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Constantinople
Among the many cities of medieval Europe, the capital Byzantine Empire occupied a special place. Even at a time of relative decline, at the beginning of the 7th century, the population of Constantinople numbered 375,000 - far more than in any other city in Christendom.
Later, this number only increased. Ros and Constantinople itself. Even centuries later, the cities of the Latin West, compared with the Byzantine capital, seemed like pathetic villages. The Latin crusaders were amazed at her beauty and size, as well as her wealth. In Russia, Constantinople was called "Tsargrad", which can be interpreted both as the "Royal City" and as the "Tsar City".
Constantine the Great brings the city as a gift to the Mother of God. Mosaic
In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine I moved the capital to the city of Byzantium and gave it his name. In just a few decades, Constantinople turned from an ordinary provincial center into the largest city of the empire. He was ahead of all the cities of the West, including Rome and the capitals of the Middle East - Antioch and Alexandria. People from all over the Roman world flocked to Constantinople, attracted by its unprecedented wealth and fame. In this city, which stood on a cape between the Marmara and Black Seas, on the very border of Europe and Asia, trade routes crossed from different parts of the world. Almost throughout the Middle Ages, Constantinople remained the most important center of world trade. Goods and people from Western Europe and civilizations of ancient China, India and Russia, the Arab countries and Scandinavia. Already in the XI century, foreigners - merchants, mercenaries - inhabited entire city blocks.
Almost throughout the Middle Ages, Constantinople remained the most important center of world trade.
Emperor Justinian I did a lot to improve the capital. Under this ruler, the Eastern Empire expanded significantly. The greatest creations of Byzantine architecture created then were updated over the centuries. The architects of Justinian erected the Great Imperial Palace towering over the sea, which served for many generations of emperors. A grandiose monument of the union between the empire and the church rose above the city the dome of Hagia Sophia, beautiful temple Orthodox world. It was the divine service in Sofia, according to legend, that in the 10th century shocked the Russian ambassadors sent by Prince Vladimir to “test” the Roman faith. “And we could not understand,” they told the prince, “we are in heaven or on earth ...”
Construction of Hagia Sophia. Miniature from the chronicle of Constantine Manasseh
The wealth and luxury of the capital of the empire has always attracted conquerors. In 626, the combined forces of the Avars and Persians tried to take the city, in 717 - the Arabs, in 860 - the Rus. But for many centuries the Second Rome did not see the enemy within its walls. Several belts of fortifications reliably protected it. Even during the numerous civil wars that shook the empire, the city itself only opened the gates to the winners. Only in 1204 did the Crusaders succeed in capturing the capital. From that moment, the decline of Constantinople began, culminating in the fall of the city in 1453, already under the onslaught of the Turks. Ironically, the last emperor had the same name as the founder of the capital - Constantine.
Under the name Istanbul, the city became the capital of the Muslim Ottoman Empire. It remained so until the fall of the power of the sultans in 1924. The Ottomans decided not to destroy the city. They settled in the imperial palaces, and the Hagia Sophia was rebuilt into the greatest mosque of the state, retaining its former name - Hagia Sophia, which means "saint".
Orleans
The city in the bend of the Loire at the crossroads of the most important trade routes arose during the Roman Empire as the main "point" of the Celtic tribe of Carnuts and was then called Tsenabum. Destroyed by Caesar in 52 BC, it was rebuilt in 275 by Emperor Aurelian, from whom the modern name of Orleans comes.
In 451, the city was besieged by the Hun tribes led by Atilla, and only with the help of the troops of the Visigoth king Theodoric I and the Roman commander Flavius Aetius, the siege was lifted. The Huns retreated to Troyes, where the fiercest "battle of the peoples" took place. Gaul turned out to be saved for a while, in order to be soon conquered by the coastal Franks of King Clovis, whose campaigns Gregory of Tours, the bishop of the city, the author of the history of the Franks, represented as sacred in the fight against the Goths-Arians, heretics.
Orleans, 1428
In 511, 532, 541, 549 church councils were held in Orleans. For some time the city was the capital of the Orleans kingdom, which was formed after the division of the Frankish kingdom, in which Chlodomir ruled. During the reign of Charlemagne, the city became the scientific center of the Frankish state.
In 996, the coronation of Robert II, the son of King Hugh Capet, took place in the Orleans Cathedral, and for some time the city was the capital of France.
The geographical position contributed to the revitalization of economic life, primarily due to transit trade. Fertile soil, the development of winemaking and the entrepreneurial spirit of the population made Orleans one of the largest and richest medieval cities. The Seine flowed relatively close, which made it possible to maintain trade relations with Paris and the north of the country. Winemaking, and in subsequent centuries, the development of manufactories strengthened the power of the city, which reached its highest rise by the Renaissance.
In the early Middle Ages, education in Orleans was considered prestigious.
