Liberal politics upholds the will of every individual. After all, it is the last this case considered to be of the highest value. Laws are established as the just basis of the economy and order among the people. An important role is played by the constitution, within the framework of the rules of which the state and the church have the right to influence social processes.
Main features and features
Liberal ideology is characterized by:
- equality of all citizens and a chance to influence political processes;
- the opportunity to speak freely in public, to decide on religion, to vote honestly for one or another candidate in elections;
- inviolable private property, trade and entrepreneurship are unlimited;
- the law is supreme;
- citizens are equal, influence, wealth and position do not matter.
Wide dissemination of ideas
Liberal ideology is very popular these days. IN modern world freedom plays a very important role. Attention is paid to the feeling of personal dignity, the universal rights of people. A person's personal life and private property must be inviolable. The market must remain free, religious choice must be tolerated.
When the liberal-democratic ideology reigns, the state is legal, the government is transparent, the power of the people is higher than the rulers. A good ruling force is one that is the spokesman for the opinion of the people, they are regulated and controlled. Not only the head of the country rules a man, but also a man rules his own land.
A state with a liberal ideology has those common features that are now observed in Finland, Estonia, Cyprus, Uruguay, Spain, Slovenia, Canada and Taiwan. Here the values of will and freedom are given the leading role. It is on their foundation that the new goals of the country are built.
Various features in separate territories
North America and Western Europe differ in that there the political currents are in solidarity with the movement for the power of the people. The liberal ideology of the "right" representatives is more inclined towards classical views on the order in the state.
Here, the influence of conservatives, who are inclined towards established models and schemes, is clearly visible. They are alien to social and cultural progress, which can shake the established norms of morality.
There used to be rivalry between traditionalists and freedom fighters, but when the Second World War, authoritarianism was discredited. The leading role went to the moderate currents, whose ideas were expressed in the desire for softer regimes of conservatism and Christian democracy.
The second half of the 20th century was marked by the fact that the liberal ideology suffered from an ingrained desire to preserve private property and privatization. Old customs had to be adjusted.
In the United States of America, the values of the liberal ideology reached the people through the socialists, as well as through the "left" currents of this political direction. Western Europe, on the other hand, is characterized by differences in the actions of its public organizations. The "leftists" are pursuing a social policy in the struggle for the freedom of the people.
The Liberal Party in Europe promotes non-interference in personal affairs and in business. Such actions can be carried out only when the protection of the freedoms and property of some citizens from others must be carried out.
There is support for the cultural and economic currents in which the liberal ideology moves. Social orientation not supported. In striving to realize the rule of law, it is required that the authority has sufficient strength. Some people are of the opinion that private and public organizations are enough to ensure order. Armed movements are considered the latest and most unacceptable way to solve problems in the event of military aggression.
Differences in directions
When economic interests are observed, the liberal party can isolate itself into separate currents. Economic schemes of work that do not affect politics are considered. The state must ensure maximum freedom for the development of business and trade, without interfering with this process.
Only moderate regulation of the monetary system can be carried out, the international market is available. Obstruction in foreign economic activity is not carried out by the authorities. Any initiative, on the contrary, is encouraged. Conduct the privatization process. An example of such management was shown by Margaret Thatcher, who carried out a series of reforms in the UK.
The effect of putting ideas into practice
Today, liberals can be attributed to centrist currents or to social democratic ones. In Scandinavia, such management models are very popular. There were economic downturns, due to which the issues of protecting society were especially aggravated. The population suffered from unemployment, inflation and poor pensions.
The Social Democrats increased taxation, the state sector played an important role in the economy. For a long time, "right" and "left" political forces fought for rule.
Thanks to this, effective laws have appeared, the government has become transparent, now it is engaged in the protection of civil human rights and property of business entities.
In our time in Scandinavia, the state does not regulate pricing policy. Banks are run by private companies. Trade is open to everyone who wants to participate in a fair competition in both local and international markets. A liberal-democratic system of politics was implemented. The level of social protection has become extremely high. Other European countries are characterized by similar processes. There, social democracy is mixed with the liberal politics of government.
Proclamation of rights and freedoms
The main goals of liberal currents are to strengthen democratic views that give freedom to the people. The state should take as a basis the right to ensure an independent system of justice. The transparency of the work of the ruling structures should be controlled. Protect civil rights and provide room for competition.
It is very important to understand when it comes to a particular party, whether it belongs to the social liberals, libertarians or the right sector.
Society also promotes the ideas of equality and freedom in a variety of ways. Some support free choice sexual life, the right to sell drugs and weapons, to expand the powers of private security organizations, to which some of the powers of the police can be transferred.
In the context of the economy, a stable income tax is maintained or its change to a per capita one. Trying to privatize educational institutions, the procedure for providing pensioners, health protection. They want to make science connected with self-sustaining sponsorship. A number of states are characterized by the fact that the liberal party seeks to abandon the death penalty, disarm the troops, reject the development of nuclear weapons, and take care of the environment.
Unity of peoples
The debate around multiculturalism is getting sharper. Ethnic minorities should share those values of the people that are considered fundamental. The majority of the population, having the same roots, must protect the rights of small communities. There is also an opinion that there should be an early integration between minorities in order to keep the nation intact.
