by the Confucians did not receive recognition at that time. This was prevented by the rivals of the Confucians - the legalists. The teachings of the lawyers - legalists differed sharply from the Confucian one. At the heart of the Legalist doctrine was the absolute primacy of the written law. The strength and authority of which should be based on cane discipline and cruel punishments. According to legalistic canons, laws are developed by wise men - reformers, published by the sovereign, and put into practice by specially selected officials and ministers, relying on a powerful administrative and bureaucratic apparatus. In the teachings of the legalists, who hardly even appealed to Heaven, rationalism was brought to its extreme form, sometimes turning into outright cynicism, which can be easily seen in the activities of a number of legalists - reformers in various kingdoms of Chou China in the 7th-4th centuries. BC. But it was not rationalism or attitudes towards Heaven that were central to Legalism's opposition to Confucianism. More importantly, Confucianism relied on high morality and other traditions, while legalism placed above all the law, which rested on severe punishments and demanded absolute obedience from the deliberately stupid people. Confucianism was oriented towards the past, while Legalism openly challenged this past, offering extreme forms of authoritarian despotism as an alternative. A little later than Confucianism, a completely different branch of Chinese culture appeared, a completely new doctrine of life, as well as a way of life - Taoism. The second most influential in China was the philosophical doctrine of the Great Absolute, Taoism, which took shape around the 4th century. BC e. The Chinese word "tao" is ambiguous; it means "the path", "the world basis of being", "the fundamental principle of all being". The main canon of Taoism - "Tao de jing" - is attributed to the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu, a legendary contemporary of Confucius, whose name means "wise old man" in translation. There is reason to believe that this is not a real person, but a mythical one created later by the Taoists themselves.

According to the concept of Taoism, there is no absolute good and absolute evil, there is no absolute truth and absolute lies - all concepts and values ​​are relative. Everything in the world is subject to a law naturally chosen by heaven, in which is hidden an infinite variety and, at the same time, order. A person should strive to interact with a thing or the world as a whole, therefore synthesis is preferable to analysis. The craftsman who works wood or stone stands closer to the truth than the thinker engaged in fruitless analysis. Analysis is fruitless because of its infinity.

Taoism instructed a person to directly comprehend any whole, whether it be an object, an event, a natural phenomenon or the world as a whole. He taught to strive for peace of mind and intellectual understanding of all wisdom as some kind of integrity. To achieve such a position, it is useful to abstract from any connection with society. The best thing to do is think alone. The main idea of ​​Lao Tzu's practical philosophy or ethics is the principle of non-doing, inaction. Any desire to do something, to change something in nature or in people's lives is condemned. Temperance is considered the chief virtue; this is the beginning of moral perfection.

The ideals of Taoism inspired Chinese poets and artists to depict nature, and many Chinese thinkers, striving for knowledge of the world, were encouraged to leave society and live in solitude in the bosom of nature. In ruling circles, Taoism, of course, could not arouse such enthusiasm.

At the same time, Buddhism penetrated into China, which at the beginning, due to ascetic practices and the absence of sacrifices, looked like a kind of Taoism. But already in the 4th century, Buddhism was gaining more and more popularity and began to influence traditional Chinese culture. Buddhism existed in China for almost two millennia, having changed greatly in the process of adaptation to Chinese civilization. On the basis of a synthesis of ideas and ideas extracted from the philosophical depths of Buddhism, with traditional Chinese thought, with Confucian pragmatism, one of the most profound and interesting, intellectually saturated and still enjoying considerable attraction currents of world religious thought arose in China - Ch'an Buddhism (Japanese Zen).

It was the Buddhist idea of ​​the harmonious unity of man with nature that became not only the soul of Chinese art, but also a way of understanding life. Truth and Buddha are everywhere and in everything. In the silence of the mountains, in the murmur of the stream, in the radiance of the sun. This was reflected in painting, in the famous Chinese scrolls (not on canvas, but on silk). And their plots were dominated by images of mountains, birds, flowers, herbs and insects. It should be noted that each element of Chinese painting is symbolic: pine is a symbol of longevity, bamboo is a symbol of stamina and courage, a stork is loneliness and holiness, a snake is the most beautiful and smartest. Hieroglyphs play a special role in Chinese fine arts. Not only in writing and painting, but also in architecture.