Even in the early Middle Ages, education in Orleans was considered prestigious. In the 6th century, the son of the king of Burgundy, Guntramna Gundobad, studied here. Charlemagne and then Hugo Capet sent their eldest sons to Orleans to study. In the XI - the middle of the XIII centuries educational establishments the cities were widely known outside of France as well.
In 1230, when the teachers of the Paris Sorbonne were temporarily dismissed, some of them found refuge in Orleans. When, in 1298, Pope Boniface VIII published the sixth collection of decretals, he commissioned the doctors of Bologna and Orléans to accompany them with commentaries. St. Ivo of Kermarthen, who is considered the patron saint of lawyers, notaries, lawyers and judges, studied civil law in Orleans.
Pope Clement V studied law and literature here. Bull, published by him on January 27, 1306 in Lyon, announced the creation of a university in Orleans - one of the oldest in France and Europe. The next 12 pontiffs granted the university more and more privileges. In the 14th century, about 5 thousand students from France, Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne, Picardy, Normandy, Touraine, Guyenne, and Scotland studied there.
Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans. Eugene Lenepwe, 1886 - 1890
The siege of Orleans in 1428-1429 is one of the major events Hundred Years War. After a seven-month siege, the city was liberated on May 8 by troops led by Joan of Arc, after which she became known as the "Maid of Orleans".
During the Wars of Religion of the 16th century, Orleans was one of the centers for the spread of Calvinism, but after the events that followed the St. Bartholomew night in 1572, when about a thousand Huguenots were killed in the city, the influence of Catholics increased. In 1560, the States General convened in the city - for the first time after a 76-year break.
Suzdal
The first documentary mention of Suzdal dates back to 1024. According to The Tale of Bygone Years, due to crop failure caused by drought, the Magi rebelled and began to kill the "eldest child." Prince Yaroslav the Wise, who arrived from Novgorod, restored order.
In subsequent years, Suzdal became the patrimony of the Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh, who paid great attention to the development, strengthening and strengthening of the defense of the city. Suzdal gradually acquired a role capital city Rostov-Suzdal Principality.
View of Suzdal from the Kamenka River. Photo by Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky, early 20th century
As for many medieval cities, the beginning of the construction of Suzdal was the construction of a fortress on the Kamenka River, in other words, the Kremlin. For this, a place protected from three sides by natural barriers was chosen, and for greater certainty, earthen ramparts were poured. Here, on the orders of Vladimir Monomakh, the Assumption Cathedral was built, and in the 11th century, not far from the walls of the fortress, the first monastery was erected - in honor of Dmitry Solunsky.
A little to the east of the Kremlin there was a settlement - a trade and craft settlement outside the city walls, where merchants and artisans lived. The posad was surrounded by ramparts, and settlements were gradually built around it.
At the end of the 11th century, Suzdal suffered a terrible disaster - during the internecine struggle between Oleg Chernigovsky and the children of Vladimir Monomakh, Izyaslav and Mstislav, the city was burned. To top it off, in 1107, hordes of Bulgarian tribes plundered the surroundings of Suzdal, and the townspeople had to sit out in the fortified city.
Even during his lifetime, Vladimir Monomakh gave the Suzdal region to his son Yuri, who turned Suzdal not only into a capital city, but also made it a major religious center of Russia. At the time of Dolgoruky, the borders of his principality stretched to the White Lake in the north, to the Volga - in the east, to Murom land - in the south and to the Smolensk region - in the west. The political significance of Suzdal in these years has greatly increased.
With the coming to power of Yuri's son, Prince Andrey, Suzdal began to lose its primacy, yielding to its new capital, Vladimir.
Yuri Dolgoruky turned Suzdal into a major religious center of Russia
By the beginning of the XIV century, the rise of the city began again, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality arose, where they even minted their own coin. In those years, Suzdal was flourishing, remaining a rich, populous city, and its inhabitants, in the words of the chronicle, were famous for their "delightfulness in art and crafts."
In 1392 Suzdal became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Grand Duke's throne was transferred to Moscow. Thus began the fall of Suzdal.
Suzdal Kremlin
Having become an ordinary city of the Moscow state and being outside the busy trade routes, Suzdal in the XV - XVII centuries did not acquire a prominent position in commercial and industrial terms. During the Time of Troubles, the city was twice sacked by Polish troops, in 1634 by the Crimean Tatars, and to top it off, in 1654-1655, it survived a devastating fire and an epidemic.
In 1796, Suzdal was declared a county town of the newly established Vladimir province, and in 1798 the episcopal see was transferred from Suzdal to Vladimir.
Winchester
Winchester is one of the archaeologically explored cities in England. In 1999, in Winchester, in Hyde Abbey, archaeologists found the remains of the tomb of King Alfred the Great, which was moved here during the Norman Conquest. It was during the reign of King Alfred of Wessex that Winchester first gained historical prominence, although, due to the advantageous location of the city, people settled there before. The Roman name "Venta Belgarum" indicates that the city was an important tribal center during the Celtic period. However, information obtained through some excavations indicates that the population appeared in the local territories even earlier than during the Roman rule, namely in the Iron Age.