Organizations and associations
Since 1947, the Mont Pelerin Society has been working to unite economic, entrepreneurial, philosophical minds, and journalistic figures in order to maintain the ideals that the classical struggle for freedom preaches.
In our time, this policy is promoted by the Liberal International, which unites 19 organizations based on the Oxford Manifesto. As of 2015, there are 100 members in education, including the Free Democratic Party of Germany, Yabloko in Russia, and so on.
The concept of "liberalism" appeared in the early 19th century. Initially, liberals were called a group of nationalist deputies in the Cortes - the Spanish parliament. Then this concept entered all European languages, but in a slightly different meaning.
The essence of liberalism remains unchanged throughout the history of its existence. Liberalism is a statement of the value of the human personality, its rights and freedoms. From the ideology of the Enlightenment, liberalism borrowed the idea of natural human rights, therefore, liberals included and continue to include the right to life, liberty, happiness and property among the inalienable rights of the individual, with the greatest attention being paid to private property and freedom, since it is believed that property provides freedom, which in its turn is a prerequisite for success in the life of an individual, the prosperity of society and the state.
Freedom is inseparable from responsibility and ends where the freedom of another person begins. The "rules of the game" in society are fixed in laws adopted by a democratic state, which proclaims political freedoms (conscience, speech, meetings, associations, etc.). The economy is market based on private property and competition. Such an economic system is the embodiment of the principle of freedom and the condition for successful economic development country.
The first historical type of worldview containing the complex of ideas outlined above was classical liberalism (late 18th - 70s-80s of the 19th century). It can be seen as a direct continuation of the political philosophy of the Enlightenment. It is not for nothing that John Locke is called the "father of liberalism", and the creators of classical liberalism, Jeremy Bentham and Adam Smith, are considered the largest representatives of the late Enlightenment in England. Throughout the 19th century, liberal ideas were developed by John Stuart Mill (England), Benjamin Constant and Alexis de Tocqueville (France), Wilhelm von Humboldt and Lorenz Stein (Germany).
Classical liberalism differs from the ideology of the Enlightenment, first of all, by the lack of connection with revolutionary processes, as well as by its negative attitude towards revolutions in general and towards the Great French Revolution in particular. Liberals accept and justify the social reality that has developed in Europe after the French Revolution, and actively strive to improve it, believing in the boundless social progress and the power of the human mind.
Classical liberalism includes a number of principles and concepts. Its philosophical basis is the nominalistic postulate about the priority of the individual over the general. Accordingly, the principle of individualism is central: the interests of the individual are higher than the interests of society and the state. Therefore, the state cannot violate the rights and freedoms of a person, and the individual has the right to protect them against encroachments by other individuals, organizations, society and the state.
If we consider the principle of individualism from the point of view of its correspondence to the actual state of things, it should be stated that it is false. In no state can the interests of an individual be higher than public and state interests. The opposite situation would mean the death of the state. It is curious that for the first time one of the founders of classical liberalism I. Bentham drew attention to this. He wrote that "natural, inalienable and sacred rights never existed", since they are incompatible with the state; "...citizens, demanding them, would only ask for anarchy ...". Nevertheless, the principle of individualism has played a highly progressive role in the development of Western civilization. And in our time, it still gives the individual the legal right to defend their interests in the face of the state.
The principle of utilitarianism is further development and concretization of the principle of individualism. I. Bentham, who formulated it, believed that society is a fictitious body consisting of individuals. The common good is also a fiction. The real interest of society is nothing but the sum of the interests of its constituent individuals. Therefore, any actions of politicians and any institutions should be evaluated solely in terms of the extent to which they contribute to the reduction of suffering and increase the happiness of individuals. The construction of a model of an ideal society, according to I. Bentam, is not necessary and dangerous from the point of view of possible consequences.
Based on the principles of individualism and utilitarianism, classical liberalism proposed a very specific model of society and the state as an optimal one. The state should not interfere in socio-economic relations: it is more likely to disrupt harmony than to promote its establishment.
The concept of the rule of law corresponds to the concept of public self-regulation in the sphere of politics. The goal of such a state is the formal equality of opportunities for citizens, the means is the adoption of relevant laws and ensuring their strict implementation by all, including state officials. At the same time, the material well-being of each individual is considered his personal matter, and not the sphere of concern of the state. Alleviation of the extremes of poverty is supposed to come from private philanthropy. The essence of the rule of law is briefly expressed by the formula: "the law is above all."
The legal "small state" should be secular. Classical liberalism advocated the separation of church and state. The supporters of this ideology considered religion to be a personal matter of an individual. It can be said that any liberalism, including classical, is generally indifferent to religion, which is not regarded as either a positive or a negative value.
The programs of the liberal parties usually included the following demands: separation of powers; approval of the principle of parliamentarism, that is, the transition to such forms of state organization in which the government is formed by parliament; proclamation and implementation of democratic rights and freedoms; separation of church and state.
The second idea, borrowed by social liberalism from social democracy, is the idea of social justice, understood as the right of everyone to a decent life. The broad social programs proposed by the Social Democrats, which involve the redistribution of profits from the rich to the poor through the system of state taxes, also became a concrete way to implement it.
Social insurance for sickness, unemployment, old age, insurance medicine, free education, etc. - all these programs, gradually introduced and expanded in the countries of Western civilization during the late 19th - 70s of the 20th century, existed and continue to exist thanks to the introduction of a progressive taxation scale. Such a system of taxation assumes that people with more income or capital pay a higher percentage of this income or capital than people with less means of livelihood. Social programs simultaneously contribute to the development of the economy, as they expand effective demand.
