Measurement - there is a definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the interpretation of the data obtained is an important component of the study. Observation in the social sciences is especially difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participatory (included) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment , as opposed to observing is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, that it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times. There are several types of experiment.

• 1) The simplest type of experiment - qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of the phenomena proposed by the theory.
• 2) Second, more complex view is a measuring or quantitative an experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of some property (or properties) of an object or process.
• 3) A special kind of experiment in the fundamental sciences is mental experiment.
• 4) Finally: a specific kind of experiment is social an experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Analysis - the process of mental, and often real, dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis.
Synthesis - this is a combination of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole.

Comparison — cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects. It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration.
Description — a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) with the help of certain notation systems adopted in science.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observations and experiments belongs to induction(from Latin inductio - guidance), a special kind of generalization of experience data. During induction, the researcher's thought moves from the particular (private factors) to the general. Distinguish between popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction movement of thought from the general to the particular. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge. The process of induction is associated with such an operation as comparison - the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis set the stage for the development classifications - associations different concepts and the phenomena corresponding to them into certain groups, types in order to establish links between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications are the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

For all their differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, by revealing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge which generalizes and explains them, poses new, more complex tasks for him. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing on the basis of empirical new content of its own, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs him in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of his methods and means, etc.

Science as an integral dynamic system of knowledge cannot develop successfully without being enriched with new empirical data, without generalizing them in a system of theoretical means, forms and methods of cognition. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical becomes theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

The cognitive attitude of a person to the world is carried out in various forms - in the form of everyday knowledge, artistic, religious knowledge, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as non-scientific forms. Scientific knowledge has grown out of ordinary knowledge, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far apart from each other.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be confused with aspects of cognition in general - sensory reflection and rational cognition. The fact is that in the first case, various types of cognitive activity of scientists are meant, and in the second - we are talking about the types of mental activity of an individual in the process of cognition in general, and both of these types are used both at the empirical and at the theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) in the subject of research. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical - on the essence; 2) by means and tools of knowledge; 3) by research methods. At the empirical level, this is observation, experiment, at the theoretical level - a systematic approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the acquired knowledge. In one case, these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of essential connections, theories.

In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. science was still at the empirical stage, limiting its tasks to the generalization and classification of empirical facts, the formulation of empirical laws. In the future, above the empirical level, a theoretical level is built up, connected with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns. At the same time, both types of research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the integral structure of scientific knowledge.

Methods applicable at the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.

Observation- this is a deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct intervention in their course, subject to the tasks of scientific research. The main requirements for scientific observation are as follows: 1) unambiguous purpose, design; 2) consistency in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the possibility of control either by repeated observation or by experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation. Measurement- there is a definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the interpretation of the data obtained is an important component of the study.

Observation in the social sciences is especially difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participatory (included) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment unlike observation, it is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, that it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times.

There are several types of experiment.

1) The simplest type of experiment is a qualitative one, establishing the presence or absence of the phenomena proposed by the theory.

2) The second, more complex type is a measuring or quantitative experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of some property (or properties) of an object, process.

3) A special kind of experiment in the fundamental sciences is a thought experiment.

4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are the source scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that fix empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science, they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories.

Let us denote some methods of processing and systematization empirical knowledge. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis- the process of mental, and often real, dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis. Synthesis- this is a combination of the sides of the subject selected during the analysis into a single whole.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observation and experiments belongs to induction (from Latin inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of experimental data. During induction, the researcher's thought moves from the particular (private factors) to the general. Distinguish between popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction, the movement of thought from the general to the particular. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge.

The process of induction is associated with such an operation as comparison- establishment of similarities and differences of objects, phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis pave the way for the development of classifications - combining various concepts and their corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish relationships between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications are the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE.

The most prominent cognitive activity of a person is manifested in scientific knowledge, because. It is science, in relation to other forms of social consciousness, that is most of all aimed at the cognitive assimilation of reality. This is expressed in the features of scientific knowledge.

The hallmark of scientific knowledge is its rationality- an appeal to the arguments of reason and reason. Scientific knowledge constructs the world in concepts. Scientific thinking, first of all, is a conceptual activity, while in art, for example, an artistic image acts as a form of mastering the world.