In the Middle Ages, Winchester was a center of arts, trade, royal and ecclesiastical power.
The Middle Ages for Winchester passed relatively calmly: there were no bloody wars, no numerous assaults and seizures. The city was quite a popular trading center in the country until the 19th century. You can still see the richly decorated fairground cross, preserved from the 14th century.
In the 15th century, Alfred the Great made Winchester the capital of the kingdom of Wessex, although, judging by the facts, this status belonged to the city de facto. It was then that the tradition of discussing political issues by the "knights of the round table" was born. The so-called "round table" was located in Winchester Castle, which has now become one of the most beautiful expositions in England.
In the XIV - XVII centuries, Winchester was the capital of England, after a while he was forced to share dominance with London, and later give him this official status.
King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table
Edessa
Once main city the region of Osroene, Edessa, in the VIII century BC was conquered by Assyria and received the name Ruhu. One of the important centers of the Mesopotamian civilization, the city was dedicated to the goddess Atergatis, as evidenced by the two sacred ponds that have survived to this day, which contained fish dedicated to the goddess.
Under Seleucus I, who did a lot to exalt the city, Edessa got its name in honor of the city of Edessa in the Macedonian region of Ematia, the historical capital of the ancient Macedonian kingdom.
In 137 (or 132) BC, Abgar Uhomo founded the Kingdom of Edessa here, also called Orroene or Osroene. According to legend, Abgar was in correspondence with Jesus Christ, and at his request, Christ sent him his own “not made by hands” image. According to the same tradition, under the reign of Osroene, the Apostle Thomas began to preach the Christian doctrine in the kingdom of Edessa.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Edessa became an important center of early Christianity.
Under Emperor Trajan, Lusius Quiet destroyed Edessa, whose inhabitants turned out to be unreliable allies of the Roman people, and forced the kingdom of Edessa to pay tribute to the Romans. Emperor Hadrian facilitated the filing and restored the kingdom, but it remained dependent on Rome in the subsequent time. Around 216, the city was turned into a Roman military colony. In 217, the emperor Caracalla was killed here. In 242, Gordian III again restored the kingdom of Osroene and entrusted it to the new Abgar, from the descendants of the old royal dynasty, but already in 244 the kingdom again became directly dependent on the Romans.
Abgar receives the "Savior Not Made by Hands" from the Apostle Thaddeus. 10th century icon from St. Catherine's Monastery
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Edessa went to Byzantium. During this period, the importance of the city in history increased. christian church. There were over 300 monasteries in Edessa. Church Father Ephraim the Syrian lived in it and there was a school of his followers.
Under Emperor Justin I, the city was destroyed by an earthquake, but was soon restored, becoming Justinople.
The transition of Edessa in 641 under the rule of the Arab caliphs put an end to the prosperity of Christianity here, and during the internal and external wars that followed, the world fame of the city completely faded. In 1031, the Byzantine emperors managed to take possession of Edessa, but during the same century the city changed its rulers several times. In 1040 it was occupied by the Seljuks.
In 1042, Edessa was returned to the Byzantine Empire, and in 1077 the city was annexed to the state of Filaret Varazhnuni. In 1086, Edessa was again conquered by the Seljuks, but after the death of Sultan Tutush in 1095, his governor in Edessa, the Armenian Toros, became an independent prince.
In 1098, during the first crusade, the brother of Gottfried of Bouillon, Count Baldwin, easily took possession of the city with the assistance of its inhabitants and made it the main city of his Edessa county.
For more than half a century, the county of Edessa existed under the rule of various Frankish princes as an advanced stronghold of the Kingdom of Jerusalem against the Turks. In continuous wars with the Muslims, the Franks held out steadfastly and bravely, but, finally, under the pleasure-prone Count Joscelin II, the ruler of Mosul, Imad ad-Din Zangi, managed to take the city by storm in 1144.
Islam reigned here again, and all Christian temples were turned into mosques. The attempt of the inhabitants of Edessa in 1146 to shake off the Muslim yoke ended in the death of the city: they were defeated by the son and successor of Zangi, Nur ad-Din. The survivors are enslaved, and the city itself is destroyed. From that time on, its fate is full of vicissitudes: Egyptian and Syrian sultans, Mongols, Turks, Turkmens and Persians took possession of it, until finally the Turks conquered it in 1637. Under their rule, Edessa began to rise from the ruins at the expense of the local, mostly non-Turkish, population.
