After the conquest of Kazan, Russia turned its eyes to the Baltic and put forward plans for the capture of Livonia. There were two main reasons for the Livonian War: the right to trade freely in the Baltic, and for opponents, the issue of preventing Russia from joining the European states was decided. The Order and the German merchants hindered the growth of Russian trade. Therefore, for Russia main goal The Livonian War was the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea. The struggle for supremacy at sea was between Lithuania and Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.

The reason for the start of the war was the non-payment of tribute by the Livonian Order, which the Yuryev (or Derpt) bishopric undertook to pay under the peace treaty of 1554.

In 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia.

At the first stage of the war (1558-1561), several cities and castles were taken, including such significant ones as Narva, Derpt, Yuryev.

Instead of continuing the successfully launched offensive, the Moscow government granted the Order a truce and at the same time equipped an expedition against the Crimea. Taking advantage of the respite, the Livonian knights gathered military forces and, a month before the end of the truce, defeated the Russian troops.

Russia did not achieve results in the war against the Crimean Khanate and missed favorable opportunities for victory in Livonia. In 1561, Master Ketler signed an agreement under which the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland.

Moscow made peace with the Crimea and concentrated all its forces in Livonia. But now, instead of one weak order, he had to deal with several strong claimants to his inheritance. If at first it was possible to reject the war with Sweden and Denmark, then the struggle with the main heir to the Livonian Order, i.e. with the Polish-Lithuanian king, was inevitable.

The second stage of the war (1562-1578) for Russia passed with varying success.

Russia's highest achievement in the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in February 1563, followed by military setbacks and fruitless negotiations. The Crimean Khan refused an alliance with Moscow.

In 1566, Lithuanian ambassadors arrived in Moscow with a proposal for a truce and so that Polotsk and part of Livonia remained behind Moscow. Ivan the Terrible demanded all of Livonia. Such demands were rejected, and the Lithuanian king Sigismund August resumed the war with Russia.

In 1568, Sweden terminated the previously concluded alliance with Russia. England refused to sign the alliance treaty developed by Russian diplomats. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Russia had to continue the Livonian War without allies in the most unfavorable conditions.

However, both the Commonwealth and Russia equally needed peace, so both countries concluded a three-year truce in 1570.

At this time, Russia was conducting hostilities with the Swedes, resorting to the help of Denmark. Ivan the Terrible decided to create a vassal Livonian kingdom from the conquered lands, on the throne of which it was promised to put Danish prince Magnus, married to the royal niece. He tried to expel the Swedes from Reval (Estonia) at the beginning of 1577, but the siege was unsuccessful. Sweden then made peace with Denmark.

After the death of Sigismund August in 1572, a period of kinglessness began in the Commonwealth. In the struggle of pretenders for the throne, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory won in 1576. He created an anti-Russian alliance and raised a significant army.

The third stage of the Livonian War (1679-1583) began with the invasion of Russia by the Polish king Stefan Batory. At the same time, Russia had to fight with Sweden. For the first time in the Livonian War, Russia's opponents actually joined their military efforts.

In August 1579, Batory's army conquered Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki and other cities. In an attempt to take Pskov, Batory suffered the biggest setback in the war with Russia. Meanwhile, hostilities continued in Livonia and Estonia, where the Swedes took the cities of Padis, Wezenberg, and Kexholm in Karelia from the Russians, and on September 9, 1581, Sweden captured Narva, then Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye fell.

With the loss of Narva, the continuation of the struggle for Livonia lost its meaning for Grozny.

Realizing the impossibility of waging war with two opponents at once, the tsar began negotiations with Bathory on a truce in order to concentrate all forces on the recapture of Narva. But the plans for an attack on Narva remained unfulfilled.

The result of the Livonian War was the conclusion of two treaties that were unfavorable for Russia.

On January 15, 1582, Yam Zapolsky signed an agreement on a 10-year truce. Russia ceded all its possessions in Livonia to Poland, and Batory returned to Russia the fortresses and cities he had conquered, but retained Polotsk.