Another feature- orientation towards revealing the objective laws of functioning and development of the objects under study. It follows from this that science strives for the objective and objective knowledge of reality. But since it is known that any knowledge (including scientific) is an alloy of objective and subjective, it should be noted the specificity of the objectivity of scientific knowledge. It consists in the maximum possible elimination (removal, expulsion) of the subjective from knowledge.

Science aims to discover and develop future ways and forms of practical development of the world, not only today. In this it differs, for example, from ordinary spontaneous-empirical knowledge. Decades can pass between scientific discovery and its application in practice, in any case, but, ultimately, theoretical achievements create the foundation for future applied engineering developments to satisfy practical interests.

scientific knowledge relies on specialized research tools, which affect the object under study and make it possible to identify its possible states under conditions controlled by the subject. Specialized scientific equipment allows science to experimentally study new types of objects.

The most important features of scientific knowledge are its evidence, validity and consistency.

The specifics of the systematic nature of science - in its two-level organization: empirical and theoretical levels and the order of their interaction. This is the uniqueness of scientific knowledge and knowledge, since no other form of knowledge has a two-level organization.

To the number characteristic features science applies to its special methodology. Along with knowledge about objects, science forms knowledge about methods scientific activity. This leads to the formation of methodology as a special branch of scientific research, designed to guide scientific research.

Classical science, which arose in the 16th-17th centuries, combined theory and experiment, highlighting two levels in science: empirical and theoretical. They correspond to two interconnected, and at the same time specific species scientific - cognitive activity: empirical and theoretical research.

As mentioned above, scientific knowledge is organized on two levels: empirical and theoretical.

To empirical level include techniques and methods, as well as forms of scientific knowledge that are directly related to scientific practice, with those types of objective activities that ensure the accumulation, fixation, grouping and generalization of the source material for the construction of indirect theoretical knowledge. This includes scientific observation, various forms of scientific experiment, scientific facts and ways of grouping them: systematization, analysis and generalization.

To theoretical level include all those types and methods of scientific knowledge and methods of organizing knowledge that are characterized by varying degrees of mediation and ensure the creation, construction and development scientific theory as logically organized knowledge about objective laws and other essential connections and relationships in the objective world. This includes theory and its elements and components such as scientific abstractions, idealizations, models, scientific laws, scientific ideas and hypotheses, methods of operating with scientific abstractions (deduction, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, logical and mathematical means, etc.). )

It must be emphasized that although the difference between the empirical and theoretical levels is due to objective qualitative differences in the content and methods of scientific activity, as well as the nature of knowledge itself, however, this difference is also relative. No form of empirical activity is possible without its theoretical understanding and, conversely, any theory, no matter how abstract it may be, ultimately relies on scientific practice, on empirical data.

Observation and experiment are among the main forms of empirical knowledge. Observation there is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena outside world. Scientific observation is characterized by purposefulness, regularity and organization.

Experiment differs from observation in its active nature, interference in the natural course of events. An experiment is a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, consisting in influencing a scientific object (process) by means of special devices. Thanks to this, it is possible:

- isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena;

– repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed conditions;

- systematically study, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.

An experiment is always a means for solving a certain cognitive task or problem. There are a wide variety of types of experiment: physical, biological, direct, model, search, verification experiments, etc.

The nature of the empirical level forms determines the research methods. Thus, measurement, as one of the types of quantitative research methods, has the goal of most fully reflecting objective data in scientific knowledge. quantitative relations expressed in number and magnitude.

Great importance has a systematization of scientific facts. scientific fact - this is not just any event, but an event that entered the sphere of scientific knowledge and was recorded through observation or experiment. The systematization of facts means the process of grouping them on the basis of essential properties. One of the most important methods of generalization and systematization of facts is induction.

induction defined as a method of achieving probabilistic knowledge. Induction can be intuitive - a simple guess, the discovery of common in the course of observation. Induction can act as a procedure for establishing the general by enumerating individual cases. If the number of such cases is limited, then it is called complete.