A characteristic feature of the Middle Ages was the growth of cities. This is connected, first of all, with the division of society into social groups and the development of crafts. A typical medieval city in Western Europe was a small settlement by modern standards, located near a monastery, fortress or castle. A prerequisite for the construction of a new settlement was the presence of a reservoir - a river or lake. The Middle Ages itself covers a very significant period of time: from the fifth century to the fifteenth (the Renaissance). Many cities of the 5th-15th centuries were real fortresses, surrounded by a wide rampart and a fortress wall, which made it possible to keep the defense during the siege, since wars were not uncommon for this period of time.
The European medieval city was an unsafe place, life in it was quite difficult. If they saved from the devastating raids of foreign troops high walls and the active army, then stone fortifications were powerless against diseases. Frequent epidemics that broke out in the thousands claimed the lives of ordinary citizens. One plague epidemic could cause incomparable damage to the city. The following reasons for the rapid spread of the plague among the 5th-15th centuries can be noted. Firstly, the state of medicine of those times did not allow to deal with a single focus of the disease. As a result, the "Black Death" spread first among the inhabitants of one settlement, then went far beyond its borders, acquiring the character of an epidemic, and sometimes a pandemic. Secondly, despite the small number of inhabitants, in such cities it was quite high. The overcrowding of people was the best way to contribute to the spread of the infection, which is quickly transmitted from a sick person to a healthy one. Thirdly, according to modern people the medieval city was a collection of rubbish, household waste and animal excrement. Unsanitary conditions are known to contribute to the emergence of many dangerous diseases carried by rats and other small rodents.
However, the birth and expansion of cities had their positive features. So, most of them arose on the lands of large feudal lords or kings. People living in the territory subject to the vassal could be engaged in farming, trade, while receiving a significant income. The vassal, on the other hand, benefited from the prosperity of "his" city, since he could receive the bulk of the income from the taxes of the townspeople.
Description of the medieval city
Most of the cities of 5-15 centuries had from 4 to 10 thousand inhabitants. A city with a population of up to 4 thousand inhabitants was considered medium. The largest medieval city could hardly count 80 thousand inhabitants. Megacities of those times were considered Milan, Florence, Paris. Basically, small merchants, artisans, warriors lived in them, there was a local city nobility. A characteristic feature of European cities of the 12th century was the opening of universities in them and the emergence of students as a separate social class. The first such institutions were opened in major centers of that time - Oxford, Paris, Cambridge. Their appearance had a significant impact on the development of individual countries and Europe as a whole.
Today, the medieval city seems to us a dull and dangerous place, where even at the height of the day one could become a witness to a robbery or murder. However, there is something romantic in the narrow streets of ancient European cities. How else to explain the increased interest of tourists and travelers in such ancient cities as Sartene (Italy), Cologne (Germany). They allow you to plunge into history, escape from the bustle of the modern "stone jungle", make, albeit short, a journey into the past.
§ 18. Medieval city
Medieval city phenomenon.
In the Middle Ages, the vast majority of the population lived in the countryside. There were few townspeople, their role in society far exceeded their numbers. During the Great Migration of Nations, many cities were destroyed. In the few remaining fortress cities lived kings, dukes, bishops with close associates and servants. The townspeople were engaged in agriculture in the vicinity of the city, and sometimes """ inside it.
Around the 10th century big changes are taking place. In cities, crafts and trade become the main occupation of the inhabitants. Cities preserved from Roman times are growing rapidly. Appear
new cities.
By the XIV century. there were so many cities that from almost anywhere in Europe it was possible to drive to the nearest city within one day. The townspeople by that time differed from the peasants not only in their occupations. They had special rights and duties, wore special clothes, and so on. The class of workers was divided into two parts - peasants and townspeople.
emergencecitiesastrade and craft centers.
The formation of cities as centers of crafts and trade was caused by the progressive development of society. As the population grew, so did its needs. So, the feudal lords were increasingly in need of things that merchants brought from Byzantium and eastern countries.
The first cities of the new type developed as settlements of merchants. who traded with these distant countries. In Italy, in the south of France in Spain since the end of the 9th century. some Roman cities were revived, new ones were built. The cities of Amalfi became especially large. Pisa, Genoa, Marseille, Barcelona, Venice. Some merchants from these cities sailed on ships in the Mediterranean, others transported the goods they delivered to all corners of Western Europe. There were places of exchange of goods - trade fairs(annual markets). I especially had them in the county of Champagne in France.
Later, in the 12th-13th centuries, trading cities such as Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, Danzig and others also appeared in the north of Europe. Here, merchants transported goods across the North and Baltic Seas. Their ships often fell prey to the elements, and even more often to pirates. On land, in addition to bad roads, merchants had to deal with robbers, often played by knights. Therefore, trading cities united to protect sea and land caravans. The union of cities in Northern Europe was called the Hansa. Not only individual feudal lords, but also the rulers of entire states were forced to reckon with the Hansa.
