Thomas Carlyle

Carlyle Thomas (1795-1881), English publicist, historian and philosopher. He put forward the concept of the "cult of heroes", the only creators of history.

Carlyle Thomas (1795/1881) - English philosopher and historian, author of journalistic works. Carlyle created the theory of the "cult of heroes", who, in his opinion, are the only creators of history.

Guryeva T.N. New literary dictionary/ T.N. Guriev. – Rostov n/a, Phoenix, 2009 , from. 122.

Carlyle Thomas (1795-1881) English bourgeois philosopher and historian. He propagated German idealistic philosophy and reactionary romanticism, close to pantheism. Carlyle applied Fichte's doctrine of active activity of the subject as the creative beginning of the world to society, substantiating the "cult of heroes". The history of society, according to Carlyle, is the biography of great people. Carlyle is a supporter of the historical cycle of theory. His critique of capitalism is close to "feudal socialism". Modern bourgeois philosophers and sociologists use the legacy of Carlyle to fight Marxism-Leninism. Major works: "Sartor Revartus" (1834), "Heroes, the veneration of heroes and the heroic in history" (1840), "Past and Present" (1843), "History french revolution"(1-3 volumes, 1837)," Modern pamphlets "(1850).

Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991 , from. 182.

Philosopher

Carlyle Thomas (December 4, 1795, Ecclefehan, Dumfries, Scotland - February 5, 1881, London) - British philosopher, writer, historian and essayist. Born in the family of a bricklayer. He was brought up in the spirit of severe puritanism, in respect for a sense of duty and worship of work. From the age of 5 he studied at the local village school, starting from 1805 - at the "Latin school" in Annan. In 1809 he entered the University of Edinburgh. After completing the preparatory course (which included the study of languages, philosophy and mathematics), he abandoned the plan to take a course in theology. In 1814 he became a mathematics teacher at Annan. Here Carlyle became interested in literature, studied the German language. In 1816 he became friends with the later famous preacher E. Irving; headed a boys' school in Kirkkaldy. From December 1819 he lived in Edinburgh, studied law at the university, gave private lessons. In 1818-20 he contributed to Brewster's Encyclopedia of Edinburgh, and in 1822 he received a job as a home teacher. The first significant publications were devoted to German literature: in 1822, Carlyle's article on Goethe's Faust appeared in the New Edinburgh Review, and in 1823-24 in the London Magazine, a series of articles entitled Schiller's Life (separate ed. 1825). In 1818-21 he experienced a spiritual crisis, which he explained by the fact that the spirit of research, driven by love for the truth, inspired him with knowledge that was contrary to the faith of childhood. Carlyle characterized his condition as a loss of hope and faith, which is everything in a person's life. The whole universe, including his own "I", seemed to him a mechanism that did not know freedom. Carlyle was tormented by his weakness, which, as he understood, could only be overcome by action, while action required awareness of one's strength, the ability to resist the necessity of a dead nature. In June 1821, Carlyle experienced a spiritual rebirth, overcoming the "nightmare of unbelief", getting rid of fear and acquiring contempt for evil. In the 1820s actively engaged in German philosophy and poetry, was fond of Goethe , Schiller , Novalis , Fr. Schlegel , Fichte And Schelling. Saw his mission in propaganda German culture. Carlyle's worldview took shape in the era of associationist psychology, utilitarianism in ethics, and individualistic political economy dominating the spiritual life of England. Carlyle called this kind of philosophy "the mechanical philosophy of profit and loss." Carlyle rejected systems in philosophy; mysticism, romanticism, subjectivism and activism in worldview were close to him. In the 1820s recognized the logical impeccability of Holbach's "System of Nature", believed that the world is an insensible mechanism hostile to the human "I" as a source and bearer of freedom, rebelling against the world. Recognizing the correct materialistic view of the world, Carlyle understood that it is based on the thesis of the reality of matter in time and space. Acquainted through Novalis and Fr. Schlegel with Kant's teaching on the phenomenality of space and time, Carlyle changed his views on the natural world. However, unlike Kant, he is convinced of the substantiality of the soul as a source of strength and creativity. The inner strength of the soul is manifested in the spiritual and bodily existence of a person, but Carlyle now considers the entire material world as a form of manifestation of the highest internal power - God, deifies matter as the garment of God. The eternity of God is manifested in the eternity of the past and the eternity of the future, the meeting of which constitutes the present. All history for Carlyle is a continuous revelation, and every person who seeks God and preaches about him to others is a prophet. Both nature and history, Carlyle believes, deserve reverence and an "eternal Yes." October 17, 1826 Carlyle marries Jane Walsh, until 1828 lives in Edinburgh. Publications in the 1820s devoted mainly German literature: in 1823 his translation of "Wilhelm Meister" was published (Carlyle sent it to Goethe, a correspondence began, which became more and more meaningful; subsequently it was published; Carlyle's "Life of Schiller" was published in German with a preface by Goethe), in 1827 - an article on German literature, in 1828 - articles on Goethe, Hein and Burns, in 1829 - essays on Voltaire, Novalis and the article "Signs of the Times", in 1830 - an article on history, in 1832 - three articles on Goethe, in 1833 - three articles on history, a novel Sartor Resartus. In the years 1828-1834, due to financial difficulties, he lived on the Kregenpattock estate, where he worked on the Sartor Resartus. In 1831, while in London in connection with the troubles surrounding the publication of the novel, Carlyle met J. S. Millem. In 1833 he met R. W. Emerson, an American philosopher influenced by Carlyle; thanks to Emerson, the book "Sartor Resartus" was published separate edition in America (1836, in England - 1838). In 1833-34 the novel was published in Fraser's Magazine.

The novel Sartor Resartus. The Life and Thoughts of Herr Teufelsdrock is a complex literary work, replete with symbols and allegories. In the image of the protagonist, who wrote the work "Clothing, Its Origin and Philosophy", Carlyle traces the development of the human soul to freedom. In the chapters "Eternal No", "Center of Indifference" and "Eternal Yes", he depicts his own spiritual experience of the years of crisis. Carlyle argues that God and his own soul are the only support of man. Everything that exists is related to our spiritual being and, like it, comes from God. Therefore man must love the whole creation. The novel outlines Carlyle's thoughts about the world, about eternity and time, about nature, man and mind, about society, religion, the Church, symbols, ideals, immortality, past and future, etc. The philosophy of "clothing" turns into a real worldview. Space, time and everything that is in them are only symbols of God, behind which one must see the Divinity itself. But the world, the dress of God, is not dead, it is his living garment, and everything that happens in the world symbolizes the eternal activity of God. The spirit of each age burns in the flame that devours it, but instead of the end of things, the phoenix is ​​reborn. Behind the smoke we see the Divine. Therefore, a person's attitude to the world cannot be purely contemplative, he must contribute to the birth of a new phoenix. At the end of the book, Carlyle satirically depicts a modern society that has lost its inner essence, having degenerated into symbols, both on the part of the ruling classes and on the part of the proletariat.

