Back in the Vedic period c. In India, theatrical performances were played out by the sky. At the beginning of our era, the first small theater premises appeared in the country. They did not have scenery, theatrical props were extremely poor, they were replaced by other artistic conventions: a certain gait, facial expressions, gestures.

Much attention was paid to the musical design of performances. However, unlike modern Indian performances, which, according to European theatergoers, are oversaturated with singing, in ancient Indian monologues and dialogues, the artists recited or chanted, but did not sing. A notable feature of the ancient Indian theater was. His penchant for melodrama and pathos are inherent in the current theatrical art in the country. Tragic plots were not allowed on the stage for the reasons that there is enough tragic in real life.

The theater was extremely popular in. Ancient. India, especially among the intelligentsia, but the profession of an artist did not belong to the prestigious, was considered "mean", the artists themselves were Shudras

The ancient Indians created a series musical instruments, the most common of which was similar to the ancient Egyptian wine lyre. The musicians also played the flute, other reed and percussion instruments.

It developed in Ancient. India also has the art of vocals. Singing was most often a variation of a simple melody, which was reduced to literally a single musical phrase.

The Indian art of dance has changed little over the centuries.

In ancient dances, musical rhythm and gestures also played the main role, and almost every part of the body of the dancer or dancer participated in the dance, a small movement of the little finger or eyebrows told the whole story to the initiate in the secrets of this art. The art of Indian dance is very complex. It took years of hard work to master it.

Indian theater classification

In Indian culture, there is a division of theater into several types:

• Folk. This type of stage art had a storyline based on the epic and Indian mythology. The acting profession in India was not respected. This is due to the fact that the artist portrayed the gods in a funny and obscene manner. Actors were humiliated and considered the lower strata of society. But in order to acquire mastery in this profession, one had to be a rather educated person;

• Courtier. Performances were held in the courtyards of the nobility for entertainment purposes.

Indian theater troupes included both men and women. They constantly wandered from city to city, giving performances to the people.

The main elements of theater productions in India were dance and music. All actions of the performance participants were subordinated to the sounds of music. Dance is the basis of all Indian theatre. It owes its origin to ritual dances, which, after development and improvement, have become exactly what we see today.

Particularly popular in India national theater kathakali, which originated in the southern side of this country. Kathakali is based on a religious ritual, and instrumental music, facial expressions and gestures are just an addition. This genre of theatrical art has several features. Firstly, it always starts at sunset, and secondly, it lasts at least six hours.

Indian theater refers to the oldest theaters world: its theory and practice were developed around the 2nd century. BC e. He is not only original, but also carried this originality through the thickness of centuries. The mastery of the classical Indian theater is so filigree that it is almost impossible for representatives of other countries and peoples to master it.

In general terms, Indian theater in historical and factual terms can be divided into classical Sanskrit drama, folk theater and theater of the European standard.

There is an opinion that the classical Sanskrit drama is to some extent connected with classical Greek art, which penetrated into India as a result of the campaign of Alexander the Great (back on theater stage period of the formation of classical Sanskrit poetry was called "yavanika", that is, "Greek"). But there is no direct evidence for this. Be that as it may, but in the II century. BC e. the fundamental work of the sage Bharata "Treatise on theatrical art" ("Natyashastra") appears, which deals with such issues as the artistic and expressive means of ritual and stage action, including movements and chants, musical accompaniment of dances and songs, description of musical instruments, principles for creating dramatic works, theory of versification, history of performing arts, etc. Natyashastra was written in poetic form couplet.

classic drama (attack) had ten canonical varieties:

1) actually attack from a plot from popular legends;

2) prokarana with a plot invented or revised by the author;

3) samvakara with a plot from legends about gods and demons;

4) ihmrita with a story borrowed or partially composed by the author about a hero who seeks to unite with his beloved;

5) dima s a borrowed story about various mythological creatures;

6) vyyoga - a one-act drama with a borrowed plot of comic or erotic content;

8) prahasana - one-act play- a farce with a plot from everyday life;

10) withhi - a one-act play that differs from bhana in the number of performers (two or three).

Considered the first Indian playwright Ashwaghoshu(II century AD). But classical drama reached its greatest flowering under Kalidashe(IV century AD). In addition to Kalidasa, the names of five more famous playwrights are given out: Shudraka, Harsha, Visakhadatta, Bhasa and Bhavabhutna.

Classical drama reached its peak in the 4th-5th centuries. n. e. By the 8th century she fell into disrepair. However, even today, the oldest traditional theater in Kerala continues to live. qudiyat-there, while maintaining its school of training actors.

Folk theater is another specific phenomenon for Indian theatrical art. Most likely, it arose as a kind of synthesis of classical drama, patronized by the rulers, and folk mysteries, supported by the common people.

European-style theater in India has its own specifics that distinguish it from European theaters in our understanding of the word. There are no opera, ballet, or stationary theaters in India. drama theaters with their permanent troupe, extensive repertoire and many years of existence.

The Indian theater of the European type is heterogeneous, extremely unstable in terms of the acting troupe and repertoire. According to the Indians, the real date of the founding of the European-style theater in India is 1831, when Prasanna Kumar Thakur opened the Hindu Theater (Hindu Rangmanch) in Calcutta, staging an English translation of the Sanskrit drama Uttar Ramcharitam by the playwright Bhavbhuti (7th century AD).