Reasoning by analogy also belongs to the number of inductive conclusions, since they are characterized by probability. Usually, analogy is understood as special case similarity between phenomena, which consists in the similarity or identity of relations between elements of different systems. To increase the degree of plausibility of conclusions by analogy, it is necessary to increase the variety and achieve uniformity of the compared properties, to maximize the number of compared features. Thus, through the establishment of similarity between phenomena, in essence, a transition is made from induction to another method - deduction.

Deduction differs from induction in that it is connected with sentences arising from the laws and rules of logic, but the truth of premises is problematic, while induction relies on true premises,

But the transition to proposals-conclusions remains a problem. Therefore, in scientific knowledge, to substantiate the provisions, these methods complement each other.

The path of transition from empirical to theoretical knowledge is very complicated. It has the character of a dialectical leap, in which various and contradictory moments are intertwined, complementing each other: abstract thinking and sensibility, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, etc. The key point in this transition is the hypothesis, its advancement, formulation and development, its substantiation and proof.

The term " hypothesis » is used in two senses: 1) in a narrow sense - the designation of some assumption about a regular order or other significant connections and relationships; 2) in a broad sense - as a system of sentences, some of which are initial assumptions of a probabilistic nature, while others represent a deductive deployment of these premises. As a result of a comprehensive verification and confirmation of all the various consequences, the hypothesis turns into a theory.

theory such a system of knowledge is called, for which the true assessment is quite definite and positive. Theory is a system of objectively true knowledge. A theory differs from a hypothesis in its reliability, while it differs from other types of reliable knowledge (facts, statistics, etc.) in its strict logical organization and its content, which consists in reflecting the essence of phenomena. Theory is the knowledge of essence. The object at the level of theory appears in its intercom and integrity as a system, the structure and behavior of which is subject to certain laws. Thanks to this, the theory explains the variety of available facts and can predict new events, which speaks of its most important functions: explanatory and predictive (the function of foresight). A theory is made up of concepts and statements. The concepts fix the qualities and relationships of objects from the subject area. The statements reflect the regular order, behavior and structure of the subject area. A feature of the theory is that concepts and statements are interconnected in a logically coherent, consistent system. The totality of logical relations between the terms and sentences of a theory forms its logical structure, which is, by and large, deductive. Theories can be classified according to various features and grounds: according to the degree of connection with reality, according to the area of ​​creation, application, etc.

Scientific thinking operates in many ways. It is possible to distinguish such, for example, as analysis and synthesis, abstraction and idealization, modeling. Analysis - this is a method of thinking associated with the decomposition of the object under study into its constituent parts, development trends for the purpose of their relatively independent study. Synthesis- the opposite operation, which consists in combining the previously distinguished parts into a whole in order to obtain knowledge as a whole about the previously distinguished parts and trends. abstraction there is a process of mental selection, isolating individual features, properties and relationships of interest in the process of research in order to better understand them.

In the process of idealization there is an ultimate abstraction from all the real properties of the object. A so-called ideal object is formed, which can be operated upon while cognizing real objects. For example, such concepts as “point”, “straight line”, “absolutely black body” and others. Thus, the concept of a material point does not actually correspond to any object. But a mechanic, operating with this ideal object, is able to theoretically explain and predict the behavior of real material objects.

Literature.

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy. - M., 2000. Sec. II, ch. XIII.

2. Philosophy / Ed. V.V.Mironova. - M., 2005. Sec. V, ch. 2.

test questions for self-test.

1. What is the main task of epistemology?

2. What forms of agnosticism can be identified?

3. What is the difference between sensationalism and rationalism?

4. What is "empiricism"?

5. What is the role of sensibility and thinking in individual cognitive activity?

6. What is intuitive knowledge?

7. Highlight the main ideas of the activity concept of knowledge of K. Marx.

8. How does the connection between the subject and the object proceed in the process of cognition?

9. What determines the content of knowledge?

10. What is "truth"? What main approaches in epistemology to the definition of this concept can you name?

11. What is the criterion of truth?

12. Explain what is the objective nature of truth?

13. Why is truth relative?

14. Is absolute truth possible?

15. What is the peculiarity of scientific knowledge and scientific knowledge?

16. What forms and methods of empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge can be distinguished?

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects under study is carried out (by measurement, experiments), here the primary systematization of the acquired knowledge takes place (in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs).