There were merchants, but in all cities, but in most of them the main occupation of the population of the herd was not trade, but craft. Initially, artisans lived in the villages and castles of the feudal lords. However, it is difficult to live by handicraft in rural areas. Here, few people bought handicrafts, because subsistence farming dominated. Therefore, artisans sought to move to places where they could sell their products. These were areas of fairs, crossroads of trade routes, river crossings, etc. In such places there was usually a castle of a feudal lord or a monastery. Craftsmen built dwellings around the castle and the monastery, later such graying turned into cities.
The feudal lords were also interested in these settlements. After all, they could get a big quitrent. Seniors sometimes brought artisans from their feud to one place, and even lured them from their neighbors. However, most of the inhabitants, coming to the city on their own. Often serf artisans and peasants fled from their lords to the cities.
The earliest cities - centers of crafts - arose in the county of Flanders (modern Belgium). In such of them as Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, woolen fabrics were made. In these places, breeds of sheep with thick wool were bred and convenient looms were created.
From the 11th century cities grew especially rapidly. A large city in the Middle Ages was considered a city with a population of 5-10 thousand inhabitants. The largest cities in Europe were Paris, London, Florence, Milan, Venice, Seville, Cordoba.
Cities and seniors.
The weight of the city arose on the land of the feudal lords. Many townspeople were in personal dependence on the lord. The feudal lords, with the help of servants, ruled the cities. Settlers from the villages brought to the cities the habit of living in the community. Very soon, the townspeople began to gather together to discuss issues of city government, they elected the head of the city (mayor or burgomaster), and gathered militia to protect themselves from enemies.
People of the same profession usually settled together, attended the same church, and communicated closely with each other. They created their unions - craft workshops and trade guilds. The guilds monitored the quality of handicrafts, established the order of work in workshops, guarded the property of their members, fought competitors among non-price artisans, peasants, and so on. Guilds and guilds, in order to protect their interests, sought to participate in the management of the city. They exhibited their detachments in the city militia.
As the wealth of the townspeople grew, the feudal lords increased the exactions from them. Urban communities - communes over time, they began to resist such actions of the feudal lords. Some seniors behind a solid ransom expanded the rights of cities. However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, a stubborn struggle unfolded between the feudal lords and the communes. It sometimes lasted for many decades and was accompanied by hostilities.
The outcome of the struggle depended on the balance of forces of the parties. The rich cities of Italy not only freed themselves from the power of the feudal lords, but also took away all their lands from them. Their castles were destroyed, and the lords were forcibly relocated to the cities, where they began to serve the communes. The surrounding peasants became dependent on the cities. Many cities (Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan) became the centers of small state-republics.
In other countries, the success of cities was not so impressive. However, almost everywhere the townspeople freed themselves from the power of the feudal lords and became free. Moreover, any serf who fled to the city was made free if the lord could not find him there and return him within one year and one day. “City air makes a person free,” said a medieval saying. A number of cities have achieved full self-government.
Some small towns remained under the rule of seniors. A number of large cities, in which kings and other strong rulers lived, failed to become independent. The inhabitants of Paris and London received freedom and many rights, but along with city councils, these cities were also ruled by royal
officials.
Shop organizations.
The main body of the workshop management was the general meeting of all members of the workshop, which was attended only by independent members of the workshop - masters. The craftsmen were the owners of the tools of labor, the handicraft workshop.
As demand increased, it became difficult for the craftsman to work alone. So there were pupils, after apprentices. The student took an oath not to leave the master until the end of the training: the master was obliged to teach him honestly his craft and fully support him. But the position of the students was, as a rule, not easy: they were overwhelmed with overwork, kept starving, beaten for the slightest offense.
Gradually, the student became an assistant to the master - an apprentice. His position improved, but he remained a part-time worker. To become a master, an apprentice had to fulfill two conditions: after learning to wander to improve the craft, and then pass the exam, which consisted in making an exemplary work (masterpiece).
At the end of the Middle Ages, workshops become in many ways a brake on the development of crafts. Masters made it difficult for apprentices to join the guild. There were benefits for the sons of masters.
Contradictions within urban communities.
In the struggle against the lords, all the townspeople were united. However, the leading position in the cities was occupied by large merchants, owners of urban land and houses (patriciate). All of them were often relatives and firmly held the city administration in their hands. In many cities, only such people could participate in the elections of the mayor and members of the city council. In other cities, one vote of a rich man was equal to several votes of ordinary citizens.
When distributing taxes, when recruiting into the militia, in the courts, the patriciate acted in his own interests. This situation aroused the resistance of the rest of the inhabitants. Particularly dissatisfied were the craft workshops, which brought the city the greatest income. In a number of cities the guilds rebelled against the patriciate. Sometimes the rebels overthrew the old rulers and established more just laws, chose rulers from their midst.
Significance of medieval cities.
The townspeople lived much better than most peasants. They were free people, fully owned their property, had the right to fight with weapons in their hands in the ranks of the militia, they could only be punished by a court decision. Such orders contributed to the successful development of cities and medieval society as a whole. Cities have become centers of technological progress and culture. In a number of countries, the townspeople became allies of the kings in their struggle for centralization. Thanks to the activities of the townspeople, the commodity-money relations, in which feudal lords and peasants are involved. The growth of commodity-money relations eventually led to the liberation of the peasants from personal dependence on the feudal lords.