Since 1834 Carlyle has been living in London. Here he is working on the "History of the French Revolution" (publ. 1837). In 1835 he met D. Sterling, who in 1839 wrote an essay on Carlyle's worldview - the best, according to Carlyle, of everything written about him (published in the appendix to the Russian edition of Sartor Resartus). Sterling emphasizes in Carlyle's worldview the requirement of a reverent attitude towards the world and man, treating them as a miracle; the assertion that the highest form of a person's relationship to the world is religion, which is based on a sense of the divine; this latter is itself the highest form of the divine in human existence. Carlyle also highly appreciates poetry. The main task of a person is not so much knowledge as work, creativity, which reward noble efforts. Through the confusion of past and present, one must be able to consider the foundations of human actions. Reverent observation, however, will horrify a person from evil, untruth, weakness, collisions. The moral support of a person in such a situation should be labor, courage, simplicity and truthfulness.

After the publication of Sartor Resartus, Carlyle gradually loses interest in literature, which he had not previously considered as a goal in himself, seeing in it a way to comprehend the world and man. Carlyle's worldview is developing in the direction of the philosophy of history. In the works “Signs of the Times” (1829) and “Characteristics of Our Time”, his critical position was expressed in relation to public institutions, contemporary social philosophy; Carlyle considers modern society to be sick, argues that people are too preoccupied with their "I", too worn with their problems; the most serious disease of society is the excessive wealth of some and the poverty of others. The current situation is worse than before because of the lack of faith and ideals. People do nothing intuitively, from the depths of their essence, everyone is guided by hardened recipes. They have lost faith in themselves, in the effectiveness of their own efforts, they care not about internal improvement, but about external adaptation, they are chasing external transformations. Meanwhile, reforms are premature without self-improvement, without achieving freedom not only in political sense. In the essay "Chartism", which had a huge public outcry, Carlyle does not speak from party positions, he considers Chartism as a symptom of social life, deeply rooted in the dissatisfaction of the workers with their position. Exploring the general causes of Chartism, Carlyle dwells in detail on various aspects of the social life of England at that time, argues with modern economists, does not accept the thesis about the temporary nature of the disasters of the working people, which supposedly will disappear by itself, does not agree with the principle of complete non-intervention of the state in economic life. In 1843, in the book "Past and Present", starting from one medieval chronicle, Carlyle compares the current situation with the past; he argues that the former strong ties between people have been replaced by a bond in the form of a monetary contract, and the current formal freedom of people has only worsened the situation, since it completely removed the responsibility for their situation from the masters. According to Carlyle, only a strong man, a genius, can properly manage a society. In Pamphlets of the Last Day (1850), Carlyle criticizes modernity even more sharply, talking about slavery, government offices, parliament, model prisons (where the life of prisoners better life workers), dual morality (the British profess two religions: Christianity on Sundays, political economy on weekdays), etc. In his journalism, Carlyle speaks from the standpoint of morality, conscience and duty, pessimistically assessing the current state of society.

In 1837-40, Carlyle repeatedly spoke in London with public lectures. The last course was published under the title On Heroes, the Cult of Heroes, and the Heroic in History (1840). According to Carlyle, world history is the history, the biography of great people: educators, patrons, creators. All things existing in the world are the embodiment of their thoughts and aspirations. Great people - prophets, poets, preachers, writers, rulers. Contrary to the then prevailing tendencies, Carlyle sees in great people a miracle, something supernatural, prophets through whom there is a continuous revelation of God. Their souls are open to the divine content of life, their qualities are sincerity, originality, a sense of reality. In 1845, Carlyle published Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, and in 1851, a biography of D. Sterling. Carlyle's last major work is The Life of Frederick the Great (vols. 1-5, 1858-65). While working on the book, Carlyle visited Germany twice (1852, 1858). During the Franco-Prussian War, Carlyle published in the Times on the side of Germany, for which Bismarck awarded him the Order of Merit. Carlyle exerted a tremendous moral and literary (in particular, on Dickens, Ruskin, and others) influence on his contemporaries, defending moral values ​​in an age of revolution and change.

I. V. Borisova

New Philosophical Encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010 , vol. II, E - M, p. 218-219.

Historian

Carlyle, Carlyle, Thomas (4.XII.1795 - 4.II.1881) - English publicist, historian, philosopher. The son of a rural mason. Graduated from the University of Edinburgh (1814). The philosophical and historical views of Carlyle were formed under the strong influence of the German idealist philosophers and reactionary romantics, and partly of Saint-Simon. Engels defined Carlyle's worldview as pantheism (see K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 1, p. 589). In Carlyle's pamphlets "Chartism" ("Chartism", L., 1840), "Now and Before" (L., 1843; Russian translation - M., 1906) and other works of the 30s - early 40s, sympathy for the working people , a deep, sometimes revolutionary criticism of capitalism was combined with the apotheosis of the Middle Ages and calls for the restoration of feudal-hierarchical social relations, which brought Carlyle closer to feudal socialism. In Carlyle's best historical work, The French Revolution (L., 1837; Russian translation - St. Petersburg, 1907), along with the justification of the overthrow of rotten absolutism by the masses of the people, an extremely subjectivist idealistic concept of the "cult of heroes" is already outlined, expanded in the series of lectures "Heroes, veneration of heroes and the heroic in history" (L., 1841; Russian translation - St. Petersburg, 1908), read in 1837-1840. This concept is the basis of "Letters and speeches of Oliver Cromwell" ("Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches", L., 1845-46). real creators of history (“the history of the world is the biography of great people”), and the masses are “the crowd, the tool in their hands”; the heroic principle in society periodically weakens, and then the blind destructive forces hidden in the crowd break out until society again discovers in "true heroes" - "leaders" (for example, Cromwell, Napoleon). Such, according to Carlyle, is the vicious circle of history. As the class struggle of the proletariat developed, Carlyle's petty-bourgeois philosophical and historical conception became more and more reactionary. (See, for example, "Pamphlets of the last day" (L., 1850; Russian translation - St. Petersburg, 1907), etc.) Praising Prussian militarism "History of Friedrich II of Prussia" ("History of Friedrich II of Prussia", v. 1-13, 1858-65) testified to the deep the eye of the crisis of Carlyle's historical creativity. The concept of Carlyle's "cult of heroes" was taken up by bourgeois historiography and is widely used by the ideologists of imperialist reaction.

I. N. Nemanov. Smolensk.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 7. KARAKEEV - KOSHAKER. 1965 .

Compositions: The works, v. 1-30, L., 1896-1905; letters. 1826-1836, v. 1-2, L.-N. Y., 1888.