Empirical cognition, or sensual, or living contemplation, is the process of cognition itself, which includes three interrelated forms:

• 1. sensation - a reflection in the mind of a person of individual aspects, properties of objects, their direct impact on the senses;
• 2. perception - a holistic image of an object, directly given in a living contemplation of the totality of all its sides, a synthesis of these sensations;
• 3. representation - a generalized sensory-visual image of an object that acted on the senses in the past, but is not perceived at the moment.

There are images of memory and imagination. Images of objects are usually fuzzy, vague, averaged. But on the other hand, in the images, the most important properties of the object are usually singled out and insignificant ones are discarded.

According to the sense organ through which they are received, sensations are divided into visual (the most important), auditory, gustatory, etc. Usually, sensations are an integral part of perception.

As you can see, the cognitive abilities of a person are connected with the sense organs. The human body has an exteroceptive system aimed at the external environment (vision, hearing, taste, smell, etc.) and an interoreceptive system associated with signals about the internal physiological state of the body.

Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study. It involves the implementation of observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations, and other means of real observation and experiment. Empirical research is basically focused on the study of phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet distinguished in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appear through their concrete shell.

Empirical objects are abstractions that actually highlight a certain set of properties and relations of things. Empirical knowledge can be represented by hypotheses, generalizations, empirical laws, descriptive theories, but they are directed at an object that is given directly to the observer. The empirical level expresses the objective facts revealed as a result of experiments and observations, as a rule, from their external and obvious connections. At this level, real experiment and real observation are used as the main methods. An important role is also played by the methods of empirical description, focused on the objective characterization of the studied phenomena, as clear as possible from subjective layers. 1. Observation. Observation is a sensual reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows obtaining some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation (unlike ordinary, everyday observations) is characterized by a number of features: - purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the set research task, and the observer's attention should be fixed only on phenomena related to this task); - regularity (observation should be carried out strictly according to plan compiled based on the task of the study); - activity (the researcher must actively seek, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience for this, using various technical means of observation). Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to fix those properties, aspects of the object under study, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of the results of observations form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the studied objects according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development. Almost every science goes through this initial, "descriptive" stage of development. At the same time, as emphasized in one of the works on this issue, the main requirements that apply to a scientific description are aimed at making it as complete, accurate and objective as possible. The description should give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself, accurately reflect the phenomena being studied. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. With the development of science, changes in its foundations, the means of description are transformed, and a new system of concepts is often created. Observation as a method of cognition more or less satisfied the needs of sciences that were at the descriptive-empirical stage of development. Further progress in scientific knowledge was associated with the transition of many sciences to the next, higher stage of development, at which observations were supplemented by experimental studies, suggesting a targeted impact on the objects under study. As for observations, there is no activity in them aimed at transforming, changing objects of knowledge. This is due to a number of circumstances: the inaccessibility of these objects for practical impact (for example, observation of remote space objects), the undesirability, based on the objectives of the study, of interference in the observed process (phenological, psychological, etc.). observations), the lack of technical, energy, financial and other opportunities for setting up experimental studies of objects of knowledge.2.Experiment. An experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It involves an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study in order to identify and study certain of its aspects, properties, connections. At the same time, the experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, and interfere with the natural course of processes. The experiment includes other methods of empirical research (observation, measurement). At the same time, it has a number of important, unique features. First, the experiment makes it possible to study the object in a “purified” form, i.e., to eliminate all sorts of side factors, layers that impede the research process. For example, some experiments require specially equipped rooms protected (shielded) from external electromagnetic influences on the object under study. Secondly, during the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular, extreme conditions, i. temperatures, at extremely high pressures or, conversely, in a vacuum, with enormous electromagnetic field strengths, etc. Under such artificially created conditions, it is possible to discover amazing, sometimes unexpected properties of objects and thereby comprehend their essence more deeply. Very interesting and promising in this regard are space experiments that make it possible to study objects and phenomena in such special, unusual conditions (weightlessness, deep vacuum) that are unattainable in terrestrial laboratories. Thirdly, while studying any process, the experimenter can interfere with it, actively influence its course. As academician I.P. Pavlov, “experience, as it were, takes phenomena into its own hands and sets in motion one or the other, and thus, in artificial, simplified combinations, determines the true connection between phenomena. In other words, observation collects what nature offers it, while experience takes from nature what it wants. Fourth, an important advantage of many experiments is their reproducibility. This means that the conditions of the experiment, and, accordingly, the observations and measurements carried out in this case can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

In knowledge, two levels are distinguished: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical (from gretriria - experience) level of knowledge - this is knowledge obtained directly from experience with some rational processing of the properties and relations of the object is known. It is always the basis, the basis for the theoretical level of knowledge.