During the Middle Ages, as in ancient world agriculture remained the backbone of the economy. The dominant class in society were the owners of the land - the feudal lords. The peasants, who made up the vast majority of the population, were attached to the land, but remained personally free.
Unlike slaves, they gave the feudal lords only a part of their labor or products. Therefore, the peasants were more interested in the results of their labor than the slaves. This led to a noticeable increase in labor productivity in agriculture, which freed up labor for the development of handicrafts and trade. Craftsmen and merchants began to concentrate near the castles of large feudal lords (kings, dukes, counts, etc.) and monasteries, since here they could find protection from external attacks and a wider market for their products (the feudal lord and his entourage in castles, monks and pilgrims in monasteries). Gradually, such trade and craft settlements were surrounded by their own protective walls and began to fight for autonomy, and then complete liberation from the feudal lords on whose lands they arose (in accordance with the Magdeburg Law and other similar codes of laws). Thus, a rather dense network of small urban settlements arose in medieval Europe, the cores of which were castles and monasteries, although only a few of the possible cores became cities. For defensive purposes, a castle or monastery was often located on an impregnable hill and, in terms of its micro position, sharply differed from the rest of the city, located below - in a river valley or near the seashore. But as crafts and trade developed, it was precisely down from the original core that the main center cities, concentrated population and economic activity. A typical medieval city was very small in size. Often only 1-2 thousand people lived in it, rarely up to 5-10 thousand. The walls of the city usually had a shape close to a circle, since this made it possible to protect a large area with a smaller perimeter of the walls. In the center of the city there was a market square, where the inhabitants of the city exchanged their products among themselves, with the peasants living in the district and with merchants from remote areas. On the same square were the most important public buildings - the main church of the city (or the only church, if the city was small - the churches had to accommodate the entire population of the city) and the town hall - the city government. From the market square, an intricate network of narrow streets diverged to the city walls. In these streets, the inhabitants of the city settled according to their professions. Thus, the main functions of medieval cities were craft and trade. Importance It also had a defensive function, since wars and civil strife went on: almost continuously. Some cities, which had the most widely read temples or monasteries, also became religious centers. Administrative centers practically disappeared (the city managed only itself), cultural centers and resorts. Even neighboring cities, located 20-30 km from each other, often have little connection between Dusts, since they produced the same products and there was no point in exchanging them. But the peasants living in the district managed to reach such a city during the day, sell their products, buy handicrafts and return home.
In addition to a significant reduction in size compared to the ancient Roman period, the cities have almost completely lost their amenities - plumbing, sewage, paved streets. This contributed to the development of mass epidemics, during which the population of many cities died out completely. The townspeople lived very crowded in 3-4 storey buildings. On the first floor of such a building, a workshop or shop was usually located, on the second floor the family of the owner (master) lived, on the third floor lived assistants (apprentices), on the fourth - students. The most prominent building in each city was the main temple, which Early Middle Ages It was built mainly in the Romanesque style and strongly resembled a fortress, mundane, with heavy vaults and powerful walls. Starting from the XII century. gothic-style temples, directed upwards, began to prevail. Such temples reached a height of 150 m, stood out sharply from the surrounding buildings, strengthening religious feelings among believers and at the same time saving the inner city territory. Temples also served as a place for citywide meetings and theatrical performances. Starting from the XI century. pan-European trade routes gradually began to take shape, and the cities located on them, which received greater development compared to the rest. The main trade routes went from Italy to the East along the Mediterranean Sea. The volume of goods on this route was relatively small, but they were the most valuable goods of that time - spices, jewelry, silk and other expensive fabrics, expensive weapons, for which European states paid with gold and silver. Eastern trade contributed to the rapid development of Italian cities, especially Venice and Genoa, from which land routes began inland. An important trade route also developed in northern Europe along the North and Baltic Seas. From the west (from Germany, France, ^ England) metal products and simple fabrics went along this path, from the east (from Novgorod, the Baltic States) - furs, amber, linen fabrics, wax. The cities located along this route formed the Hanseatic Trade Union (London, Bruges, Hamburg, Lübeck, Novgorod, etc.). The main intra-European trade routes went along the river valleys - the Seine, the Rhine, the Elbe, the Rhone, the Danube.