In the first European theaters, only English plays were staged and only for the English (entrance to the Indians was forbidden). However, in 1852 the first "Parsi Theater Company" was founded, and although the performances of these and some other theater companies were mainly in English to attract an English-speaking audience, their content was based on the material of Indian classical literature.

a special role in the development contemporary theater played by the Parsi community, which dominated theatrical business for almost the entire 19th century. The Parsi theater aspired to become a mass theater, therefore it staged plays that met the interests of the general Indian public. Along with prose plays, musical dramas were also staged. The literary material of the first plays left much to be desired. They sometimes abounded in naturalistic episodes, when they were cut on the stage, chopped off heads and hung up. In addition, the characters in the plays often committed suicide. Such bloody melodramas resembled modern horror films and pursued the same goals - to tickle the audience's nerves. However, with the advent of authors whose native language was Urdu (the performances of the Parsi theater were in the Gujarati language), there was a noticeable improvement in the literary content of the plays.

A special place in the theatrical life of India is occupied by the musical and poetic dramaturgy of R. Tagore, who tried to combine the traditional Indian drama with its canonical musical accompaniment with elements of Western music, introducing the melody of the march into his first play, The Genius of Valmiki (premiered in 1881). , which became the leitmotif of the action. In Tagore's play, for the first time in the history of Indian theater, a high-caste girl (Tagore's niece) played the female role. In a similar vein, R. Tagore wrote several more dramas, some of which are still included in the repertoire of Indian theaters, especially Bengali ones.

According to experts, modern Indian dramaturgy has concentrated on highlighting the following issues: the main problems of human existence in India, the decline in morals and morals, the relationship of individuals in modern society. In some places there is a merging of folk and modern theater. Plays in regional languages ​​break down language barriers and become a pan-Indian event. There are also talented playwrights writing in English. Thus, the play received international recognition Manjula Padmanabhan"Bitter Bread" ("BitterHarvest").

Despite many existing difficulties, modern Indian theater undoubtedly lives and develops.

One of the oldest styles bharat natya came to us thanks to devasi - temple dancers who dedicated their lives to the deity. Over time, the dance became a means of entertainment for the feudal aristocracy, and the name "devasi" became synonymous with the courtesan. The dance was a combination nritya(dance-story) and snritta(dance in its purest form). Then an interlude was played ( paddam), in which the dancer conveys with gestures the content of the song performed in Sanskrit. The semantic polyphony of the interlude was born from the repetition by the singer of the same line, to which he gave different interpretations, and from the various interpretations of the same text by the dancer.

In the 15th century in North India, a classical dance style is emerging kathak. By that time, a state had developed in which the conquering Muslims assimilated, and gave impetus to the merger of Muslim and Hindu art. kathak was the result of a fusion of two cultures. The dance was performed in Persian costumes, but was a continuation of the legends about the love of Vadhi and Krishna. Unlike bharat natyam where the movements of the legs are synchronized with the movement of the hands and eyes, kathak built on improvisation. It is characterized by skillful foot movements, variety and complexity of rhythms. To test the art of the dancer, the drummer masks the main rhythm from time to time. In turn, the dancer seeks to change her rhythm, trying to knock the drummer off the rhythm. The game of rhythms ends with the general agreement of dance and rhythmic accompaniment, which is always accompanied by the delight of the audience.

In the 17th century theater is born in South India kathakali. Pantomimic dance drama tells about gods and demons, their love and hatred. The performance is given either in the courtyard of the temple or in the open air. Its spectators are the peasants of the surrounding villages, who leave their evening cares and deeds, barely hearing the sound of the drum. Theatrical performance is given on a black background of the night. The actors in bright makeup - green, red and black - appear from the darkness and disappear into the darkness. Make-up and his drawing has a symbolic meaning, well known to the viewer.

Characters kathakali classified into seven types: paccia- noble heroes; cutty - arrogant and arrogant; red-bearded- villains and ambitious people; white-bearded, most often these are the advisers of the monkey king Hanuman, a noble and heroic image; black-bearded- forest people and hunters; curry - evil giantesses and female demons; minuku - sages, hermits, brahmins and women.

Mastery kathakali comprehend from childhood under the guidance of a guru. The actor learns to understand the inner essence of the depicted, whether it be a person, a flower or a bird.

As for the theatrical theory, the first Sanskrit treatise on the theater was the work of the ancient sage Bharata Natyashastra (Treatise on the Art of the Actor). Scientists attribute the appearance of the treatise to the 3rd-4th centuries. Until now, the rules established in this book remain the law for Indian actors of all generations.

According to the treatise, there are four main expressive means - angika,mudra,wachika,acharya.Angika - language of conventional gestures of hands, fingers, lips, neck and legs. Thirteen movements of the head are prescribed, seven movements for the eyebrows, thirty-six for the eyes; six for the nose, six for the cheeks, seven for the chin, thirty-two for the legs. There are various positions of the legs and various gaits - a stately gait, mincing or braiding, etc. Wise - a gesture that has a symbolic meaning. There are twenty-four basic gestures, each with over thirty different meanings. . Vachika- diction, intonation and tempo of speech that create a certain mood. Acharya - canonized color and details of the costume, make-up. For the gods and celestial maidens - orange makeup, for the sun and Brahma - gold, for the Himalayas and the Ganges - white. Demons and dwarfs wear horns - deer, ram or buffalo. In people, makeup depends on their social status, belonging to a caste. Representatives of the higher castes - Brahmins and Kshatriyas - have red makeup, Shudras have dark blue, kings have pale pink, and hermits have purple.