Literature: Engels F., The situation of England. Thomas Carlyle. "Past and Present", K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 1; Marx K. and Engels F., Thomas Carlyle. "Modern pamphlets. No 1. Modern era. No 2. Exemplary prisons", ibid., vol. 7; Lenin V.I., Notebooks on imperialism, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 39, p. 509; Nemanov I.N., Subjectivist-idealistic essence of views T. Carlyle on the history of society, "VI", 1956, No 4; Froude JA, Thomas Carlyle, NY, 1882; Wilson DA, Life of Thomas Carlyle, v. 1-6, NY, 1923-34; Young LM, Thomas Carlyle and the art of history, L., 1939; Gascoyne D., Thomas Carlyle, L.-NY, 1952.

Carlyle, Carlyle Thomas (December 4, 1795, Ecclefehan, Scotland - February 5, 1881, London), English philosopher, writer and historian. Carlyle's worldview was formed under the influence of Goethe, Fichte, Schelling and the German romantics. Opponent of French materialism and Scottish utilitarianism.

In the philosophical novel Sartor Resartus (1833-34, Russian translation, 1902), in the mythological spirit traditional for romanticism, he created a philosophical picture of the world, “dressed” in a kind of symbolic cover-emblems that hide the transcendent reality of nature and society. Following Fichte, he considered space and time as an illusion of feelings, which hides the divine order of the universe from man. Philosophy, according to Carlyle, is called upon to "unravel" the presence of the pantheistic spirit in the visible forms of the perceived world by means of symbol-emblems. Cosmism is inherent in Carlyle's romantic naturalism - the desire to unite the microcosm of "appearing" nature with universal nature and eternity, identical with spirit. Carlyle's subjectivism sometimes led him to solipsism. The spiritualistic philosophy of Carlyle was used by representatives of Theosophy.

Carlyle's pantheistic symbolism extended to society and culture. He sharply criticized the Anglican Church and the whole system of bourgeois spiritual values. In the philosophy of history, Carlyle acted as the herald of the "cult of heroes" - the bearers of the divine destiny and the spiritual creators of the historical process, towering above the "average" mass. Some features of Carlyle's sociology give reason to compare it with the ideology of Nietzsche's "superman". Developing the concept of "kinship relations" between landowners and the lower classes of feudal society, he idealized the corporate structure of feudalism, passing it off as socialism. The feudal socialism of Carlyle was criticized in the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" by K. Marx and F. Engels.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 .

Compositions: Works..., v. 1-30, L., 1899-1923; in Russian per. - Historical and critical experiments, M., 1878; Ethics of life, St. Petersburg, 1906; Franz. revolution, St. Petersburg, 1907; Heroes, the veneration of heroes and the heroic in history, St. Petersburg, 1908.

Read further:

Philosophers, lovers of wisdom

Historians (biographical guide).

Historical Persons of England (Great Britain) (biographical guide).

Compositions:

Works, v. 1-30. L., 1899-1923, in Russian. trans.: Novalis. M., 1901; Sartor Resartus. The Life and Thoughts of Herr Teufelsdrock, Vol. 1-3. M., 1902; Ethics of life. Work hard and don't give up! St. Petersburg, 1906; Now and before. M., 1906; Pamphlets of the last day. St. Petersburg, 1907; Heroes, hero-worship, and the heroic in history. St. Petersburg, 1908; Historical and critical experiences. M., 1978; French revolution. History. M 1991.

Literature:

Yakovenko V. I. T. Carlyle, his life and literary activity. SPb., 1891; Hansel P. T. Carlyle. St. Petersburg, 1903; Kareev N. I. Thomas Carlyle. His life, his personality, his works, his ideas. Pg, 1923; Simone D. Carlyle. M., 1981; Froude J.A. Thomas Cairlyle: A History of the First Forty Years of Life, 1795-1835. L., 1882; Idem. Thomas Carlyle: A History of His Life in London, 1834-81. L., 1884; Hood E. P. T. Carlyle. Philosophic Thinker, Theologian, Historian and Poet. N.Y., 1970; Campbell I. T. Carlyle. L., 1974.

Place of Birth

• Ecclefechan[d], Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, Great Britain

Occupation linguist, literary historian, historian, translator, mathematician, philosopher, essayist, Writer, literary critic, novelist, teacher

Start of activity

Born into a simple peasant family; destined by his parents - strict Calvinists for a spiritual career, at the age of 14 he entered the University of Edinburgh. Not wanting to be a priest, after completing his course at the university, he became a mathematics teacher in the provinces, but soon returned to Edinburgh. Here, living on casual literary earnings, for some time he intensively studied law, preparing for the practice of law; but he quickly abandoned this too, becoming carried away by German literature.

Essays on German Literature

"Prophetic grief, as deep as Dante" disguised in "sunny and refined Goethe", Carlyle considered accessible only to a few mortals.

He gave a course of lectures on German literature, in 1838 - on European literature, in 1839 - on the topic "Revolution in modern Europe". The last time I read the course was in 1840. It was the only published and therefore extant course on the role of the hero in history. The list of heroes itself: Dante, Shakespeare, Luther, Rousseau, Napoleon, Cromwell, and others. These lectures brought some income to Carlyle, and after 1840 he no longer needed money and was rarely able to move him to speak.

A book about the French Revolution. Historical and philosophical views

The same originality as these works is distinguished by the “History of the French Revolution” (“French Revolution, a history”, ), the caustic pamphlet “Chartism” (), lectures on heroes and the heroic in history (“On Hero worship”, ) and historical and philosophical reflections "Past and present" ().

Not suited to any of the established political parties, Carlyle felt lonely and thought for some time about publishing his own magazine to preach his "believing radicalism". Everything said works Carlyle are imbued with the desire to reduce the progress of mankind to the life of individual outstanding personalities-heroes (according to Carlyle, world history is a biography of great people, see The Theory of Great People), to put exclusively moral duty at the basis of civilization; his political program limited to the preaching of work, moral feeling and faith. An exaggerated appreciation of the heroic in history and distrust of the power of institutions and knowledge led him to a formal cult of times past, more favorable to heroic people. His views, brighter than anywhere else, were reflected in twelve "Pamphlets last days"("Latter-day pamphlets", ); here he laughs at the emancipation of the Negroes, at democracy, philanthropy, political and economic doctrines, etc. Not only did the former enemies resent Carlyle after these pamphlets, but many admirers also ceased to understand him.