At present, the influence of liberalism as a political worldview is growing. This is connected both with the resurrection by neoconservatives of a number of fundamental provisions of classical liberalism, and with the collapse of the USSR, the world system of socialism, with the transition of the European countries that were part of it to a liberal economic model and Western-style political democracy, in the establishment of which liberalism and liberal parties played a decisive role. At the same time, the crisis of the liberal parties continues.
Socialism
The concept of "socialism", which came into general use in the third decade of the 19th century, was intended to indicate the direction public thought striving to develop fundamentally new model arrangement of society as a whole based on the transformation of socio-economic relations. It is difficult to give a brief meaningful definition of this ideology, since the concept of socialism combines a large number of concepts that differ greatly from each other, which can be divided into two large groups: actually socialist and communist.
The concepts of the first group assume that a decent life for workers can be achieved in a society based on a combination of public and private ownership of the means of production, and universal absolute equality is neither necessary nor desirable. The concepts of the second group propose to create a society based solely on social forms of ownership, which implies complete social and property equality of citizens.
A characteristic of socialist ideology, taking into account the existence of the two directions of socialist thought indicated above, can be given in the following way. Socialism presupposes a critique of bourgeois society from the positions of some ideal, "situated" according to the socialists in the future. The formulation of the main features of the future society is given from the standpoint of the most disadvantaged part of the population, earning a living by their own labor. The society of social justice itself presupposes essential role social forms of ownership, the convergence of the extremes of wealth and poverty, the replacement of competition with solidarity and mutual assistance. The new society is conceived as capable of ensuring faster and more comprehensive social progress than the bourgeois one.
First historical type socialist ideology is the humanistic socialism of the first half of the 19th century, also called utopian socialism (at present, the second name seems unreasonable, since Marxism also turned out to be a utopia, although in a different sense). Its founders and major representatives are Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier (France), Robert Owen (England). This socialism is called humanistic because its creators, formulating the main features of a society of social justice, proceeded from the interests of a person in general, and not a representative of any class or stratum, although biggest win the implementation of the proposed model was supposed to bring people labor.
The specific systems of views of the founders of humanistic socialism were different, but in general, a society of social justice was conceived as based on a combination of public and private forms of ownership, on the cooperation of classes. It was supposed to preserve social and property inequality associated with the unequal contribution - financial and labor - to the development of the enterprise, with the different roles of representatives of various social strata in society. The transition to a new social organization was conceived as gradual and taking place exclusively by peaceful means. The following were proposed as means of transition: appeal to those in power, to representatives of big business, the creation of exemplary enterprises on new principles, and the promotion of positive experience. It is the indicated means of transition to a society of social justice that gave rise to the name "utopian socialism".
In the 40s of the 19th century, Marxism arose, also called workers' or economic socialism, as well as scientific communism. This ideology appeared on the basis of Karl Marx's analysis of the economic relations of bourgeois society under the conditions of the growth of the labor movement. The basic tenets of Marxism are as follows.
Capitalist society will inevitably lose its economic efficiency due to its inherent contradiction between public character production and private appropriation. In order to eliminate this contradiction and open up scope for the development of the productive forces, private ownership of the means of production must be abolished. Accordingly, the future society of social justice will be at the same time the most economically efficient. There will be public ownership of the means of production, there will be no classes, exploitation will disappear, complete social and property equality will be established, the state will cease to exist as a political organization of the economically dominant class (it will be replaced by public self-government), creative self-realization of each person will become possible.
The transition to a new society is possible only through class struggle and social revolution, which will be carried out by the working class, led by the Communist Party, armed with knowledge of the laws of social development. Immediately after the victory of the revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established, which will become a new, higher form of democracy, since by that time the proletariat will constitute the majority of the population in society.
The development of Marxism in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries led to the emergence of two modern types of socialist ideology: Marxism-Leninism and the ideology of social democracy. Marxism-Leninism, also called Bolshevism and scientific communism, arose as an adaptation of Marxism to the conditions of Russia and to the practice of socialist construction after the victory Russian revolution 1917. The parties that adopted this ideology began, as a rule, to be called communist.
An attempt to implement the Marxist model, carried out in the USSR and other countries of the world socialist system, led to the emergence of a society in which the state economy was controlled from a single center in the absence of political democracy. It was another attempt to overcome the crisis of liberalism and the liberal economic model. However, the created society did not become either more humane or more economically efficient than the capitalist one in the long run, and therefore left the historical arena.
The ideology of social democracy, which was formed in the 90s of the 19th century, arose as a criticism, a revision of Marxism. Its main provisions were developed by the German Social Democrat Eduard Bernstein and gradually adopted by the international Social Democracy, although not without a sharp conflict of opinions. There was a rejection of such fundamental provisions of Marxism as the social (socialist) revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat, the complete replacement of private ownership of the means of production by public ownership.
The revision of Marxism turned out to be possible and inevitable, since in the last decades of the 19th century it became obvious that the position of the working class was not worsening with the development of capitalism, as K. Marx predicted, but improving. From this fact, E. Bernstein drew far-reaching conclusions that have not lost their significance today, and developed a program for building democratic socialism.