Theatrical component sattvika are the states of mind conveyed by the actor (bhava), and the mood of the audience after what they saw on stage ( race). The actor must get used to the feelings of his character and be able to convey the subtlest experiences, for which he should master the acting technique. The ability to shed a tear, to show how the skin of the face tightens from the cold, how a shiver runs through the whole body from fear, i.e. mastery of acting technique can cause a certain mood in the viewer. The whole aesthetic conception of Indian performing arts is based on the teaching bhava and race. Literally, the word "rasa" means taste or taste, i.e. mood, which remains with the audience after the performance. Race There are nine kinds: erotic, comic, sad, angry, heroic, frightening, disgusting, amazing, soothing. Each race denoted certain color: in order - transparent greenish, white, ash gray, red, light orange, black, blue, yellow. Nine race match nine bhava, which in turn can be stable or transient.

Natyashastra written in an archaic form that is difficult to read and has been accompanied by many commentaries over the centuries.

In the second half of the 19th century in India, a new dramaturgy and a new dramatic theater are being born. The first attempts to create a new drama belongs to the Bengali playwrights Dinobondhu Mitro, Modhuschudon Dotto, Ramcharinou Tarkorotn. Their works were distinguished by social depth and anti-British orientation. At the same time, theater groups appeared in other provinces of the country. The formation of Hindi drama is associated with the name of Bharatendu Harishchandra, whose work combined the traditions of national and Western European dramaturgy.

The ideas of the national liberation struggle, the demand for independence are reflected in the work of S. Govindas ( The Path of Service, Why suffering and etc.). In the 1940s, the theatrical life of the country became much more active. The Association of Folk Theaters of India is being created, whose activities have had a significant impact on the development of theatrical culture in the country. After independence was established in 1947, conditions were created in India for the development of traditional forms theatrical art, and for drama theatre. The Indian Academy of Music and Drama has been established, which conducts scientific work in the field of theatrical art. Theaters in India stage the best works world drama, including Shakespeare, Ibsen, Molière, Turgenev, Gorky, Chekhov.

THEATER OF CHINA

The basis of Chinese theater is music, which shaped the classical musical drama. xiqu, which is alive and in the present period. The location of music in the state since ancient times was fixed by the first rulers of its important function in religious ritual. But before starting to create music, the creator had to hear it in the cosmic sounds of the universe, and then organize it according to the laws of the universe, the universe itself being established. The voices of the universe reached a person when he listened to the sounds of the wind and the flow of rivers, to the noise of trees and the singing of birds, observing the habits of animals and creating melodies and dances, consonant with the rhythms of fusion qi Heaven and Earth.

Music, melody, vocal skills are the areas to which theater theory has paid the most attention. About 50 theatrical treatises, which made up a 10-volume Collection of treatises on Chinese classical drama(1959 and 1982), wholly or partly devoted to music. And although the music in the theater in the Chinese table of ranks represented a common, low look ( su yue- art as opposed to high ( i yue) ritual music, the theater itself never forgot about its origins, often lamenting the loss of the music of the ancient canons.

The origins of Chinese theatrical art originate in the shamanic rituals of the Shang period (1766–1122 BC). Already on the Yin bones (I millennium BC) there is an image of hieroglyphs yu e(music) and at(dance). During the Zhou era (1027-1256 BC), religious ritual and palace festivities polished dance technique, developing a canon of stage movement. Even then, singing and dancing actors were distinguished ( chan-yu) and jesters, actors and comedians ( pay - yu). Outside the walls of the palace, the theater gave rise to folk rituals and holidays. A tangible element of theatricality was present in the rituals, ceremonies, pantomime dances associated with the cult of ancestor worship. so-called. "dead games" implied imitation of the deceased when depicting his deeds and feats of arms.

In the Han era (206 BC - 220 AD), folk music accompanied the struggle of several participants gave a powerful impetus to the development of the theater. This spectacle has entered the show jiaodisi(butting, competition in strength), which in turn became part of baisi(one hundred games, one hundred performances). It was a constellation of circus genres such as dance, acrobatics, sword swallowing, tightrope walking, swordsmanship with tridents, battle axes, tongs, in which Chinese artists are considered unsurpassed masters Until now.

In the same period, the puppet theater was born. However, long before that, it became known about the Zhou master Yan-shi, who was skilled in carving dolls. His dolls could move to the music as if they were alive. But then the dolls were an accessory of the funeral ritual, accompanying the deceased in his transition to the Other World. Under the Han, the puppet stepped onto the stage when puppeteers began to be invited to banquets at the homes of the nobility. Tang time (618-907) - a period of developed puppet theater, which was represented by puppets, water puppets, leather puppets. The Song period (960–1279) is considered the golden age of puppetry. Puppet shows on the water were especially popular. Boat theaters were equipped with machinery that worked wonders: the water element gave birth and absorbed giant fish and water dragons. Actors-puppeteers hid in the water, imperceptibly controlling the movement of the puppets. The extensive puppet repertoire, the technical capabilities of puppet artists undoubtedly attracted the attention of the live actor theater, which was only gaining strength. However, the influence of puppet theater on the art of the latter was not as significant as the influence of puppets on the art of kabuki actors in Japan. In the Chinese theater, a process was maturing that led to the birth of the actor's individuality as an aesthetic value of the theater. This required the inner mobility of the emotional sphere of acting. At this point, the live actor parted ways with the puppet. In the 18th century theatrical theory has already pointed to static-constriction as a vice that turns an actor into a puppet.

The Tang era was marked by the growth of cities and crafts, the expansion of trade relations with the states of Central Asia and India. The influence of Buddhism on literature, painting, music and, of course, theatrical art has strengthened. Dances based on Buddhist themes were a great success at court. One of them Rainbow Feather Dress - about the beautiful fairy-celestial. A dramatic form also developed, based on small dialogue plays of comedic and satirical content. canjun xi(games about canjun). The first roles appear in them - a resourceful wit canjun and his partner collet. Over time, speech dialogues began to intersperse with singing and dancing. During the Tang period is born professional theater, which received the name "Pear Garden", because in the pear garden of the imperial palace they began to teach children acting skills.