Other historical writings

Throughout the 1840s, Carlyle's views shifted towards conservatism. Gradually, in the works of Carlyle, criticism of capitalism sounded more and more muffled, and his statements directed against the actions of the masses became more and more sharp. In the book Before and Now, he painted idyllic pictures of medieval society, where simple noble customs allegedly reigned, a good monarch ensured the well-being and freedom of his subjects, and the church baked about high moral values. It was a romantic utopia that brought Carlyle closer to the feudal socialists.
Of all Carlyle's writings, the Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1845-46), with commentaries, is of the greatest historical importance; the latter are far from impartial towards the "hero" Cromwell. Carlyle showed in a new way the role of Cromwell in the history of the country, in particular, his merits in the rise of the sea power of England and in strengthening its international prestige. The work was innovative for its time. Until that time, English historians ignored this figure, seeing in him only a “regicide” and a “tyrant”. Carlyle made an attempt to reveal the true motives and meaning state activities Cromwell. He also tried to understand the nature of the revolution itself, but proceeded from the fact that the English Revolution, unlike the French, was of a religious nature and had no "earthly goals."
Carlyle's most extensive work is "History of Friedrich II of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great II" (1858-65), which forced him to take a trip to Germany. With many brilliant qualities, it suffers from great prolongation. Carlyle sings of this "hero-king" and admires the order of feudal Prussia.

In 1841, being dissatisfied with the policy of the British Library, he initiated the creation of the London Library.

In 1847 his Historical and Critical Essays (a collection of journal articles) appeared, in 1851 a biography of his friend of his youth, the poet Sterling. From until 1870, Carlyle was busy publishing a complete collection of his works ("Library edition", in 34 volumes). This edition was followed the following year by a cheap "People's edition", which was repeated many times. He then published a series of essays entitled "The First Norwegian Kings" (

Thomas Carlyle (December 4, 1795 - February 5, 1881) - Scottish writer, publicist, historian and philosopher, popularizer and one of the founders of a special style of artistic and philosophical historical literature- Cult of Heroes. A very popular stylist. He had a great influence on legal thought.

Family

Born in the Calvinist family of James Carlyle and his second wife Janet Aitken, he was the eldest of nine children (pictured is Thomas's mother). His father was a bricklayer, later a small farmer. He was respected for his stamina and independence. Stern in appearance, he had a kind soul. Carlyle's family ties were unusually strong, and Thomas treated his father with great reverence, as reflected in his memoirs. He always had the most tender feelings for his mother and was a wonderful brother.

Studies

Parents did not have much money, so seven-year-old Carlyle was sent to study at a parochial school. When he was ten years old, he was transferred to high school Annan. His penchant for fighting led to problems with many of the students at the school, but he soon showed a strong interest in learning, prompting his father to teach him the worship. In 1809 he entered the University of Edinburgh. He had little interest in his studies, apart from Sir John Leslie's course in mathematics, who later became a good friend of his.

He also read a lot. However, literature, and the work of his contemporaries, had the greatest influence on him. Several guys in the same position as him saw him as an intellectual leader, and their correspondence reflects common literary tastes. In 1814, Carlyle, still preparing to become a priest, received a master's degree in mathematics from the Annan school, which enabled him to save some money. In 1816 he was appointed teacher at a school in Kirkland.

spiritual crisis

In 1818 Carlyle decided to give up his spiritual career. He did not explain to anyone the details of the transformations that had taken place in him, however, his desire to abandon the dogmatic views of spiritual mentors, who were always deeply respected by him, was obvious. For a while, atheism seemed the only way out, but he was deeply disgusted with it. All this led Carlyle to a spiritual crisis, which he managed to overcome only after writing Sartor Resartus. The life and thoughts of Mr. Teufelsdrock” in June 1821. He banished the spirit of denial, and since then the nature of his suffering has been changed forever. It was no longer "whining", but "indignation and grim defiance." In 1819, he began to study German, which led him to new interesting acquaintances. He was very interested in German literature. Most of all he liked the works of Goethe. In them, he saw an opportunity to discard obsolete dogmas without plunging into materialism. They met and corresponded for a long time. Goethe spoke positively of the translations of his books.

Personal life

After a long courtship, in 1826 Thomas Carlyle married Jane Bailey Welsh. She was from a much more affluent family, and it took him several years to earn enough to get his marriage approved. They lived together for forty years, until Jane's death. The first years after their marriage they lived in the countryside, but in 1834 they moved to London. Lady Welch was childless, which later led to quarrels and jealousy. Evidence of this is their correspondence. Their life was also difficult because of Carlyle's psychological problems. With great emotionality and a fragile psyche, he often suffered from the pangs of depression, he was tormented by insomnia, and the loud singing of birds in his neighbor's garden drove him crazy. Bouts of rage abruptly gave way to outbursts of exaggerated humor. He was saved only by immersion headlong into work. For this, solitude and peace were necessary, and a special soundproof room was equipped in their house. As a result, his wife was often forced to do all household chores alone, often feeling abandoned.

Literary works

In the mid-1830s, Carlyle published Sartor Resartus. The Life and Thoughts of Herr Teufelsdrock" in Fraser's Journal. Despite the depth of philosophical thought, the impressive validity of his conclusions, this book did not have sufficient success. In 1837, his work "On the French Revolution" was published, which brought him real success. From 1837 to 1840 he gave several lectures, of which only one ("The Hero's Cult") was published. All of them brought him financial success, and at the age of forty-five he managed to become financially independent. He had many students and followers. From 1865 he became rector of the University of Edinburgh.

Views on the structure of society

The revolutionary and bitter moods of Byron's era, Thomas Carlyle, whose biography is presented in the article, opposed the Gospel. He spoke out for social reforms. In the struggle against a mechanical view of the world, respect for the majority and utilitarianism, he advocated a life filled with meaning, the development of the highest, supra-individual human values. Thomas Carlyle countered the leveled power of democratic tendencies with the cult of heroes. He believed that only those who have a victorious desire for power should rule in society and the state. The success of the will leading to power cited as an argument an idealism based on a constant striving for personal higher goals, and this is the weakness and danger of his science, which is a mixture of Scottish puritanism and German idealism.

In politics, he played a big role as a theoretician of imperialism, defending the idea of ​​the historical mission of the British people to embrace the whole world. From journalism, it should be noted, first of all, the philosophical and historical reflections “Heroes, the veneration of heroes and the heroic in history”, “On the French Revolution”, “Sartor Resartus. The Life and Thoughts of Mr. Teufelsdrock” and others.

Philosophical views on life

Fascinated by German romanticism, he left Calvinism. His passion for romantic philosophy was expressed in the translation of Goethe's book "The Years of Science by Wilhelm Meister" and the work "The Life of Schiller". From romanticism, he drew, first of all, a deeply developed individualism (Byronism).

In the center of Carlyle's works is a hero, an outstanding personality, overcoming himself with the power of vital activity, primarily moral. In emphasizing the superiority of the moral qualities of the hero over the intellectual, one can see the influence of puritanism. Despite this, Carlyle also blindly accepted Nietzsche's anthropology.

end of being

Thomas Carlyle, whose photo is presented in the article, died on February 5, 1881 in London. After the official farewell ceremony, his remains were transferred to Scotland, where he was buried in the same cemetery with his parents.