The theoretical level is knowledge gained through abstract thinking

A person begins the process of cognition of an object from its external description, fixes its individual properties, sides. Then it delves into the content of the object, reveals the laws to which it is subject, proceeds to an explanation of the properties of the object, combines knowledge about the individual aspects of the subject into a single, integral system, and the resulting deep versatile specific knowledge about the subject is a theory that has a certain internal logical structure.

It is necessary to distinguish the concepts of "sensual" and "rational" from the concepts of "empirical" and "theoretical" "Sensual" and "rational" characterize the dialectics of the process of reflection in general, and "empirical" and "theoretical" do not refer to the sphere of only scientific knowledge empirically "i" theoretically" lie down to the sphere of less than scientific knowledge.

Empirical knowledge is formed in the process of interaction with the object of study, when we directly influence it, interact with it, process the results and draw a conclusion. But getting separate. The EMF of empirical facts and laws does not yet allow us to build a system of laws. In order to know the essence, it is necessary to go to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are always inextricably linked and mutually condition each other. Thus, empirical research, revealing new facts, new observational and experimental data, stimulates the development of the theoretical level, poses new problems and tasks for it. In turn, theoretical research, considering and concretizing the theoretical content of science, opens up new perspectives. IVI explanations and predictions of facts and thereby orients and directs empirical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is mediated by theoretical knowledge - theoretical knowledge indicates exactly which phenomena and events should be the object of empirical research and under what conditions the experiment should be carried out. At the theoretical level, the boundaries are also identified and indicated, in which the results at the empirical level are true, in which empirical knowledge can be used in practice. This is precisely the heuristic function of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

The boundary between the empirical and theoretical levels is very arbitrary, their independence relative to each other is relative. The empirical passes into the theoretical, and what was once theoretical, at another, higher stage of development, becomes empirically accessible. In any sphere of scientific knowledge, at all levels, there is a dialectical unity of the theoretical and empirical. The leading role in this unity of dependence on the subject, conditions, and already existing, obtained scientific results belongs either to the empirical or to the theoretical. The basis of the unity of the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge is the unity of scientific theory and research practice.

50 Basic methods of scientific knowledge

Each level of scientific knowledge uses its own methods. So, at the empirical level, such basic methods as observation, experiment, description, measurement, modeling are used. At the theoretical level - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, induction, deduction, idealization, historical and logical methods, etc.

Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception of objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships in natural conditions or in experimental conditions with the aim of understanding the object under study.

The main monitoring functions are:

Fixation and registration of facts;

Preliminary classification of facts already recorded on the basis of certain principles formulated on the basis of existing theories;

Comparison of recorded facts

With the complication of scientific knowledge, the goal, plan, theoretical guidelines, and comprehension of the results are gaining more and more weight. As a result, the role of theoretical thinking in the observation

It is especially difficult to observe social sciences, where its results largely depend on the worldview and methodological attitudes of the observer, his attitude to the object

The observation method is a limited method, since it can only fix certain properties and relationships of an object, but it is impossible to reveal their essence, nature, development trends. Comprehensive with the observation of the object is the basis for the experiment.

An experiment is a study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the course of the process in a certain direction.

Unlike simple observation, which does not involve an active impact on an object, an experiment is an active intervention of a researcher into natural phenomena, into the course of those being studied. An experiment is a type of practice in which practical action is organically combined with the theoretical work of thought.

The significance of the experiment lies not only in the fact that with its help science explains the phenomena of the material world, but also in the fact that science, relying on experiment, directly masters one or another dos of the studied phenomena. Therefore, the experiment serves as one of the main means of communication between science and production. After all, it makes it possible to verify the correctness of scientific conclusions and discoveries, new laws and data. The experiment serves as a means of research and invention of new devices, machines, materials and processes in industrial production, a necessary stage in the practical testing of new scientific and technical discoveries.