During the Song period, the already known dramatic forms continue to be improved, the performances of folk storytellers with singing to musical accompaniment. Regional types of theater begin to take shape - the northern one, based on the northern, sharp, strict sound of the melody, and the southern one, with a soft, smooth flow of the melody. The texts of the plays have been lost, leaving for us a list of 200 titles. Among them are the historical Song Chuang Tzu, love Sima Xiangru and Wenjun, About In-in etc. There were city stationary theaters-booths for the common people and theaters with a room behind the stage and auditorium for the wealthy public.

The Yuan period (1280-1367) is the time of the conquest of China by the Mongols, who oppressed not only the common people, but also the educated and revered segments of the population. The common feeling of national humiliation brought the highly educated closer to the life of ordinary people, helped to understand their troubles and needs. Theater during the period of Mongol rule became very popular in society, which contributed to the birth of Yuan drama, a significant phenomenon in the history of Chinese drama. Yuan drama is built on the northern type of melodies, it is characterized by a four-part composition. Gradually, there was a convergence of northern and southern melodies, which created the preconditions for the creation of a national theater in the future.

An outstanding playwright of the Yuan drama was Guan Hanqing (b. around 1230–died around 1300). One of the most famous plays Resentment Dou E about the innocent death of a young widow who took on someone else's fault. Her emotional depth influenced the improvement of the acting skills of female roles. The play has survived in the repertoire of today's theater.

The Ming era (1368-1644) is the heyday of Chinese culture, its maximum achievements in the field of theater. This time is marked by the birth and rise of the theater kunqu. Originating in the countryside, it quickly moved to large cultural centers, where he attracted the attention of professional writers and musicians. One of them, a singer and musician, Wei Lianfu combined the features of the northern and southern vocal schools, expanded the composition of the orchestra, thanks to which new Kunshan melodies appeared and new style musical accompaniment.

Tang Xianzu (1550–1616), a playwright and theorist, a reformer of drama and theatrical art, an essayist and literary critic, is rightfully considered an outstanding phenomenon not only in theater, but also in culture in general of that period. He created four voluminous dramatic works under the general title Four Dreams in Linchuan or Four Dreams from the Hall of the Beautiful Tea Bush(note: Linchuan is the playwright's birthplace; "Hall of the Beautiful Tea Bush" is the motto of the playwright's study room, which he traditionally chose himself). Peony gazebo- an outstanding work of the playwright. It was a song of love and the omnipotence of feeling. The heroine is ready to die, but not to live without love. As a theorist, Tang Xianzu considered feeling to be the main criterion for acting.

The heyday of dramaturgy kunqu contributed to the improvement of acting. This is confirmed by the rapid development of theatrical theory. By the end of the 17th century. kunqu reached the peak of its popularity, conquered the metropolitan public, settling at the court of the emperor. Focusing on the aristocracy kunqu loses the mass audience. In the 18th century theater for the elite gives way to folk melodies that bring to the stage jingxi(Capital drama or Peking Opera).

A feature of the new melodies was a clear rhythm, which led to a tense development of the action and an abundance of battle scenes, which accordingly made popular actors who master martial arts techniques. The new theater borrowed the repertoire kunqu, expanding it with the creation of cycles of plays based on famous epic novels: three kingdoms, river backwaters, Journey to the West. Performances-series came into fashion, which went on for several days in a row, breaking off each time at the most interesting episode.

From the middle of the 19th century Capital drama has become the most popular theatrical genre, in which two streams have merged that have nourished Chinese theatrical art since ancient times: courtly, graceful, presented kunqu and "flowery, mixed", associated with the art of the common local theaters. It did jingxi a nationwide theatre, popular at home and famous abroad. His fame is made up of a galaxy of remarkable performers: Zhou Xinfang (1895-1966) - a performer of male roles of a heroic plan, who combined in his art the techniques of various male roles; Mei Lanfang (1894-1961) - a reformer and an outstanding performer of female heroines, who combined several female roles that brought world fame to the Chinese actor; Cheng Yanqiu (1904–1958) was a female performer who created an original school of vocal art.

Peking Opera has four main roles: sheng(hero), tribute(heroine), ching(male character, so-called "painted face" ( hualien) and chow(comedian). Starting from the 16th-17th centuries. with the development of drama, there was a detailing of roles: sheng began to distinguish xiaosheng(young hero) laosheng(old hero) ushen(military hero, commander); female role distinguished laodan(older heroines) qingyi(“women in blue clothes”, virtuous, modest heroines), their antipode was huadan(“a girl in a colorful outfit”), as a rule, a servant-maid of the mistress. The abundance of battle scenes made the sub-role popular udan(female fencers) and daomadan(women riders). The role of "painted faces" is a male positive or negative character, which can be civilian or military. Chow- a comic minor role or "small painted face", could be military or civilian characters. Until the middle of the 20th century. all female roles were performed by men, but there were also female troupes where women performed male parts. Mixed troupes appeared only in the 20th century.

Makeup. With the exception of the role of "painted faces", makeup served only as a make-up tool. For female roles, he wore an erotic character, emphasizing the fullness of the lips, the beauty of the eyes. The hairstyle and head ornaments served the same purpose. "Clouds of hair" arranged in buns held studs of fine finish. Hairpin in China was considered a symbol of the woman herself, lovers exchanged hairpins.