The most important trading center and the largest city in Europe in the Middle Ages was Venice, numbering by the 15th century. 200 thousand inhabitants. Venice was founded on the I islands near the northernmost point Adriatic Sea I inhabitants of the Roman Empire, fleeing from the invasion of the Germanic tribes. For a long time Venice was the westernmost city of the Byzantine Empire. All this made it possible to preserve to the maximum extent, firstly, trade relations with the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, and secondly, ancient culture. Having defeated its rivals in wars, the main of which was Genoa, the Venetian Republic concentrates in its hands most of the trade between Europe and the countries of the East. In addition to trade, shipbuilding, book printing, and the production of luxury goods are also developing in the city. All this contributes to the rapid development of the city, the construction of magnificent temples (the main one is St. Mark's Cathedral in the Byzantine style) palaces (including the Doge's Palace - the elected rulers of Venice). The main square of the city - St. Mark's Square - is not used for trade (a whole system of markets is formed in the city - German, Turkish, etc.), but for festivities and ceremonies. The peculiar layout of the city in which, due to the island position, land transport gives way to water transport. Naturally, the main arteries of the city are the canals of the embankments, which are fronted by the facades of the building, and the land streets, rarely more than two meters wide, are intended only for pedestrians.
From the 15th century in Europe begins a period of rare acceleration of urban development - the Renaissance. “It manifested itself to the greatest extent in the territory of Italy, since Italian cities, on the one hand, are the largest and most developed, on the other hand, the influence of antiquity is most clearly manifested in them, along the lines of which the culture of the Renaissance develops. Florence becomes the main center of the Renaissance and Italy and throughout Europe. Its population is about 100 thousand people. It is the main center of cloth production and trade and financial operations in Europe. Economic development contributes to the rise of culture. It was in Florence that such prominent figures as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buanarotti, Rafael Santi, Dante Alighieri, Galileo Galilei and others were born or created their works. The building of the city is being updated. A system of main squares will be created - commercial, administrative (in front of the government building), religious (in front of the main cathedral of the city). The city is decorated with numerous statues (David by Michelangelo and others) and a fountain. Even defensive structures - walls and towers - begin to play primarily aesthetic, rather than defensive significance. Since the Renaissance, culture and art, science, and education have become city-forming functions. The latter is especially pronounced in the university centers that emerged during this period throughout Europe, the first of which appeared as early as the 12th century. (Paris - in France, Oxford - in England, etc.). We can say that in the Renaissance in the cities of Europe, the spirit of freedom, improvement, progress, and enterprise is finally formed, which contributes to the rapid development of cities in modern times and the emergence of a modern urban lifestyle. It is also noteworthy that almost all medieval cities in Europe have survived to this day, forming the framework of the urban settlement of the New Age.
The history of mankind goes back centuries. Of great interest is the study of different eras. In this article, the reader will get acquainted with the names of cities and their history in
General characteristics of medieval cities
The period is complex and controversial in the history of mankind. Its importance in the formation of cities is enormous. The following factors influenced their development in the Middle Ages:
- inherited the main features from the reign of the Roman Empire. They have been preserved to this day.
- Trade routes that connected Europe with the East played a huge role in the formation of medieval cities.
- It mattered where the monasteries and castles were located, which were the beginnings of future cities. Although only some residences of kings and feudal lords contributed to the growth economic development cities.
- Of great importance were wars that lasted continuously for centuries. For defensive purposes, the buildings were of great height, the streets were narrow, and landscaping was at a low level.
- The phenomenon of the Middle Ages is the development of cities among the Arabs. They built military camps everywhere. In order to control the conquered country, citadels were built, which the Arabs called shahristans. Everyone settled there: rulers, their servants, courtiers, artisans, military squads. Settlements surrounded by fortress walls were built around the shahristans.
- The cities of the East in the Middle Ages differed from European ones. They existed in a single system of the state, but had no rights.
Mdina
The medieval city is the first capital of Malta. In another way, it is called the Silent City. The first human settlement dates back to Bronze Age, nine hundred BC. The Phoenicians chose the top of the hill as their place of residence. The settlement was surrounded by fortified walls to protect against attacks by other tribes.
What attracted the ancient settlers to this place? There are groundwater sources here, thanks to which people could withstand a siege for a long time without going beyond the protective structures. The city reached an unprecedented prosperity when it was ruled by the Romans. Later, when the rule of Mdina passed to the Arabs, the city was divided into parts, one of them became known as Rabat.
The Middle Ages for Mdina were marked by the resettlement of aristocrats into it. In the thirties of the sixteenth century, the city was recognized as independent, it received the status of an autonomous settlement. Only after that did the knights take possession of the keys to the city. Later, the owners of Mdina changed many more times, and with them the status and name of medieval cities.
Constantinople
The origin of the names of medieval cities is symbolic. Constantinople is a Byzantine city with strong ancient traditions. Its origin is associated with the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. Constantinople was built in its place, and it was of great strategic importance: the location of the ancient city was the peninsula, which went to the Bosporus, and he - to the Black Sea.
Byzantium was founded by Greek colonists in 660 BC, but Constantinople surpassed it. The territory of the city occupies seven hills, like that of Rome. In his image and likeness, power was organized in Constantinople, houses were built for wealthy people. Story early period Byzantium was marked by the status of a world power, where the road networks were preserved, as in Rome, and Constantinople held the main nodes of land and sea routes. The city occupied the main position between two seas: the Black and the Mediterranean.