Since economic development under capitalism leads to an increase in the material well-being of the workers, the task of the social democratic parties should be to improve the existing society, and not to eliminate it and replace it with another that is fundamentally different from the bourgeois one.
A necessary condition for such improvement is political democracy. E. Bernstein drew attention to the fact that the consistent implementation of the basic liberal principles of the political system leads to the elimination of the political domination of the bourgeoisie, if the working class manages to organize and constantly support its party in the elections.
Thus, it was necessary to fight for the deepening of political democracy, the victory of the party of the working class in parliamentary elections, the formation of a social democratic government. Such a government, with the support of the parliamentary majority, must steadily implement a program of reforms extended over time aimed at improving the material situation of the working class, increasing its social security, raising its cultural and educational level, and so on.
For this purpose, and also for the sake of increasing economic efficiency, it was necessary to gradually carry out a partial nationalization of industry, primarily unprofitable enterprises and industries, establish state regulation of the private capitalist sector, develop and implement broad social programs based on the redistribution of profits from the haves to the poor through the tax system.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the core values of international social democracy continue to be solidarity, freedom, equality, political democracy, a state-controlled market mixed economy, and the social security of the population. The gradual expansion of the public sector of the economy is no longer considered appropriate.
At the present time, despite the fact that social democratic parties periodically come to power in European countries, replacing neoconservatives, the crisis of social democratic ideology cannot be considered overcome, since new constructive ideas that can renew the program and practice of democratic socialism in the international socialist there is no democracy.
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus
Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics
Department of Humanities
discipline: "Fundamentals of the ideology of the Belarusian state."
On the topic: “Basic principles of liberalism. social liberalism”.
Done: Checked:
Student gr. 863001 Rudakovskiy N.K.
Zhitkevich Inna
Liberalism
Historically, the first formulated political ideology was the ideology of liberalism, which arose in the 18th century. By this time, a class of free proprietors who did not belong to the nobility and clergy, the so-called third estate or bourgeoisie, had matured in European cities. It was an active part of society, not satisfied with its own good financial situation and saw its path in political influence.
The British are considered to be the founders of the theoretical substantiation of liberalism. Englishman John Locke(1632-1704), first put forward the idea of separation of powers and interpreted the role of the state as a contractual obligation to protect the natural and inalienable human rights to life, liberty and property. Scot Adam Smith(1723-1790), "the father of economics", showed, in particular, that the exchange of goods takes place if and only if it is beneficial to both parties. "In order to raise the state from the lowest stage of barbarism to the highest stage of prosperity, only peace, light taxes and tolerance in government are needed; everything else will do the natural course of things. All governments that forcibly direct events in a different way or try to stop the development of society are unnatural "To stay in power, they are forced to exercise oppression and tyranny."
The basic value of liberalism, as the name of this ideology implies, is freedom personality. Spiritual freedom is the right to choose in a religious matter, freedom of speech. Material freedom is the right to own property, the right to buy and sell for one's own benefit. Political freedom is freedom in the literal sense of the word, subject to the observance of laws, freedom in the expression of political will. Individual rights and freedoms take precedence over the interests of society and the state.
The ideal of liberalism is a society with freedom of action for everyone, the free exchange of politically significant information, the limitation of the power of the state and the church, the rule of law, private property and the freedom of private enterprise. Liberalism rejected many assumptions that were the basis of previous theories of the state, such as the divine right of monarchs to power and the role of religion as the only source of knowledge. The fundamental principles of liberalism include the recognition of:
natural rights given by nature (including the right to life, personal liberty and property), as well as other civil rights;
equality and equality before the law;
market economy;
government accountability and transparency of state power.
The function of state power is thus reduced to the minimum necessary to ensure these principles. Modern liberalism also favors an open society based on pluralism and democratic government, while protecting the rights of minorities and individual citizens.
Some current currents of liberalism are more tolerant of state regulation of free markets for the sake of equality of opportunity to succeed, universal education, and reduction of income disparity. Supporters of such views believe that the political system should contain elements of a welfare state, including state unemployment benefits, homeless shelters and free healthcare.
According to the views of liberals, state power exists for the benefit of the people subject to it, and the political leadership of the country should be carried out on the basis of the consent of the majority of those who are led. To date, the political system that is most consonant with the convictions of liberals is liberal democracy.
Initially, liberalism proceeded from the fact that all rights should be in the hands of individuals and legal entities, and the state should exist solely to protect these rights. Modern liberalism has significantly expanded the scope of the classical interpretation and includes many currents, between which there are deep contradictions and sometimes conflicts arise. Modern liberalism in most developed countries is a mixture of all these forms. In third world countries, "third generation liberalism" often comes to the fore - a movement for a healthy environment and against it.
Liberalism is distinguished by a number of features within different national traditions. Separate aspects of his theory (economic, political, ethical) are sometimes opposed to each other. Thus, there is a certain meaning in the conclusion of T.Spragens: "Liberalism as something unified has never existed, there was only a family of liberalisms." Apparently, we are dealing with a multitude of theories united by certain general principles, adherence to which distinguishes liberalism from other ideologies. Moreover, these principles allow for different interpretations, can be combined in a very bizarre way, and are the basis for the most unexpected, sometimes refuting arguments.