Makeup hualien often referred to as a mask, although the actual mask is quite rare in Chinese theater. The actor has been studying the art of makeup since childhood and masters it masterfully. The color scheme is regulated and has a symbolic meaning: red - loyalty and honesty, white - deceit, black - courage, purple - composure, blue and green - cruelty and obstinacy. Gold and silver paint - for werewolves and celestials, etc. The make-up ornament is also symbolic: the green monogram on the bridge of the nose in the form of a stylized bat means the hero's courage and cruelty; a black shadow around the eyes, making them look like the eyes of the mythical phoenix bird, the wide expansion of the eyebrows testifies to the hero’s readiness to take advantage of the fullness of power.

Symbolic were the stage space and acting skills. The square of the stage symbolized the Earth, and the movement of the actor along oval trajectories symbolized the Sky. This gives the stage action a cosmic scale, allowing the character to move freely on earth and heaven. The conventions adopted by the theater and understandable to the viewer make the stage language more capacious and expressive: having made a conditional step, the hero goes outside the house; climbing on the table, he finds himself on a hill; wave a whip - and everyone knows that the hero is racing on a horse; the two try to grope each other and miss on the illuminated stage - everyone guesses that this is happening in the dark.

The canonization of character fixed certain expressive means for the role. More than twenty ways of laughter are known. Any gesture is reproduced by the actor with rounded movements, in which the influence of the graceful school is guessed. kunqu. The movements of the arm and hand are very diverse: the thinking hand, the forbidding hand, the helpless hand, and so on. There are many options for a stage step: a flying step for celestials, “flowery castanets” - a step for huadan etc.

Depending on the level of skill, theatrical theory distinguishes brilliant, perfect actors ( miao), divine ( shen), beautiful, beautiful ( May), skillful ( nan).

After 1949, the traditional theater underwent a theatrical reform, with the aim of modernizing the repertoire and adapting it to modern ideological tasks. so-called. "cultural revolution", which shook the country in the second half of the 1970s, caused irreparable damage to the traditional theatrical art. It took years to restore the theater. At present, the traditional theater is no longer so popular in their homeland.

At the beginning of the 20th century there is a dramatic theater that turned to the experience of the European theater. The date of birth is considered to be 1907, when Chinese students studying in Japan organized the Spring Willow troupe. It lasted only two years. In the same 1907, the troupe "Spring Sun" was created. There were performances like Tale of the Lost Soul of an Opium Smoker, Uncle Tom's Cabin- dramatization of Beecher Stowe's novel, The New Lady of the Camellias, Better come back, Second Lady Chen and others. All performances were an eclectic combination of the national theatrical tradition with the European one, although there were attempts to stage purely dramatic performances.

In the 1920s and 1930s, the number of amateur troupes grew; in Beijing, a theatrical society "New China" was created, which had a positive impact on the training of actors and directors. In the 1940s-1950s, the drama theater became capable of staging plays by world dramaturgy - Shakespeare, Chekhov, Ibsen, Gorky.

After the "cultural revolution", the drama theater gradually regained its strength. New young playwrights appeared, creating works on topical issues.

THEATER OF JAPAN

Japanese culture is the culture of the Way (Ch. Dao, Jap. Before), That's why different types arts were designated by the word "Way". So the Way of the Theater No - Nogaduko. To follow the Way means to follow the Universal Law, and in this the Japanese theater does not differ from the theater of China, from where hieroglyphics, Confucian classics, and the Buddhist canon came to Japan. But having learned foreign things well, Japan assimilated it from a Japanese point of view. This is how the formula of Japanese culture arose - “ wakon kansai"("Japanese soul - Chinese knowledge").

In the 7th–8th centuries in Japan, actors from Korea and China appeared, which gave impetus to the birth of two theatrical forms - gigaku and bugaku.

Gigaku(acting art) - a song and dance form with musical accompaniment and stage play. The performers were wearing masks, which have survived to this day.

Bugaku(dance and music), in its content the form resembles baisi(one hundred games) of Chinese theatre: dances interspersed with sword fighting; the dance "Ball Game" imitated the popular Japanese ball game that came from China and its participants were on horseback; dragon dance; dance of fantastic birds; dancing scenes were performed with the characters of the Indian pantheon of gods.

The birth of No theater (“mastery”) has its own background. Its origins can be traced in the solar cult of the goddess Uzume, in whose honor mysteries were held under the sacred pine tree of a Shinto shrine in the ancient capital of Japan, the city of Nara. It is this pine tree that is depicted on the back of the stage in the Noh theater.

The history of the theater itself begins in the 13th century. and by the middle of the 14th century. it reaches its peak. This coincides with the Kamakura era (1192–1333), whose worldview was a fusion of Buddhist creeds, Shinto mythology, Chinese Taoism, and Confucian ethics. It is believed that the Noh Theater was created by wandering mimes. sarugaku-hoshi(“action, theater of the monks”), whose art was already popular in the 8th century. In the 11th century they acted out plot farcical skits built on improvisation and including brief comic dialogues or monologues. In view of their popularity, the monasteries began to provide their patronage, inviting actors to perform on the days of festive services. In the 12th century these performances already included a song and dance prayer play Okina (Elder), which later entered the repertoire of the No. In the 13th century plays sarugaku got the name no-kyogen (kyogen- Obsession with speaking).