In August 1583, Russia and Sweden signed the Plyussky truce for three years. The Swedes retained all the captured Russian cities. Russia retained a section of the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the mouth of the Neva.

The end of the Livonian War did not give Russia access to the Baltic Sea. It was very important for Russia, but still the main strategic objective The Livonian War for Ivan IV was something else. The annexation of Livonia was necessary to stop the centuries-old "onslaught to the east" from the Vatican to enslave Russia.

The reasons for the defeat in the difficult 25-year Livonian War were the economic weakness of Russia, its internal difficulties, the backwardness of Russians in military art compared to Western Europeans. Political short-sightedness, Ivan the Terrible's ignorance of his rivals, his desire for quick results at any cost could not but lead to a major international conflict.

The consequence of the Livonian War was an exceptionally difficult situation for Russia, the country was ruined.

In 1558 he declared war on the Livonian Order. The reason for the start of the war was that the Livonians detained on their territory 123 Western specialists who were heading to Russia. The non-payment of tribute by the Livonians for their capture of Yuryev (Derpt) in 1224 also played an important role. The campaign that began in 1558 and continued until 1583 was called the Livonian War. The Livonian War can be divided into three periods, each of which went with varying success for the Russian army.

First period of the war

In 1558 - 1563, the Russian troops finally completed the defeat of the Livonian Order (1561), took a number of Livonian cities: Narva, Derpt, approached Tallinn and Riga. The last major success of the Russian troops at this time was the capture of Polotsk in 1563. Since 1563, it becomes clear that the Livonian War is becoming protracted for Russia.

Second period of the Livonian War

The second period of the Livonian War begins in 1563 and ends in 1578. The war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Russian economy was weakened due to devastation. A prominent Russian military leader, a former member betrays and goes over to the side of opponents. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth.

Third period of the war

The third period of the war takes place in 1579-1583. During these years, Russian troops were fighting defensive battles, where the Russians lost several of their cities, such as: Polotsk (1579), Velikiye Luki (1581). The third period of the Livonian War was marked by the heroic defense of Pskov. Headed the defense of Pskov Governor Shuisky. The city held out for five months, and beat off about 30 assaults. This event allowed Russia to sign a truce.

Results of the Livonian War

The results of the Livonian War were disappointing for the Russian state. As a result of the Livonian War, Russia lost the Baltic lands, which were captured by Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War greatly depleted Russia. And the main task of this war - obtaining access to the Baltic Sea, was never completed.

The events of the Livonian War are a classic example of Europe's unwillingness to let the Russian state into the world political and economic arena. The confrontation between Russia and European states, which, by the way, continues to this day, did not begin suddenly. This confrontation is going on from the depths of centuries and there are many reasons for this. Although the main thing is competition. At first it was a spiritual competition - the struggle of the shepherds christian church for the flock, and, incidentally, for the territorial possessions of this flock. So, the events of the Livonian War of the 16th century are echoes of the struggle waged between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

The first Russian tsar declared war on the Livonian Order in 1558. The official reason was the fact that the Livonians had already stopped paying tribute for the possession of the city of Derpt, which they captured back in the 13th century, for 50 years. In addition, the Livonians did not want to allow specialists and craftsmen from the German states to enter Muscovy. The military campaign began in 1558 and lasted until 1583 and was named the Livonian War in world history.

Three periods of the Livonian War

The events of the Livonian War have three periods, which took place with varying success for Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The first period is 1558 - 1563. Russian troops carry out successful military operations, which lead in 1561 to the defeat of the Livonian Order. The cities of Narva and Derpt were taken by Russian troops. They came close to Riga and Tallinn. The last successful operation for the Russian troops was the capture of Polotsk - this happened in 1563. The Livonian War took on a protracted character, which was facilitated by internal problems Moscow State.