In my opinion, these principles include, firstly, individualism, the priority of the interests of individuals over the interests of society or a group. This principle received various justifications: from ontological concepts in which the individual person with his natural rights precedes society, to the ethical understanding of individuality as the highest value. It was embodied in different interpretations of the relationship between the individual and society: from the idea of society as a mechanical sum of individuals realizing their own interests, to a more comprehensive approach, in which a person is considered as a social being, requiring both cooperation with other people and autonomy. . However, the idea of the rights of the individual, from which the basic requirements for social order follow, undoubtedly underlies all liberal theories, distinguishing them from illiberal approaches.
Secondly, liberalism is characterized by commitment to the idea of human rights and the value of individual freedom. Although the content of rights, as well as the interpretation of freedom, have undergone significant changes in the course of the long history of liberal ideas, the priority of freedom as the main value for liberals has remained unchanged. Supporters of "classical" liberalism interpret freedom negatively, as the absence of coercion, and see its natural limitations in the equal rights of other people. They consider the equality of formal rights to be the only kind of equality compatible with freedom as a priority value. The rights of individuals are reduced by them to the sum of "fundamental rights", which include political freedoms, freedom of thought and freedom of conscience, as well as rights relating to the independence of the individual, backed by guarantees of private property. The New Liberals offer a positive understanding of freedom that complements freedom with equality of opportunity as a guarantee of the exercise of rights. Freedom in their understanding is a real possibility of choice, not predetermined either by other people or by the circumstances of the life of the individual himself. In this regard, the “new liberals” are expanding the framework of “fundamental rights”, including in them the most essential social rights.
But one way or another, the main premise of liberalism is the idea that each person has his own idea of life, and he has the right to realize this idea to the best of his abilities, so society should be tolerant of his thoughts and actions, if the latter do not affect the rights of other people. Over its long history, liberalism has developed a whole system of institutional guarantees of the rights of individuals, which includes the inviolability of private property and the principle of religious tolerance, limitation of state intervention in the sphere of private life, backed by law, constitutional representative government, separation of powers, the idea of the rule of law, etc.
Thirdly, an important principle characteristic of the liberal approach is rationalism, the belief in the possibility of a gradual, purposeful improvement of society by reformist, but not revolutionary measures. The liberal doctrine imposes certain requirements on the nature of the reforms being carried out. According to V. Leontovich, “the method of liberalism is the elimination of obstacles to personal freedom. Such elimination cannot, however, take the form of a violent upheaval or destruction... According to the liberal worldview, it is necessary to eliminate first of all the unlimited powers of state power... On the contrary, liberalism treats the subjective rights of individuals with the greatest respect... In general, the liberal state violent interference in the existing life relationships of people and any violation of habitual life forms are completely alien ... ”. This characteristic quite fully reflects the principles arising from liberal theory. Although, in practice, liberals have repeatedly deviated from them, since social transformations are always “violation of habitual life forms,” however, the imperative of liberal reforms is the principle of minimal violation of existing individual rights.
Related to this is another feature of liberal methods - their "anti-constructivism": liberals usually support "social engineering" only to the extent that it removes obstacles to the development of already established institutions and relations. Their goal is not to invent concrete projects of the "good society" and to put into practice some arbitrarily constructed models.
These, in our opinion, are the basic principles of liberalism. However, this list can be continued. However, no matter how detailed it is, it will always be possible to refer to some liberal concepts that do not fit into it. As E. Shatsky writes, “no matter what we say about the views allegedly characteristic of liberalism, it should be remembered that during its long history it served different goals and interests, adapted to different local traditions and used different theoretical languages. For this reason, any description that assumes a high level of generalization is bound to be incorrect. The same can be said about all “isms” with the exception of those that created dogmatic systems...”. Therefore, one should not see in the description proposed above a certain strict definition. Liberalism is not a system consisting of a once and for all given set of elements, but rather a certain area of ideas that allows various combinations, but at the same time has quite definite boundaries.
social liberalism
Social liberalism arose in late XIX century in many developed countries under the influenceUtilitarianism. Some liberals have embraced, in part or in full, Marxism and the socialist theory of exploitation and have come to the conclusion that the state must use its power to restore social justice. Thinkers such as John Dewey or Mortimer Adler explained that all individuals, being the backbone of society, must have access to basic needs such as education, economic opportunities, protection from harmful large-scale events beyond their control in order to realize their abilities. Such positive rights, which are granted by society, are qualitatively different from classical negative rights, the enforcement of which requires non-intervention from others. Proponents of social liberalism argue that without the guarantee of positive rights, the fair realization of negative rights is impossible, since in practice the poor people sacrifice their rights for the sake of survival, and the courts more often tend to favor the rich. Social liberalism supports the imposition of some restrictions on economic competition. He also expects the government to provide social protection to the population (through taxes) in order to create conditions for the development of all talented people, to prevent social riots and simply "for the common good".
There is a fundamental contradiction between economic and social liberalism. Economic liberals believe that positive rights inevitably violate negative ones and are therefore unacceptable. They see the function of the state as limited mainly to issues of law enforcement, security and defense. From their point of view, these functions already require a strong centralized government. On the contrary, social liberals believe that the main task of the state is social protection and ensuring social stability: providing food and housing for the needy, health care, schooling, pensions, care for children, the disabled and the elderly, helping victims of natural disasters, protecting minorities, preventing crime, support for science and art. This approach makes it impossible to impose large-scale restrictions on the government. Despite the unity of the ultimate goal - personal freedom - economic and social liberalism radically diverge in the means to achieve it. Right-wing and conservative movements often lean in favor of economic liberalism while opposing cultural liberalism. Movements on the left tend to emphasize cultural and social liberalism.