Thomas Carlyle: aphorisms and quotes

Among his most famous aphorisms are the following:

1. Every outstanding work at first glance seems impossible.
2. Love is not the same as insanity, but they have a lot in common.
3. Without pressure, there will be no diamonds.
4. A person who wants to work, but cannot find a job - this is perhaps the saddest situation presented to us by fate.
5. Isolation is the result of human misery.
6. My wealth is not what I have, but what I do.
7. In every phenomenon, the beginning is always the most memorable moment.
8. Selfishness is the source and result of all mistakes and suffering.
9. No one great person does not live in vain. The history of the world is only biographies of great people.
10. Endurance is concentrated patience.

Thomas Carlyle, whose quotes are full of wisdom and depth, left a bright mark on the history of philosophical thought.

British writer, publicist, historian and philosopher of Scottish origin, author of the multi-volume essays The French Revolution (1837), Heroes, Heroic Worship and the Heroic in History (1841), Life History of Frederick II of Prussia (1858-65). He professed a romantic "cult of heroes" - exceptional personalities like Napoleon, who, with their deeds, fulfill the divine destiny and move humanity forward, towering over the crowd of limited inhabitants. Also known as one of the brilliant stylists of the Victorian era.
Born into a simple peasant family; destined by his parents - strict Calvinists for a spiritual career, at the age of 14 he entered the University of Edinburgh. Not wanting to be a priest, after completing his course at the university, he became a mathematics teacher in the provinces, but soon returned to Edinburgh. Here, living on casual literary earnings, for some time he was intensively engaged in law, preparing for the practice of law; but he quickly abandoned this, carried away by German literature.
The translation of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister in 1824 and the Life of Schiller in 1825 were Carlyle's first major works. These were followed by critical analyzes and translations from Jean-Paul.
He read a course of lectures on German literature, in 1838 - on European literature, in 1839 he read on the topic "Revolution in modern Europe." The last time I read the course was in 1840. It was the only published and therefore extant course on the role of the hero in history. The list of heroes itself: Dante, Shakespeare, Luther, Rousseau, Napoleon, Cromwell, and others. These lectures brought some income to Carlyle, and after 1840 he no longer needed money and was rarely able to move him to speak.
The same originality as these works is distinguished by the “History of the French Revolution” (“French Revolution, a history”, 1837), the caustic pamphlet “Chartism” (1839), lectures on heroes and the heroic in history (“On Hero Worship”, 1841) and historical and philosophical reflections "Past and present" (1843).

Not suited to any of the established political parties, Carlyle felt lonely and thought for some time about publishing his own magazine to preach his "believing radicalism". All these works of Carlyle are imbued with the desire to reduce the progress of mankind to the life of individual outstanding personalities-heroes (according to Carlyle, world history is a biography of great people, see The Theory of Great People), to put exclusively moral duty at the basis of civilization; his political program is limited to the preaching of labor, moral feeling and faith. An exaggerated appreciation of the heroic in history and distrust of the power of institutions and knowledge led him to a formal cult of times past, more favorable to heroic people. His views are brighter than anywhere else, reflected in the twelve "Latter-day pamphlets" ("Latter-day pamphlets", 1858); here he laughs at the emancipation of the Negroes, at democracy, philanthropy, political and economic doctrines, etc. Not only did the former enemies resent Carlyle after these pamphlets, but many admirers ceased to understand him.
Throughout the 1840s, Carlyle's views shifted towards conservatism. Gradually, in the works of Carlyle, criticism of capitalism sounded more and more muffled, and his statements directed against the actions of the masses became more and more sharp. In the book Before and Now, he painted idyllic pictures of medieval society, where simple noble customs allegedly reigned, a good monarch ensured the well-being and freedom of his subjects, and the church baked about high moral values. It was a romantic utopia that brought Carlyle closer to the feudal socialists.
Of all Carlyle's writings, the Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1845-46), with commentaries, is of the greatest historical importance; the latter are far from impartial to the "hero" Cromwell. Carlyle showed in a new way the role of Cromwell in the history of the country, in particular, his merits in the rise of the sea power of England and in strengthening its international prestige. The work was innovative for its time. Until that time, English historians ignored this figure, seeing only a “regicide” and a “tyrant” in him. Carlyle made an attempt to reveal the true motives and significance of Cromwell's state activities. He also tried to understand the nature of the revolution itself, but proceeded from the fact that the English Revolution, unlike the French, was of a religious nature and had no "earthly goals."
Carlyle's most extensive work is "History of Friedrich II of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great II" (1858-65), which forced him to undertake a trip to Germany. With many brilliant qualities, it suffers from great prolongation. Carlyle sings of this "hero-king" and admires the order of feudal Prussia.
In 1841, being dissatisfied with the policy of the British Library, he initiated the creation of the London Library.
In 1847 his "Historical and Critical Essays" (a collection of journal articles) appeared, in 1851 a biography of his friend of his youth, the poet Sterling. From 1868 to 1870, Carlyle was busy publishing a complete collection of his works ("Library edition", in 34 volumes). This edition was followed the following year by a cheap "People's edition", which was repeated many times. He went on to publish a series of essays entitled The First Norwegian Kings (1875).
In 1866, Carlyle was offered the honorary position of rector of the University of Edinburgh. In addition to this position, he never held any position, remaining only a writer all his life. During the Franco-Prussian War, he took the side of Prussia and passionately and sincerely defended her cause in his letters to The Times, published separately (1871).
Thomas Carlyle died in 1881.

Biography (Maria CHEPURINA)

Thomas Carlyle was not a historian. You come to this only conviction after reading his biography. Who was he, then? For a long time, Thomas himself could not answer this question: throughout his youth, he was looking for a suitable occupation for himself and could not find it. At first he was preparing to become a priest, until he finally realized that it was not his, then for a considerable time he worked as a teacher at a school, and in the natural sciences, he earned money by private lessons, then without enthusiasm, only in order to acquire professional skills, he began to obtain a legal education, but soon abandoned this business with great disgust. Meanwhile, from the earliest youth he felt in himself a taste for literature. Writer, then? But what did this writer write? On his account, translations and studies of German romantics, several large and small works on history, many pamphlets, as well as other things of a journalistic nature, one unfinished, pompously inexpressive autobiographical novel, another, something in the spirit of Swift, which was not successful, and at the very end - memories of loved ones. A writer who looked down on literature - first from his youthful radicalism, then already like an old squeamish philistine - yes, it was down to him, despite his friendly relations with many writers and poets of his century - that was Carlyle. So, in extreme old age, he advised the poet Ellingham to better use his talent to write the history of Ireland. In the same way, he disposed of his own talent. Biographer Simons casually called him a failed politician. This is quite reasonable, because Carlyle studied history in order to better understand the present. In the philosophical dictionary of 1980, he is listed as an "English bourgeois philosopher and historian", in the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary as a "publicist, historian and philosopher", in the small dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron - as a "historian of literature" to everything else. But surely Charles Dickens, who carried The French Revolution everywhere with him instead of a Bible, Geraldine Jewsbury, who fell asleep at the feet of Carlyle, and all those people who bought tickets for his lectures, young men who found something close to themselves in his books and hurried to testify their respects to his house in Chelsea, did not ask such questions and did not assign dictionary definitions to the teacher, because they were sure: Thomas Carlyle is a prophet.