A new stage in the history of Japanese theater was opened by the work of Kanami Kiyotsugu (1333–1384), an actor and playwright. He created a full-fledged author's drama and a new performance. In the art of the actor Kanami put above all the ability to "imitate" ( monomane), which introduced the principle of stylization into the dance, turning it into a pantomime dance and subordinating the stage movement to a strict musical rhythm. It was then that he realized the importance of the principle yugen, which was used by actors to denote the beauty of the spectacle. Later yugen became one of the main categories of Japanese aesthetics, meaning "the beauty of the innermost." As a playwright he created new type drama, sharply conflicted, full of internal tension, in contrast to earlier narrative and illustrative plays by No. in his drama Sotoba Komachi the image of a half-mad, obsessed hero appears, expressing the extreme degree of human suffering. From this time begins the history of national dramaturgy. In the 19th century the Noh drama is called "yokyoku". The drama of No during the Muromachi era (1333–1573) takes on a Buddhist tone under the influence of the spread of the Buddhist Zen sect. Representation But were at that time very popular not only among ordinary spectators, but also attracted the attention of the shogun, who took the No troupe under his protection. This contributed to the development of acting skills and trips of actors to the provinces, which expanded the circle of their admirers. An outstanding actor of that period was Zeami. He expanded the themes of Noh dramaturgy, orienting the plays to the tastes of the samurai class. Zeami creates a cycle of plays about legendary warriors from the Taira and Minamoto clans, who led the 12th century. bloody struggle for power.

In the Edo period (1617–1868), the best No troupes moved to Edo (Tokyo) and, by special decrees of the authorities, the art of No was transformed into the “ceremonial theater” of the ruling class. The performance was given the character of a ritual magical action. More attention was paid to the technique of the game. All elements of the stage action - stage, props, costumes, masks, gestures, dance, intonations were strictly regulated. Drama Noh had a great influence on puppet theater and the emerging Kabuki theater. The further history of the Noh drama is the history of her stage life.

In drama No three to five actors. Main character sieve(“actor”), this is the name of the role. Second character - waki(“side”) is also a role, the hero’s story is addressed to him, he shows interest in it and expresses sympathy. Tsure("satellite") accompanies the protagonist in his ups and downs. Waki – zure("Sputnik side") shares the fate of the second character. Some dramas have a character kokata("child") into the roles of children, emperors or military rulers. The custom of playing emperors by a boy actor was established in the 14th century. in connection with the ban on the reproduction of imperial persons on stage. The play has five plot moves ( Danes), each of which is accompanied by a special melody. The acting has been canonized and brought to formal perfection. Stage movement consists of 250 simple basic movements − kata and includes the canonized technique of gait, dance movements, postures, playing with a fan, movement of arms, shoulders, etc. The role picture is given, the actor must do everything that the role and the mask prescribe.

The mask in the Noh theater plays an important role, creating a special charm of the game, based on the expressiveness and spirituality of the gesture with the stillness of the face. Only the first actor performs in a mask, and sometimes tsure(if it's a woman). There are four categories of masks: elders, warriors, women and demons. Each mask can have options - the mask of a beauty, a fairy, a fading woman, a frightening spirit of jealousy. The masks are made of cypress, small in size, they do not cover the entire face with narrow slits for the eyes, which corresponds to the aesthetic ideal: it was considered beautiful to have a small head with a massive body. Women's masks had high foreheads, eyebrows were drawn at the roots of the hair. On the mask - a frozen half-smile under special lighting created the impression of a change of mood, a certain mystery hidden in the "half-expression" of the mask-face. By the ability to wear a mask, they judge the skill of the actor and his achievement of the “beauty of the innermost” ( yugen).

The stage of the Noh theater, smooth to a mirror shine, is made of Japanese cypress. Platform 6ґ 6 is extended into the auditorium along with a platform adjoining at an acute angle ( hashigakarki).

The color of the costume symbolically indicates the mood of the character, his social status, age. The most noble color - white, red - for the costumes of deities, noble persons, beauties. A belt woven with flowers with small red petals hints at the old woman's former beauty.

In modern Japan, the No theater attracts the interest of an elite audience.

Kabuki theater originated in 1603 - the first year of the Tokugawa era, which ended the era of Japanese feudalism. The growth of cities as trading centers, the emergence of new trading classes created the conditions for new forms in literature, painting and theater. The emerging bourgeoisie wanted to see in the theater a reflection of their tastes and aspirations. The birth of Kabuki is associated with the name of Okuni dancer from a Shinto shrine. Her troupe, consisting of lively and attractive girls, performed with songs, scenes of erotic content, which immediately attracted the attention of the public. Perhaps, hence the name of the theater: the verb " kabuku” means “to deviate”, “to go out of the ordinary”. Later, Courtesan Kabuki was banned by the authorities for fear of spreading immorality. To replace women's kabuki came "Kabuki youths", which contributed to the spread of male prostitution. In 1652, young men were forbidden to perform in Kabuki by a special decree. Prohibitive measures could not restrain the development of the popular genre, although the regulation of the stage and Everyday life theater troupes and actors was very strict.