Some researchers point out that the opposition between “positive” and “negative” rights is in fact illusory, since social costs are also required to ensure “negative” rights (for example, the maintenance of courts to protect property).
LIBERAL
LIBERAL
(lat. liberalis, from liber - civilly free). Free thinker, standing for a free form of government.
Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .
LIBERAL
lat. liberalis, from liber, civilly free. Free-thinking, standing for a free image of government.
Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .
LIBERAL
free, free-thinking, consonant with liberalism.
A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .
Liberal
1) related to liberalism, characteristic of it;
2) showing liberalism 3.
New dictionary foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .
Liberal
pertaining to a liberal, liberalism, peculiar to them.
Big Dictionary foreign words.- Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 .
Liberal oh, oh, flax, flax ( fr. liberal lat. liberalis free).
1.
full f. Related to liberalism. Liberal Party.
2.
manifesting liberalism. L. knowledge assessment approach.
liberality- the same as liberalism.
Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words L. P. Krysina.- M: Russian language, 1998 .
Synonyms:
Antonyms:
See what "LIBERAL" is in other dictionaries:
Cm … Synonym dictionary
liberal- oh, oh. liberal, eadj. 1. Rel. to liberal and liberalism (political current), expressing liberalism. BAS 1. The main .. parties in France are: Royalists Constitutional, Ministerial, Liberal, opponents of the hereditary line, ... ... Historical dictionary gallicisms of the Russian language
LIBERAL, liberal, liberal; liberal, liberal, liberal 1. adj. towards liberalism; imbued with liberalism. liberal speeches. liberal reforms. Liberal talk. 2. only full. The name of some political organizations and ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
LIBERAL, oh, oh; flax, flax. 1. full Pertaining to liberalism (in 1 value). Liberal Party. L. worker. 2. Manifesting liberalism (in 2 values). L. approach to what n. | noun liberalism, and, wives. (to 2 values). Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
liberal- terribly liberal ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms
liberal- oh, oh; flax, flax 1) full. f. Pertaining to liberalism. Liberal Party. liberal newspaper. 2) Showing liberalism. Liberal approach to knowledge assessment. 3) outdated. Infused with liberalism. The secretary was liberal, even radical ... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language
I adj. 1. ratio with noun. liberalism I, liberalization associated with them 2. Liberalizing. II adj. 1. Showing excessive tolerance, harmful indulgence, connivance. 2. Characteristic of liberalism [liberalism II 2.], ... ... Modern dictionary Russian language Efremova
Liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, ... ... Forms of words
Conservative intolerant reactionary routine… Antonym Dictionary
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- liberal conservatism. History and Modernity, . The book contains complex analysis the processes of genesis, formation and evolution of Russian liberal conservatism as a system of ideas and politics, organization and tactics; his…
- Liberal redistribution of the agrosphere in Russia. Book 3. Market domestication of the Russian peasant, V. I. Staroverov, A. N. Zakharov. In a series of books under the general title Liberal redistribution of the agrosphere of Russia, the social, economic and political contradictions of modern times generated by the voluntarism of perestroika are highlighted.
What is liberalism? Each person will answer this question differently. Even dictionaries give different definitions of this concept. This article tells what liberalism is, in simple terms.
Definitions
Several of the most precise definitions concept of liberalism.
1. Ideology, political movement. It brings together admirers of parliamentarism, democratic rights and free enterprise.
2. Theory, system of political and philosophical ideas. It was formed among Western European thinkers in the XVIII-XIX centuries.
3. The worldview characteristic of the ideologists from among the industrial bourgeoisie, who defended the freedom of enterprise and their political rights.
4. In the primary sense - freethinking.
5. Excessive tolerance, condescension, conciliatory attitude towards bad deeds.
Speaking about what liberalism is, in simple words, it should be noted that this is a political and ideological movement, whose representatives deny revolutionary methods of struggle in achieving certain rights and benefits, advocate free enterprise, the implementation of democratic principles.
Basic principles of liberalism
The ideology of liberalism differs from other theories of political and philosophical thought in its special principles. They were formulated by scientists back in the 18th-19th centuries, and representatives of this trend are still striving to bring them to life.
1. Human life is an absolute value.
2. All people are equal among themselves.
3. The will of the individual does not depend on external factors.
4. The needs of one person are more important than the collective. The category "personality" is primary, "society" is secondary.
5. Every person has natural inalienable rights.
6. The state must arise on the basis of a general consensus.
7. Man himself creates laws and values.
8. The citizen and the state are responsible to each other.
9. Separation of power. Dominance of the principles of constitutionalism.
10. The government must be elected through fair democratic elections.
11. Tolerance and humanism.
Ideologists of classical liberalism
Each ideologist of this movement understood what liberalism was in their own way. This theory is represented by many concepts and opinions, which can sometimes contradict each other. The origins of classical liberalism can be seen in the works of C. Montesquieu, A. Smith, J. Locke, J. Mill, T. Hobbes. It was they who laid the foundations of a new trend. The basic principles of liberalism were developed back in the Enlightenment in France by C. Montesquieu. He spoke for the first time about the need for separation of powers and the recognition of individual freedom in all spheres of life.