But that was only the first question.

Describing her conversation with the brother of the author of the evolutionary theory, the wife of the “prophet” informed her husband in one of the letters of 1838: ““In the end,” Darwin asked me the other day, “what kind of religion is Carlyle does he have it at all?" I shook my head, saying I didn't know any more about it than he did." This question, probably, cannot be considered closed: not only in terms of religion proper, but more broadly, in terms of ideology in general. Probably, Carlyle himself did not know the final answer to him, although he was a more than proud and more than convinced man, especially in old age, when, as contemporaries write, it became absolutely impossible to argue with what he was saying. The son of an orthodox puritan, a mason from Scotland, Carlyle quite early forgot how to believe in the Christian God and attend church, keeping, however, the belief in the existence of some kind of "special Providence." Considered traditionally a historian of a conservative trend, it is impossible not to notice that in the first half of his life he was a radical, a real radical, keenly aware of social injustice, sarcastically calling philistinism with his newly invented word "higmanism" ("cabrioletism" in our opinion), welcoming in his the house of Giuseppe Mazzini, who was friends with John Stuart Mill, who corresponded with the Saint-Simonists. And he remained a radical not only at twenty, not only at twenty-five, but also when he wrote The French Revolution: and then Carlyle was already in his fifth decade! But - again, "but"! - he was neither a socialist nor a fan of the industrial revolution: just the opposite. It was something that could be called mystical radicalism. And then he was replaced by the “cult of heroes”, indifference to the people, faith in the saving role of the new aristocracy and indestructible emotional attachment to the aristocracy of the old, brilliant, arrogant and busy doing nothing - in the person of Lord Ashburton and his wife. No wonder F. Pavlenkov, the publisher of a series of popular biographies, placed Carlyle in the same volume as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. They have something in common: their image of idols for young people, their conceited, withdrawn and capricious nature, their inconsistency, which allowed them to combine leftist beliefs with a tender irrational attachment to noble persons ...

Consider how Simons describes Carlyle's house: "in this house, exiled revolutionaries drank tea with aristocrats, thoughtful freethinkers argued with radical priests, professional politicians conversed with aspiring poets." One must think that something similar was in his head.

Carlyle, apparently, strove not so much for the knowledge of the truth (which is typical of philosophers), as for the development of his own convictions, which in each case relate to a separate side of being and can be little connected with each other. According to the German researcher P. Hansel, not finding integral philosophical systems in England, he turned to French and German thinkers, experiencing their influence, especially the latter. And he also says that Carlyle never cared about the systematic completeness of his worldview.

Nevertheless, Carlyle's positions, especially those relating to the philosophy of history, must be tried to be clarified, since such a task is before us. His views of the period of radicalism are expressed very clearly at the end of an essay on Diderot, dating back to 1833: “The most sublime and deepest history of world and human history, to which all its other tasks are subordinated ... is the struggle of unbelief with faith. All eras in which faith prevails, whatever form it may be, are glorious, elevate the soul and are fruitful both for contemporaries and for posterity.

It must be assumed that Carlyle considered the era of the Great French Revolution to be completely religious, otherwise he would not have become in 1837-38. write a book about her, the first volume of which he had to recreate after a maid, mistaking the manuscript for a pile of unnecessary papers, used it for kindling. In any case, it is precisely this conclusion, about the great ideological fullness and brightness of that time, that the fascinated reader will come to when the awe-inspiring pictures of the past come to life in front of him: there is no place for reasoning about the great originality of Carlyle's language, thanks to which his book became immortal, and which influenced English writing in the 19th century. - it remains only to state this originality. The "French Revolution" can be called somewhat chaotic, it is not very suitable for an unprepared reader, especially one who approaches it for educational purposes: there is no bibliography, there is no scientific periodization. But this is what allows you to see events through the eyes of a contemporary, to truly plunge into the past.

As for the scientific merits of the work, one cannot, of course, close one's eyes to the fact that the author did not at all try to be impartial and sometimes used his imagination where he lacked sources. It is unlikely that historians of our time will approach this book seriously. But is it worth treating it only as a poem and throwing it out of the convoy of science? At one time, F. Furet revived the legacy of two forgotten historians of the French Revolution, building his teaching on it. Carlyle's approach can, in principle, fit into this now dominant teaching, at the center of which is the idea of ​​the continuity of the Old Order and the Revolution: for - where does his book begin? - not from the taking of the Bastille and not even from the Assembly of Notables, but much earlier, from the death of Louis XV. Therefore, an integral part of Carlyle's "French Revolution" are the attempts to reform the system undertaken by Turgot, Necker and Calonne. Might be worth thinking about it...

Finally, it is undeniable that Carlyle was the first to write an adequate narrative of the Revolution at a time when Europe, in the words of V.G. Sirotkina, was inundated with memoirs of monarchists, Bonapartists, clerics, simply obscurants who saw nothing in the French Revolution but the guillotine and its "boss" - the "monster Robespierre", or, conversely, following Abbé Barruel, they evaluated it only as a world conspiracy of the Judeo-Masons. Carlyle showed restored Europe that the Revolution had objective causes and was inevitable - this is his merit! And it is worth paying attention to how much attention he, speaking about the causes, pays to people's suffering, that is, speaking academically, to socio-economic factors. For people who have entered the Marxist approach into the subconscious, it seems natural, but for those times it was news. Standing on the position of universal determinism, Carlyle with great skill inspires us with the conviction that - especially after the death of Mirabeau - no force, either human or divine, was no longer able to keep the French kingdom from falling. There is even something of providentialism in this. In Carlyle, as in Fichte, a person is so squeezed in the grip of the inexorable connection of things that his self-determination and freedom become impossible, Hansel wrote.

From the French Revolution, Carlyle moved on to studying the revolution in his native country, and in 1845 he published a book consisting of speeches and letters of Oliver Cromwell, as well as comments and descriptions, for one of which Carlyle even went himself to inspect the site of the Battle of Naisby. The book was a huge success and, like the previous one, resisted the common stereotype of Cromwell expressed by the Whig John Forster: "lived like a hypocrite and died like a traitor."

Thus we return to the theme of Carlyle's philosophy of history. To present his ideas, it would be completely wrong to limit ourselves to the above, for we did not mention the most important component of this philosophy at a later stage: the "cult of heroes." Having become a grumpy old man and constantly complaining of insomnia, Carlyle has significantly departed from his previous views on society and history, therefore, too. In the book Heroes and the Heroic in History, and then in a six-volume work on Frederick II, which should be an example of such a hero, the English thinker develops the idea that the historical process is driven by the efforts of individual great personalities. New divinely inspired people come to replace each other, understanding the eternal mystery of the Deity and nature in symbols, more and more adequate, more and more approaching the essence of the Deity ... Under good circumstances, heroes who are supposed to be obsessed with an idea give rise to new eras faith. Moreover, each religious epoch in public relations can be considered as a method of organizing labor. The old epochs, which have lost religion, are destroyed by special "negative geniuses", such as Diderot and Voltaire. Here is such an original view of what could be called a change in social formations.