Development Kabuki is closely related to the success of the puppet theater and the musical-song tale. joruri. Puppet performances were brought to Japan from China as early as the 7th century, but the puppet theater was developed only in the 16th century. Then they began to voice performances with the help of legends. joruri, and the plots were taken from the repertoire of the theater No. Over time, the new direction was called joruri, and from the end of the 19th century. the second name came into use Bunraku when the main puppet theater "Bunraku ku-dza" opened in Osaka. Appeared Kabuki begins to borrow the repertoire and imitate puppet actors in his game. At the end of the 17th century singer-songwriter Takemoto Gidayu created a new style of performance joruri, which has been preserved in the modern puppet theater. Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1724) is considered to be the greatest Kabuki playwright. He wrote one hundred and thirty plays, of which more than thirty were for his idol actor and director Sakata Tojuro (1647–1709). Among the most famous plays Suicide of Lovers in Sonezaki based on a true story. He also wrote for the puppet theater, especially after it was headed by Gidayu. By the 18th century Kabuki created his own style of performance and reached the pinnacle of his development. Kabuki troupes were grouped in two major centers - Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka-Kyoto, which left an imprint on the style of dramaturgy and stage performance: in Edo, the service class preferred the samurai drama with duels and battles and, accordingly, the style of play was formed aragoto("harsh, rough style"). The merchants and artisans who inhabited Osaka-Kyota were lovers of sentimental drama, which formed an elegantly romantic style. vagoto("peaceful style"). Until the middle of the 19th century. kabuki completely owns the hearts of its viewers. After the Meiji Revolution in Japan, it was time for modernization and Westernization. Kabuki is beginning to be perceived as an anachronism, so it tries to overcome the cooling of the public. By the end of the 19th century the theater manages to regain the love of the audience, thanks to attempts to reform it. The famous actors Ichikawa Donjura the Ninth (1838–1903), Onoe Kikugoro the Fifth (1844–1903) made a great contribution. They updated the repertoire, tried to make the action more realistic. After their death, the work remained unfinished. In the second half of the 20th century Kabuki has regained the mass audience, but this is an educated audience with a delicate taste.

The artistic canon of Kabuki is as strict as that of the Noh theatre. The modern Kabuki viewer finds himself in a different historical dimension. The action begins with the sound of wooden mallets. A man in black appears on stage brown) - assistant actor on stage. A platform stretches from the left edge of the stage into the hall hanamichi("flower road"), where favorite actors received offerings and gifts from their fans. Later, the platform expanded the place of the stage action. In 1758, a revolving stage appeared in the Kabuki theater. If necessary, part of the stage could be raised.

Role. Male roles: tatiyaku- a noble hero, which is divided into three types: itsugoto- sage aragoto- warrior vagoto- lover Hero; villains katakiyaku divided into "real villains" ( jitsuaku), villainous aristocrats ( kugeaku), insidious seducers ( iroacu). Comic characters of two types: positive ( dokakata) and negative ( dokataki khan). The most famous is the female role ( onnagata). These roles are played by men. There were entire dynasties of famous female characters such as Nakamura Utaemon and Onoe Baiko. Roles onnagata subdivided into the roles of courtesans; girls from a noble family; noble wives; women mastering the art of sword fighting; harmful women.

Makeup (kumadori) is specific to each role. Male make-up involves the application of colored lines to the face, each of which has a symbolic meaning: red indicates courage, kindness and passion of nature, blue indicates malice and cowardice. Onnagata whiten the face and hands, and then apply cosmetics, exaggerating its color intensity.

Stage techniques as in No are called kata. They are strictly fixed and are trained in them from childhood. Battle and acrobatic tricks are especially spectacular, for example, a somersault in a jump or an instant pulling off of a suit, under which another suit is found. A special aesthetic effect is achieved by posture mie, i.e. fixed posture at the climax of the action. Sometimes mie are multi-figured, causing the delight of the audience.

Acting lies for the most part outside of stage speech. Its quintessence is in stage movement, in which the actor follows the pictorial principle, in other words, this or that pose mie should resemble a well-known painting. performing arts Kabuki, like his acting skills, is aimed at achieving a single goal, which the great Chikamatsu formulated as the desire to be "on the verge of truth and fiction."

At the beginning of the 20th century in the Japanese theater, new trends are born associated with the influence of Western dramatic theater. An eclectic genre emerged earlier than others Shingeki("Theatre new school”), which combined the techniques of Kabuki with elements of Western drama. The famous theatrical figure Kawakami Otojiro (1846-1911) became the creator of this style. In 1900, Kawakami toured Europe with a small troupe, visiting Russia as well. It so happened that supposedly Kabuki came to Europe earlier than real Kabuki. But the first actress, Kawakami's wife Sada Yakko, made a great impression on the European public. Her game was appreciated by Stanislavsky, the young Meyerhold.

The troupe "Gekidan Simpa" ("New Simpa Theater") worked in the same direction. Kabuki techniques, for example, mie side by side with the European style of play. A famous play was the drama by Kawaguchi Matsutaro (1899–1985) Meiji woman based on a true crime story. In 1911, the "Literary and Artistic Society" staged the first "Western performance" Hamlet. Later, the classics of Western drama reigned on the stage: Ibsen, Chekhov, Strindberg, Gorky. In the 1950s, plays by Mishima Yukio (1925–1970) were staged on Broadway under the general title Modern Noh theater, which were an interpretation of classic stories.

Starting in the 1960s, theater troupes arose, grouped around one playwright. The name Abe Kobo has become almost iconic. His works are designed for a chamber audience, but his play ghosts among us went to the big theater halls.

Over 40 troupes worked in Japan in the 1970s and 1980s shingeki.

Svetlana Serova

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Theatrical performances in India, all cult life, service in temples, processions are accompanied by music. Moreover, music has long penetrated deeply into the life of the Indian peoples and occupies a high place among the arts that adorn life. There are legends about the origin of music, numerous studies are devoted to it. it is done by both professionals and amateurs.

In this state of music, it is quite understandable that many different instruments have arisen. These instruments are often of local origin, but in many cases they were brought from Western or Central Asia along with other cultural values. Music life India was greatly enriched during the Muslim domination. It is known that the Mogul emperors, for example, Babar, were great lovers and connoisseurs of this art. Unlike Europe, the use of musical instruments in India is limited by a number of prohibitions.

For example, Hindus from the upper castes cannot play instruments that contain parts of slaughtered animals, such as eardrums made of skin or gut strings. A number of instruments are used only for cult activities, from which, on the other hand, other instruments are excluded. There are special instruments for women that men do not play, and vice versa. With the variety and richness of musical instruments, their relatively low sound qualities are striking. At the same time, other attention is paid to external decoration in the form of carving, painting, and inventing bizarre forms.