Medieval cities of Romania
Huge interest for people different professions, especially for scholars, represent medieval cities. The list of names of some saved cities is as follows:
- Sighisoara is the most beautiful city in Transylvania, located on a hill. It is considered the birthplace of Dracula. This city has the German name Shessburg and the Hungarian - Shegeshvar. Founded by German colonists in the eighth century. They built a fortress, churches and the Clock Tower. For several centuries the city has been a haven for politicians and the military. Ammunition, looted treasures, valuable documents and food supplies had to be stored somewhere. The clock tower was surrounded by a powerful wall, everything was stored there. By Shessburg received the status of a free city and became a leading center of trade and crafts in Eastern Europe.
- Brasov is a city that is not inferior in beauty to Sibiu, for which it received a different name - the Romanian Salzburg. Located in the center of Romania. The first written sources about the city date back to 1235. The names of medieval cities in Europe changed frequently. So it happened with Brasov. It was called Brasco, Stefanopolis, Brasso, Kronstadt. Profitable geographical position and connections with other settlements allowed the city to develop its economy rapidly, thanks to which Brasov soon became a major center of Transylvania.
Name of medieval cities: Georgia and Armenia
The major cities of this era consisted of the citadel, the city itself and the suburbs. The city was called shahastan, the ruler - amir. The king appointed him. The inhabitants of the cities were people of different classes, but the majority were merchants and artisans. The specific name of the medieval cities (for each of them) in Georgia and Armenia will be considered below:
- Ani received the status of a city only in the tenth century. Prior to that, it was a fortress on the Akhuryan River. It has developed rapidly since 961, when it received the status of the capital of the Bagratid kingdom. Fifty years later it became an important center of the Middle East. The rapid development of the city is primarily due to its geographical location: Ani was located in the center of the kingdom and bordered on other countries: Russia, Byzantium, Iran, Aghvank and Georgia.
- Karin is an ancient Armenian city. It has other names: Theodosiopolis, from the eleventh century - Erzerum. Karin became a walled city with double walls, towers and defensive moats. Caravan routes passed through Karin, which connected the West and the East. But Karin did not become the most important city of the country due to frequent wars.
- Van - ancient city Armenia, whose founding date is the ninth century BC. It was the largest center of handicraft production and trade. The craftsmen were engaged in weapons, pottery, jewelry and weaving.
Medieval cities of Kazakhstan
The cities of the country of this era have interesting story. But now only remnants of them have been preserved. The name of medieval cities in Kazakhstan is unusual for the ear of a contemporary. Some of them are presented below in the article:
- Otrar. The location is the valley of the Syrdarya River. Scientists call the confluence of the two and Arys, the Otrar oasis. The city had an advantageous geographical position: it was located at the intersection of many roads. It was the most profitable and most dangerous location in Central Asia. The wars of conquest, which lasted for centuries, turned the once flourishing city into ruins. Today it resembles an open-air museum.
- Sauran. This city was founded by the tribes of Kimaks and Oguzes, where they concluded contracts and traded. The city was a powerful fortress with a powerful fortification with special structures that made it possible to withstand a long siege without the supply of water and food. The city received the status of the capital of Ak-Orda in the fourteenth century. At this time, ceramic production reached an unprecedented flourishing. Written sources testify that Sauran was a large and rich city.
Internal fortifications of the city
The fortification fences surrounded not only the outer perimeter of the city, but also the territory inside it. At that time, this was necessary to protect the city from constant clashes with foreign and internal troops. During the attack of opponents, people had to seek protection, going beyond the walls of the city, where imminent death awaited them, so they built fortifications inside the city to protect themselves from the danger that could be expected at any time. There was always danger, even if there were no official wars.
The name of the inner fortification in a Russian medieval city depends on the type of fortification. The simplest was the cape type. Usually, a place was chosen for the settlement, surrounded by ravines or formed by the confluence of rivers. Nature itself enclosed the city on the sides, but it was open from the floor side. Fortifications were built in this place: ditches, ramparts, palisades. In general, cities, monasteries and castles were fortifications in the Middle Ages.
As a rule, the authorities were engaged in their construction, and if it was weak, then the clergy or secular feudal lords, as in France or Italy. German cities with internal fortifications were called burghs. They had their own laws and regulations.
- People in the described era very rarely washed, as they believed that water that got on the body could infect it.
- Residents of London in the Middle Ages threw fifty tons of excrement into the streets in one day.
- Medieval cities did not have sidewalks and asphalt on the roads. People had to walk on the ground covered with rotting animal remains, scraps of food, excrement. So, the excessive pollution of the streets of London led to the emergence of people of a new profession who cleaned up excrement and other garbage. These people were called goldsmiths, because they were paid more money for this dirty work.