Despite the fact that today we can very well see the shortcomings and hardly see (because they have become familiar) the merits of the historical writings of Thomas Carlyle, we must admit that he undoubtedly led science in the right direction. Well, as for the literary style - hardly anyone else can surpass it.

LITERATURE

* Genzel P.T. Carlyle P. Hansel, Professor of the University of Heidelberg: per. with him. P. Morozova. - St. Petersburg: edition of the editors of the journal "Education", 1903. 250 p.
* Historical and critical experiences of Thomas Carlyle: trans. from English. M.: printing house I.I. Rodzevich, 1878. 459 p.
* Carlyle T. History of the French Revolution: Per. from English. Yu.V.Dubrovin and E.A.Melnikova. - M: "Thought", 1991. 575 p.
* Simons J. Carlyle: trans. from English. and comment. E. Squires. M .: "Young Guard", 1981. 288 p., ill.
* Sirotkin V.G. Afterword / Carlyle T. History of the French Revolution. M., 1991.

2004... And may Carlyle fans forgive me - I myself highly appreciate both his work and social activities, and in his history of the Revolution I also see a lot of merit in addition to the perfection of the literary form - but I cannot but agree with Hilary: that image of the French Revolution that prevails in the English-speaking world and which we encounter in particular - this image is created to a large extent Thomas Carlyle's golden pen...

Biography

Carlyle (more correctly Carlisle) Thomas, English critic, novelist, philosopher, historian and publicist was born in 1795 in the village of Ecclefehan, in Scotland, in the family of a rural mason. Early showing outstanding ability in the humanities, he entered the University of Edinburgh and graduated in 1814. The philosophical outlook of Carlyle and his view of the history of mankind were formed under the influence of German romantics, mainly Fichte and Schelling.

In the 20s. 19th century the industrial revolution was practically completed, the big bourgeoisie was laying the foundation of its aesthetic culture. The son of a bricklayer, a village teacher, a professional writer, at the end of his life the rector after drinking saiz of Edinburgh University, Carlyle joined the bourgeois cult strong personality with aristocratic pantheism of the early Shellingian type. He put forward the theory of the chosen ones, who should rule the world. His political-historical and philosophical theories had a significant impact on the development of English social thought.

The undoubted merit of Carlyle is the creation of methods of "organic criticism". He lacks the last decisive moment of analysis - sociology. Life and creativity are inseparable parts of a single historical constructive process. Another of his merit is the creation of the philosophical novel-pamphlet "Zapog KezaPsh" (1831; in finished, list; "Darned Tailor") - a novel to a large extent autobiographical. According to the “philosophy of clothing” developed by him here, the whole world, the whole history is presented in the form of a series of external, transient garments, masks, behind which there is an eternal divine essence - the only reality. This problem was posed in terms not so much psychological as social. In the pamphlets Chartism (1840) and Now and Before (1843), the author, expressing sincere sympathy for the working people, calls himself a supporter of feudal socialism. In his best work (written a little earlier - in 1837) "History of the French Revolution" Carlyle justifies the overthrow of the monarchy.

In 1841, Carlyle’s book was published, which greatly influenced European historical science, “On Heroes and the Honoring of Heroes” (1841), after which the history of the world began to be considered in the context of the life and deeds of great people. Developing this concept, Carlyle in 1845-1846. wrote the book Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, and in 1858-1864. worked on his largest work - "History of Frederick II of Prussia" in 13 volumes. Before embarking on this work, he prepared the collection Pamphlets of the Last Days (1858), in which he very clearly expressed his Political Views: not recognizing the ideals of democracy and liberalism, he put "believing radicalism" above all else. He died in 1881 in London.

Biography

Thomas Carlyle (Carlyle) was born December 4, 1795 in Ecclefehan (Scotland) in the family of a bricklayer and a farmer. Primary education received in Ecclefehan and at a private school in the Scottish city of Ennan. In 1809 he entered the University of Edinburgh, where he prepared for a spiritual career, but instead received a degree in mathematics and after graduation from the university from 1814 was a teacher at Ennan, then at Kirkcaldy. In 1818, Thomas Carlyle returned to Edinburgh to study law, but paid more attention to German, history and philosophy. In 1820, Carlyle finally abandoned his career as a priest, lawyer and teacher and decided to earn a living. literary work. In 1824 he published a biography of Schiller and a number of translations, lived in Edinburgh and on his wife's farm, and made his living as a journalist. In 1834, Carlyle published the novel Sartor Resartus. The Life and Opinions of Professor Teufelsdrok, written in the spirit of German romanticism and classical idealism, which generally had a strong influence on the writer's worldview. This philosophical and journalistic novel expressed the essence of Carlyle's philosophy: modern world"dislocated", because to solve his problems he chose the methods of scientific rationalism, instead of reviving the truth of the spirit.

From 1834 Thomas Carlyle lived permanently in London, producing books, essays, talks and letters. In 1837, Carlyle's best historical work, The History of the French Revolution, appeared. In it, along with the justification of the overthrow of the absolutist system by the masses of the people, an extremely subjectivist idealistic concept of the "cult of heroes" is already outlined in the series of lectures "Heroes, the veneration of heroes and the heroic in history" (1842). Carlyle's other works include Now and Before (1843), Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1845-1846), Modern Pamphlets (1850), Life of John Sterling (1851), History of Frederick II of Prussia "(1858-1865). By the end of his life, having become famous, Thomas Carlyle refused honors, including title of nobility and pension. He died in London on February 5, 1881, and his "Memoirs" saw the light after the death of the author.

Biography (en.wikipedia.org)

He professed a romantic "cult of heroes" - exceptional personalities like Napoleon, who, with their deeds, fulfill the divine destiny and move humanity forward, towering over the crowd of limited inhabitants. Also known as one of the brilliant stylists of the Victorian era.

Start of activity

Born into a simple peasant family; destined by his strict Calvinist parents for a spiritual career, at the age of 14 he entered the University of Edinburgh. Not wanting to be a priest, after completing his course at the university, he became a mathematics teacher in the provinces, but soon returned to Edinburgh. Here, living on casual literary earnings, for some time he was intensively engaged in law, preparing for the practice of law; but he quickly abandoned this too, becoming carried away by German literature.

Essays on German Literature

The translation of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister in 1824 and the Life of Schiller in 1825 were Carlyle's first major works; they were followed by critiques and translations from Jean-Paul

A book about the French Revolution. Historical and philosophical views

The same originality as these works is distinguished by the “History of the French Revolution” (“French Revolution, a history”, 1837), the caustic pamphlet “Chartism” (1839), lectures on heroes and the heroic in history (“On Hero Worship”, 1841) and historical and philosophical reflections "Past and present" (1843).