This is due to various reasons: first of all, the production of musical instruments is a side occupation of turners, carpenters, blacksmiths, who, of course, do not specialize in sound features; secondly, instrumental music does not play the same independent role in India as it does in our country; it mainly accompanies singing, or is calculated for rough effects, as during processions or dances; thirdly, as in all Indian culture, all attention is paid to the skill and craftsmanship of a person who extracts highly artistic results from poorly adapted material and with primitive tools. An Indian musician draws from a simple bamboo pipe such musical figures as would make a good European flutist or clarinetist think. Usually, musical instruments are divided into three large groups according to the method of sound production: percussion, wind and string instruments.

Theatrical art India The Indian theater is one of the oldest theaters in the world: its theory and practice were developed around the 2nd century BC. BC e. He is not only original, but also carried this originality through the thickness of centuries. The mastery of the classical Indian theater is so filigree that it is almost impossible for representatives of other countries and peoples to master it.

In general terms, the Indian theater in historical and factual terms can be divided into classical Sanskrit drama, folk theater and European-style theater.

There is an opinion that the classical Sanskrit drama is to some extent connected with classical Greek art, which penetrated India as a result of the campaign of Alexander the Great (the backdrop on the theatrical stage of the period of the formation of classical Sanskrit poetry was called “yavanika”, that is, “Greek”). But there is no direct evidence for this. Be that as it may, but in the II century. BC e. the fundamental work of the sage Bharata "Treatise on theatrical art" ("Natyashastra") appears, which deals with such issues as artistically expressive means of ritual and stage actions, including movements and chants, musical accompaniment of dances and songs, description of musical instruments, principles of creation dramatic works, the theory of versification, the history of performing arts, etc. Natyashastra is written in the form of couplets in verse.

Folk theater is another specific phenomenon for Indian theatrical art. Most likely, it arose as a kind of synthesis of classical drama, patronized by the rulers, and folk mysteries, supported by the common people. European-style theater in India has its own specifics that distinguish it from European theaters in our understanding of the word. There are no opera, ballet, or stationary drama theaters in India with their permanent troupe, extensive repertoire and many years of existence.

According to experts, modern Indian dramaturgy has concentrated on highlighting the following issues: the main problems of human existence in India, the decline of morality and morals, the relationship of individuals in modern society. In some places there is a merging of folk and modern theater. Plays in regional languages ​​break down language barriers and become a pan-Indian event. There are also talented playwrights writing in English. Thus, Manjula Padmanabhan's play "Bitter Bread" ("Bitter. Harvest") received international recognition. Despite many existing difficulties, modern Indian theater undoubtedly lives and develops.

Back in the Vedic period c. In India, theatrical performances were played out by the sky. At the beginning of our era, the first small theater premises appeared in the country. They did not have scenery, the theater props were extremely poor, they were replaced by other artistic conventions: a certain gait, facial expressions, gesticulation is thin.

Much attention was paid to the musical design of performances. However, unlike modern Indian performances, which, according to European theatergoers, are oversaturated with singing, in ancient Indian monologues and dialogues, the artists recited or chanted, but did not sing. A notable feature of the ancient Indian theater was. His penchant for melodrama and pathos are inherent in the current theatrical art in the country. Tragic plots were not allowed on the stage for the reasons that there is enough tragic in real life.

The theater was extremely popular in. Ancient. India, especially among the intelligentsia, but the profession of an artist did not belong to the prestigious, was considered "mean", the artists themselves were Shudras

The ancient Indians said: "He who knows neither music, nor literature, nor any other art, is not a man, but cattle, although he has neither a tail nor horns." Music played an important role in their lives. M. The art of professional musicians and dancers amused themselves with the Rajas. And the nobles, and in Indian myths, did not shy away from this entertainment and the gods, who were served by heavenly music and dancers.

On the development of ancient Indian musical culture tells the treatise. Natyashastra, probably compiled in the first centuries of our era. He testifies that at that time a well-established musical system already existed in the country, which later formed the basis of Indian "classical" musicians.

The hearing of a European Indian melody strikes with its exoticism. In the scale of the Indian scale there are many semitones and even quartertones. Indian melodies are classified by horns - a certain sequence of five or more tones that form the basis of the melody. Each para has its own emotional load, symbolizes joy, fun, love, peace, fear, etc. There are ragas "morning", "afternoon", "evening", etc. *. Old Indian melodies are devoid of harmonic basis and are based on rhythm percussion instruments. An important feature of ancient Indian music is also that the musician in the family is always an improviser. He performs the key musical phrase, and then endlessly varies it, and each time in a new way, so that each performance of the same melody is unique from the second.

The ancient Indians created a number of musical instruments, the most common of which was similar to the ancient Egyptian wine lyre. The musicians also played the flute, other reed and percussion instruments.

It developed in Ancient. India also has the art of vocals. Singing was most often a variation of a simple melody, which was reduced to literally a single musical phrase.

The Indian art of dance has changed little over the centuries. In ancient dances, the main role was also played by musical rhythm and gestures, and almost every part of the body of the dancer ika or dancer participated in the dance; a small movement of the little finger or eyebrow told the initiate in the secrets of this art; With the most complex code of the positions of his hands and fingers, he conveyed a wide range of emotions, excitedly talked about various events in the life of gods, people, and zhivoarin.

The art of Indian dance is very complex. It took years of hard work to master it. Therefore, in Ancient. India dances have always been performed by professionals of the social taboo on this form of entertainment in ch. Libin centuries, it seems, did not exist (they were cured only by the priesthood).