Adam Smith substantiated what economic liberalism is, and also highlighted its main principles and characteristics. J. Locke is the founder of the theory of the rule of law. In addition, he is one of the most prominent ideologues of liberalism. J. Locke argued that stability in a society can only exist if it consists of free people.
Features of liberalism in the classical sense
The ideologists of classical liberalism focused on the concept of "individual freedom". Unlike absolutist ideas, their concepts denied the complete subordination of the individual to society and social orders. The ideology of liberalism defended the independence and equality of all people. Freedom was perceived as the absence of any restrictions or prohibitions on the implementation of conscious actions of the individual within the framework of generally accepted rules and laws. The state, according to the fathers of classical liberalism, is obliged to ensure the equality of all citizens. However, a person must independently worry about his financial situation.
Liberalism proclaimed the need to limit the scope of the state. Its functions should be reduced to a minimum and consist in maintaining order and ensuring security. Power and society can exist only under the condition of obedience to laws.
Models of classical liberalism
J. Locke, J.-J. Russo, J. St. Mill, T. Payne. They defended the ideas of individualism and human freedom. In order to understand what liberalism is in the classical sense, one should consider its interpretations.
- Continental European model. Representatives of this concept (F. Guizot, B. Constant, J.-J. Rousseau, B. Spinoza) defended the ideas of constructivism, rationalism in interaction with nationalism, attached more importance to freedom within society than for individuals.
- Anglo-Saxon model. Representatives of this concept (J. Locke, A. Smith, D. Hume) put forward the ideas of the rule of law, unlimited trade, were convinced that freedom is more important for an individual than for society as a whole.
- North American model. Representatives of this concept (J. Adams, T. Jefferson) developed the ideas of inalienable human rights.
economic liberalism
This direction of liberalism was based on the idea that economic laws operate in the same way as natural ones. State intervention in this area was considered unacceptable.
A. Smith is considered the father of the concept of economic liberalism. His teaching was based on the following ideas.
1. The best incentive for economic development is self-interest.
2. State measures of regulation and monopoly, which were practiced within the framework of mercantilism, are harmful.
3. The development of the economy is directed by an "invisible hand". The necessary institutions must arise naturally without state interference. Firms and resource providers that are interested in growing their own wealth and operate within a competitive market system are allegedly directed by an "invisible hand" that contributes to the satisfaction of social needs.
Rise of neoliberalism
Considering what liberalism is, the definition must be given to two concepts - classical and modern (new).
By the beginning of the XX century. crisis phenomena begin to appear in this direction of political and economic thought. Workers' strikes are taking place in many Western European states, and industrial society is entering a period of conflict. Under such conditions, the classical theory of liberalism ceases to coincide with reality. New ideas and principles are being formed. The central problem of modern liberalism is the issue of social guarantees of the rights and freedoms of the individual. This was largely facilitated by the popularity of Marxism. In addition, the need for social measures was considered in the works of I. Kant, J. St. Mill, G. Spencer.
Principles of modern (new) liberalism
The new liberalism is characterized by an orientation towards rationalism and targeted reforms in order to improve existing public and political systems. A special place is occupied by the problem of comparing freedom, justice and equality. There is the concept of "elite". It is formed from the most worthy members of the group. It is believed that society can only triumph thanks to the elite and dies with it.
The economic principles of liberalism are defined by the concepts of "free market" and "minimal state". The problem of freedom acquires an intellectual coloring and is translated into the realm of morality and culture.
Features of neoliberalism
As a social philosophy and political concept, modern liberalism has its own characteristics.
1. State intervention in the economy is necessary. The government must protect the freedom of competition and the market from the possibility of monopoly.
2. Support for the principles of democracy and justice. The broad masses must actively participate in the political process.
3. The state is obliged to develop and implement programs aimed at supporting low-income strata of the population.
Differences between classical and modern liberalism
idea, principle | classical liberalism | neoliberalism |
Freedom is... | Relief from restrictions | The possibility of self-development |
Natural human rights | The equality of all people, the impossibility of depriving a person of his natural rights | Allocation of economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights of the individual |
Elevation of private life and its opposition to the state, power should be limited | It is necessary to carry out reforms that will improve the relationship between the citizen and the government |
|
State intervention in the social sphere | Limited | Useful and essential |
The history of the development of Russian liberalism
In Russia already in the XVI century. understanding of what liberalism is. There are several stages in the history of its development.
1. Government liberalism. It arose in the highest circles of Russian society. The period of governmental liberalism coincides with the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I. In fact, its existence and development covers the era of enlightened absolutism.
2. Post-reform (conservative) liberalism. Outstanding representatives of this era were P. Struve, K. Kavelin, B. Chicherin and others. At the same time, zemstvo liberalism was being formed in Russia.
3. New (social) liberalism. Representatives of this direction (N. Kareev, S. Gessen, M. Kovalevsky, S. Muromtsev, P. Milyukov) defended the idea of creating decent living conditions for every person. At this stage, the prerequisites for the formation of the Cadets Party were formed.
These liberal trends differed not only from each other, but also had many differences with Western European concepts.