The experiment is widely used not only in the natural sciences, but also in social practice, where it plays an important role in the knowledge and management of social processes.

The experiment has its own specific features compared to other methods:

The experiment allows you to explore objects in the so-called pure form;

The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects in extreme conditions, which contributes to a deeper penetration into their essence;

An important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, due to which in scientific knowledge this method acquires special meaning and value

A description is an indication of the features of an object or phenomenon, both essential and non-essential. Description, as a rule, is applied to single, individual objects for a more complete acquaintance with them. His method is to give the most complete information about the object.

Measurement is a specific system for fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of an object under study using various measuring instruments and apparatus. Measurement is used to determine the ratio of one quantitative characteristic of an object to another, homogeneous with it, taken as a unit of measurement. The main functions of the measurement method are, firstly, fixing the quantitative characteristics of the object, and secondly, the classification and comparison of measurement results.

Modeling is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy (model), which, by its properties to a certain extent, reproduces the properties of the object under study.

Modeling is used when the direct study of objects for some reason is impossible, difficult or impractical. There are two main types of modeling: physical and mathematical. At the present stage of development of scientific knowledge, a particularly large role is given to computer modeling. A computer that operates according to a special program is able to simulate the most real processes: fluctuations in market prices, orbits spaceships, demographic processes, other quantitative parameters of the development of nature, society, an individual person.

Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge

Analysis is the division of an object into its components (sides, features, properties, relationships) with the aim of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis is the union of previously identified parts (sides, features, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically contradictory and interdependent methods of cognition. Cognition of an object in its concrete integrity presupposes a preliminary division of it into components and consideration of each of them. This is the task of the analysis. It makes it possible to single out the essential, that which forms the basis of the connection of all aspects of the object under study is, dialectical analysis is a means of penetrating into the essence of things. But playing an important role in cognition, analysis does not provide knowledge of the concrete, knowledge of the object as a unity of the manifold, the unity of various definitions. This task is performed by synthesis. Consequently, analysis and synthesis are organically interacting with emopoyazani and mutually condition each other at each stage of the process of theoretical knowledge and knowledge.

Abstraction is a method of abstracting from certain properties and relations of an object and, at the same time, focusing on those that are the direct subject of scientific research. Abstraction with contributes to the penetration of knowledge into the essence of phenomena, the movement of knowledge from the phenomenon to the essence. It is clear that abstraction dismembers, coarsens, schematizes an integral mobile reality. However, this is precisely what makes it possible to more deeply study the individual aspects of the subject "in its pure form" and, therefore, to penetrate into their essence of their essence.

Generalization is a method of scientific knowledge that captures the general features and properties of a certain group of objects, makes the transition from the singular to the special and general, from the less general to the more cryptic.

In the process of cognition, it is often necessary, relying on existing knowledge, to draw conclusions that are new knowledge about the unknown. This is done using methods such as induction and deduction.

Induction is such a method of scientific knowledge, when, on the basis of knowledge about the individual, a conclusion is made about the general. This is a method of reasoning by which the validity of the put forward assumption or hypothesis is established. In real cognition, induction always acts in unity with deduction, is organically connected with it.

Deduction is a method of cognition when, on the basis of general principle in a logical way, from certain propositions as true, new true knowledge about the individual is necessarily derived. With the help of this method, the individual is known on the basis of knowledge of general laws.

Idealization is a method of logical modeling through which idealized objects are created. Idealization is aimed at the processes of conceivable construction of possible objects. The results of idealization are not arbitrary. In the limiting case, they correspond to individual real properties of objects or allow their interpretation based on the data of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Idealization is associated with a "thought experiment", as a result of which, from a hypothetical minimum of some signs of the behavior of objects, the laws of their functioning are discovered or generalized. The boundaries of the effectiveness of idealization are determined by practice.

Historical and logical methods are organically combined. The historical method involves consideration of the objective process of the development of the object, its real history with all its twists and turns. This is a certain way in reproducing in thinking the historical process in its chronological sequence and concreteness.

The logical method is the way in which thinking reproduces the real historical process in its theoretical form, in the system of concepts

task historical research is the disclosure of specific conditions for the development of certain phenomena. The task of logical research is to reveal the role that individual elements of the system play in the development of the whole.