Not suited to any of the established political parties, Carlyle felt lonely and thought for some time about publishing his own magazine to preach his "believing radicalism". All these works of Carlyle are imbued with the desire to reduce the progress of mankind to the life of individual outstanding personalities-heroes (according to Carlyle, world history is the biography of great people), to put exclusively moral duty at the basis of civilization; his political program is limited to the preaching of labor, moral feeling and faith. An exaggerated appreciation of the heroic in history and distrust of the power of institutions and knowledge led him to a formal cult of times past, more favorable to heroic people. His views are brighter than anywhere else, reflected in the twelve "Latter-day pamphlets" ("Latter-day pamphlets", 1858); here he laughs at the emancipation of the Negroes, at democracy, philanthropy, political and economic doctrines, etc. Not only did the former enemies resent Carlyle after these pamphlets, but many admirers ceased to understand him.

Other historical writings

Throughout the 40s, Carlyle's views changed towards conservatism. Gradually, in the works of Carlyle, the criticism of capitalism sounded more and more muffled, and his statements directed against the actions of the masses - more and more sharply. In the book Before and Now, he painted idyllic pictures of medieval society, where simple noble customs allegedly reigned, a good monarch ensured the well-being and freedom of his subjects, and the church baked about high moral values. It was a romantic utopia that brought Carlyle closer to the feudal socialists. Of all Carlyle's writings, the Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1845-46), with commentaries, is of the greatest historical importance; the latter are far from impartial to the "hero" Cromwell. Carlyle showed in a new way the role of Cromwell in the history of the country, in particular, his merits in the rise of the sea power of England and in strengthening its international prestige. The work was innovative for its time. Until that time, English historians ignored this figure, seeing in him only a “regicide” and a “tyrant”. Carlyle made an attempt to reveal the true motives and significance of Cromwell's state activities. He also tried to understand the nature of the revolution itself, but proceeded from the fact that the English Revolution, unlike the French, was of a religious nature and had no "earthly goals." Carlyle's most extensive work is the History of Frederick II (1858-65), which forced him to undertake a journey to Germany; with many brilliant qualities, it suffers from great prolongation. Carlyle sings of this "hero-king" and admires the order of feudal Prussia. In 1847, his "Historical and Critical Experiences" (a collection of journal articles) appeared, in 1851 - a biography of his friend of his youth, the poet Sterling. From 1868 to 1870, Carlyle was busy publishing a complete collection of his works ("Library edition", in 34 volumes). This edition was followed the following year by a cheap People's edition, which was repeated many times. He went on to publish a series of essays entitled The First Norwegian Kings (1875). In 1866 Carlyle was offered the honorary position of Rector of the University of Edinburgh; apart from this position, he never held any position, remaining only a writer all his life. During the Franco-Prussian War, he took the side of Prussia and passionately and sincerely defended her cause in his letters to The Times, published separately (1871). He died in 1881.

Carlyle and Nazism

The English philosopher Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) was one of those who returned to the idea of ​​the prominent role of individuals, "heroes" in history. One of his most famous works, which had a very strong influence on contemporaries and descendants, was called “Heroes and the Heroic in History” (1840, Russian translation 1891; see also: Carlyle 1994). According to Carlyle, world history is the biography of great men. Carlyle concentrates in his works on certain personalities and their roles, preaches lofty goals and feelings, and writes a number of brilliant biographies. He says much less about the masses. In his opinion, the masses are often only tools in the hands of great personalities. According to Carlyle, there is a kind of historical circle or cycle. When the heroic principle in society weakens, then the hidden destructive forces of the masses can break out (in revolutions and uprisings), and they act until the society again discovers in itself the “true heroes”, leaders (such as Cromwell or Napoleon). Such a heroic approach undoubtedly drew attention to the role of individuals, set (but did not solve) the problem of revealing the reasons for the fluctuations of this role in history. But it had too obvious flaws (besides unsystematic presentation): only “heroes” were considered, society was rigidly divided into leaders and the masses, the causes of revolutions were reduced to social feelings, etc.

Carlyle's views in some way anticipated the views of Nietzsche with his cult of the superman, and through him - Hitler and other fascist ideologists. Thus Professor Charles Saroli, in his pro-fascist 1938 article "Was Carlyle the First Nazi?", attempts to answer this question in the affirmative in the Anglo-German Review:
Nazism is not a German invention, it originally originated abroad and came to us from there ... The philosophy of Nazism, the theory of dictatorship were formulated a hundred years ago by the greatest Scot of his time - Carlyle, the most revered of political prophets. Subsequently, his ideas were developed by Houston Stewart Chamberlain. There is not a single basic doctrine of... Nazism on which the Nazi religion is based that would not be... Carlyle, or Chamberlain. Both Carlyle and Chamberlain ... are truly the spiritual fathers of the Nazi religion ... Like Hitler, Carlyle never changed his hatred, his contempt for the parliamentary system ... Like Hitler, Carlyle always believed in the saving virtue of dictatorship.

Bertrand Russell in his book A History of Western Philosophy (1946) stated: "The next step after Carlyle and Nietzsche is Hitler."

The well-known historian Manuel Sarkisyants, in his book The English Roots of German Fascism, devoted a separate chapter to the question of Carlyle's influence on the development of Nazi ideas.

Compositions

* "History of the French Revolution" (vol. I)
* "Historical and critical experiments"
* "Heroes and the heroic in history" ("Contemporary" 1856)
* "Nibelungs" ("Bible. for reading" 1857).
* Art. in "Vestn. Europe” (1881, books 5 and 6);
* "The latest English. literature"
* I. Tena; "The Autobiography of D. S. Mill";

Notes

1. Rybakin A. I. Dictionary English surnames. - M.: Astrel, 2000. - 576 p. - ISBN 5-271-00590-9
2. Personality in history: the evolution of views Grinin L. E. History and modernity. Issue №2(12)/2010
3. M. Sarkisyants. "Thomas Carlyle and the 'divine sergeants-instructors' for the poorest English"
4. "The English Roots of German Fascism"
5. England as a prototype of racial unity (Volksgemeinschaft)

Literature

* Carlyle Thomas // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
* "Thomas Carlyle and the "divine sergeant majors - line-up instructors" for the poorest Englishmen" - a chapter from the book "The English Roots of German Fascism" by Manuel Sarkisyants
* J. Simsons. "Thomas Carlyle. The Life and Ideas of the Prophet
* ZhZL F. Pavlenkov. V. I. Yakovenko. "Thomas Carlyle"
* Julian Simons Carlyle (WZL)
* Engels F. The position of England
* V. G. Sirotkin. THOMAS CARLYLE AND HIS LABOR "FRENCH REVOLUTION. HISTORY"