Government liberalism
Earlier we examined what liberalism is (definition in history and political science, signs, features). However, authentic directions of this trend have been formed in Russia. A prime example is government liberalism. It reached the peak of its development during the reign of Alexander I. At this time, liberal ideas spread among the nobility. The reign of the new emperor began with a series of progressive changes. It was allowed to freely cross the border, import foreign books, etc. On the initiative of Alexander I, an Unofficial Committee was created, which was involved in the development of projects for new reforms. It consisted of close associates of the emperor. The plans of the leaders of the Unspoken Committee were to reform state system, the creation of a constitution and even the abolition of serfdom. However, under the influence of reactionary forces, Alexander I decided on only partial transformations.
The Emergence of Conservative Liberalism in Russia
Conservative liberalism was fairly common in England and France. In Russia, this direction has taken on special features. Conservative liberalism takes its origin from the moment of the assassination of Alexander II. The reforms that the emperor developed were only partially implemented, and the country still needed to be reformed. The emergence of a new direction is due to the fact that in the highest circles of Russian society they began to understand what liberalism and conservatism are, and tried to avoid their extremes.
Ideologists of conservative liberalism
In order to understand what post-reform liberalism in Russia is, it is necessary to consider the concepts of its ideologists.
K. Kavelin is the founder of the conceptual approach to this direction of political thought. His student, B. Chicherin, developed the foundations of the theory of conservative liberalism. He defined this direction as "positive", the purpose of which is to implement the reforms necessary for society. At the same time, all segments of the population must defend not only their own ideas, but also take into account the interests of others. According to B. Chicherin, a society can be strong and stable only if it is based on power. At the same time, a person must be free, since he is the beginning and source of all social relations.
The development of the philosophical, cultural and methodological foundations of this trend was carried out by P. Struve. He believed that only a rational combination of conservatism and liberalism could save Russia in the post-reform period.
Features of post-reform liberalism
1. Recognition of the need for state regulation. At the same time, the directions of its activity should be clearly identified.
2. The state is recognized as the guarantor of the stability of relations between various groups within the country.
3. The realization that during the period of growing failures of the reformers, it becomes possible for authoritarian leaders to come to power.
4. Transformations in the economy can only be gradual. The ideologists of post-reform liberalism argued that it was necessary to monitor the reaction of society to each reform and carry them out with caution.
5. Selective attitude towards Western society. It is necessary to use and perceive only what meets the needs of the state.
The ideologists of this direction of political thought sought to embody their ideas through an appeal to mass values that were formed in the process of historical development society. That is the purpose and distinguishing feature conservative liberalism.
Zemsky liberalism
Speaking of post-reform Russia, it is impossible not to mention what zemstvo liberalism is. This trend emerged in the late XIX - early XX centuries. At that time, modernization was taking place in Russia, which led to an increase in the number of intelligentsia, in whose circles an opposition movement was formed. In Moscow, a secret circle "Conversation" was created. It was his work that initiated the formation of the ideas of the liberal opposition. Zemstvo figures F. Golovin, D. Shipov, D. Shakhovsky were members of this circle. The Liberation magazine, which was published abroad, became the mouthpiece of the liberal opposition. Its pages spoke of the need to overthrow autocratic power. In addition, the liberal opposition advocated the empowerment of zemstvos, as well as their active participation in government.
New liberalism in Russia
The liberal current in the political thought of Russia acquires new features by the beginning of the 20th century. The direction is formed in an environment of sharp criticism of the concept of "rule of law". That is why liberals set themselves the task of justifying the progressive role of government institutions in the life of society.
It is important to note that in the XX century. Russia is entering a period of social crisis. Its cause, the new liberals saw the usual economic disorder and spiritual and moral catastrophe. They believed that a person should have not only the means of subsistence, but also leisure, which he will use for his improvement.
Radical liberalism
Speaking about what liberalism is, it should be noted the existence of its radical trend. In Russia, it took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The main goal of this movement was the overthrow of the autocracy. A striking example of the activities of radical liberals was the Constitutional Democratic Party (the Cadets). Considering this direction, it is necessary to highlight its principles.
1. Downplaying the role of the state. Hopes are pinned on spontaneous processes.
2. Achieving your goals in various ways. The possibility of using coercive methods is not denied.
3. In the field of economics, only quick and deep macro-reforms are possible covering as many aspects as possible.
4. One of the main values of radical liberalism is the combination of the experience of world culture and developed European states with the problems of Russia.
Contemporary Russian liberalism
What is modern liberalism in Russia? This question is still debatable. Researchers put forward different versions about the origin of this direction, about its principles and features in Russia.
Scientists identify some features of modern liberalism in Russia. Let's consider them in more detail.
1. Reasoning about the political system often goes beyond liberalism.
2. Substantiation of the need for the existence of a market economy.
3. Encouragement and protection of private property rights.
4. The emergence of the question of "Russian identity".
5. In the field of religion, most liberals are in favor of a tolerant attitude towards other faiths.
conclusions
There are many currents in the liberal direction of political thought today. Each of them has developed its own principles and special features. Recently, there has been a debate in the world community about what innate liberalism is, whether it exists at all. It should be noted that even the French Enlighteners argued that freedom is a right, but the understanding of its necessity is not available to everyone.
In general, it can be said that liberal ideas and transformations are an integral feature of modern life.