Buddhism contributed to the spread of round sculpture. Sino-Buddhist monks invented the art of woodblock printing, i.e. typography using matrices. Under the influence of Buddhism, aristocratization of art took place, great refinement and a subjective beginning manifested itself. Become famous names artists, around 500 the first treatise on painting (Xie He) was written, various types of portraits arise.

The literature of that time is characterized by pessimism and motives of spiritual loneliness, lyric poetry flourished. Buddhist origins are seen in the landscape and philosophical lyrics.

Buddhist and Indo-Buddhist philosophy and mythology had a considerable influence on the Chinese people and their culture. Much of this philosophy and mythology, from the practice of gymnastic yoga to the concept of hell and heaven, was adopted in China. Thus, it can be assumed that classical Chinese culture was a fusion of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. These currents practically did not compete with each other, but coexisted in the spiritual life of the Chinese, occupying their own niches. And since they are not only philosophical, but also religious currents, Chinese culture is characterized by religious syncretism and a functional approach to religion, the choice of which is determined by a specific life situation. The architecture and art of ancient China reached their peak in the 3rd century BC. BC e. - III century. n. e. Scattered small kingdoms united into a powerful state. After many years of wars, a period of respite came, and a single vast empire was created. This time of unification of the country corresponds to the creation of the most grandiose monumental monuments of ancient Chinese architecture. The largest building in China at the end of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. - The Great Wall of China, reaching a height of 10 m and a width of 5-8 m, served simultaneously as a harsh adobe fortress with many signal towers, protecting against raids by nomadic tribes, and a road stretching along the ledges of difficult mountain ranges. On early stage construction, the length of the Great Wall of China reached 750 km, and later exceeded 3000 km. Cities in this period were built as fortresses, walled and surrounded by moats with several gates and watchtowers. They had a rectangular layout, straight highways, which housed the palace complexes. Chronicles report that the most famous palace complexes of that time were the Efangong Palace in Xianyang (more than 10 km long along the Weihe River) and the Weyangong Palace in Chang'an (11 km along the perimeter), . consisting of 43 buildings. A special phenomenon in ancient Chinese architecture was the underground stone palaces of the nobility - their burial vaults. Since the burial ritual became one of the most important rituals, the deceased was surrounded after death with the same luxury, the same honors and the same objects protecting him as during life. The tombs made up entire complexes of underground rooms, oriented to the cardinal points, and taking into account the favorable location of the winds and heavenly bodies. A ground-based "alley of spirits" - the guards of the grave, led to the underground structures, framed on both sides by statues of winged lions and stone pylons marking the entrance to the crypt. Often, the complex also included small ground-based sanctuaries - tsytans. Stone doors led inside the burial, on which four watchmen of the cardinal points were depicted: a tiger - the west, a phoenix - the south, a dragon - the east, a turtle - the north. The ancient era for the development of the artistic culture of China and all of East Asia was of the same importance as the Greco-Roman world for Europe. In the ancient Chinese era, the foundations were laid cultural traditions, which are clearly traced throughout the centuries-old history of China up to the New and Modern times.

At all times it has developed in contradictory conditions operating within the country. The main reason for this is the attempts of the capitalist states to establish their dominance on the territory of China.

However, even under such conditions, the culture of China continued to develop rapidly, it has a long history of development and is distinguished not only by special spiritual and material values, but also by amazing vitality.

A lot of wars, rebellions and destruction caused by the conquerors did not weaken it, but on the contrary, Chinese culture triumphed over the culture of the country's numerous conquerors.

influenced not only the development of the culture of neighboring peoples who inhabited the territories of later Tibet, Mongolia, Indo-China, Japan and Korea, but also many leading powers medieval world. Chinese culture has had a significant impact on the development of world culture. The originality, high moral and artistic value testify to the creative talent and deep roots of the Chinese people.

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