The period of the second in the Livonian War lasts from 1563 to 1578. Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania united against the troops of the Russian Tsar. Pursuing each his own goal in the war with Muscovy, these northern European states pursued a common goal - not to allow the Russian state to join the ranks of European states that lay claim to a dominant position. The Muscovite state was not supposed to return those European territories that belonged to it during the time of Kievan Rus and were lost during internecine and feudal squabbles and wars of conquest. The situation in the Livonian War was complicated for the Russian troops by the economic weakness of the Muscovite state, which during this period was going through a period of ruin. The ruin and bleeding of an already not too rich country occurred as a result of the oprichnina, which turned out to be an enemy no less bloodthirsty and cruel than the Livonian Order. He plunged the knife of betrayal into the back of his sovereign, as well as into the back of his country, - a prominent Russian military leader, a member of the Chosen Rada of Ivan the Terrible, his friend and associate. Kurbsky in 1563 goes over to the side of King Sigismund and participates in military operations against Russian troops. He knew many of the military plans of the Russian Tsar, about which he did not fail to report to his former enemies. In addition, Lithuania and Poland are united in 1569 into a single state - the Commonwealth.

The third period of the Lithuanian War takes place from 1579 to 1583. This is a period of defensive battles waged by the Russians against the combined forces of the enemy. As a result, the Muscovite state loses Polotsk in 1579, and Velikiye Luki in 1581. In August 1581, the Polish king Stefan Batory began the siege of the city of Pskov, in which Kurbsky also participated. A truly heroic siege lasted for almost half a year, but the troops of the invaders never entered the city. The Polish king and the Russian tsar signed the Treaty of Yampol in January 1582. The Russian state lost not only the Baltic lands and many primordially Russian cities, but also did not get access to the Baltic Sea. The main task of the Livonian war was not solved.

The Livonian War (1558-1583) for the right to possess the territories and possessions of Livonia (a historical region on the territory of the modern Latvian and Estonian republics) began as a war between Russia and the Livonian Knightly Order, which later spilled over into a war between Russia, Sweden and.

The prerequisite for the war was the Russian-Livonian negotiations, which ended in 1554 with the signing of a peace treaty for a period of 15 years. According to this agreement, Livonia was obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Russian Tsar for the city of Dorpat (modern Tartu, originally known as Yuriev), since it previously belonged to the Russian princes, the heirs of Ivan IV. Under the pretext of paying Yuryev tribute later than the deadline, the tsar declared war on Livonia in January 1558.

Causes of the Livonian War

Concerning true reasons declaring war on Livonia by Ivan IV, two possible versions are expressed. The first version was proposed in the 50s of the 19th century by Russian historian Sergei Solovyov, who presented Ivan the Terrible as the predecessor of Peter the Great in his intentions to seize the Baltic port, thereby establishing unhindered economic (trade) relations with European countries. Until 1991, this version remained the main one in Russian and Soviet historiography, and some Swedish and Danish scholars also agreed with it.

However, starting from the 60s of the 20th century, the assumption that Ivan IV was driven solely by economic (trade) interest in the Livonian War was severely criticized. Critics pointed out that, in justifying military operations in Livonia, the tsar never referred to the need for unhindered trade relations with Europe. Instead, he spoke of heritage rights, calling Livonia his fiefdom. An alternative explanation, proposed by the German historian Norbert Angermann (1972) and supported by scholar Erik Tyberg (1984) and some Russian scholars in the 1990s, notably Filyushkin (2001), emphasizes the tsar's desire to expand spheres of influence and consolidate his power.

Most likely, Ivan IV started the war without any strategic plans. He simply wanted to punish the Livonians and force them to pay tribute and comply with all the conditions of the peace treaty. Initial success encouraged the tsar to conquer the entire territory of Livonia, but here his interests clashed with those of Sweden and the Commonwealth, turning the local conflict into a long and exhausting war between the greatest powers of the Baltic region.

The main periods of the Livonian War

As the hostilities developed, Ivan IV changed allies, the picture of hostilities also changed. Thus, four main periods can be distinguished in the Livonian War.

1. From 1558 to 1561 - the period of the initial successful operations of the Russians in Livonia;
2. 1560s - a period of confrontation with the Commonwealth and peaceful relations with Sweden;
3. From 1570 to 1577 - the last attempts of Ivan IV to conquer Livonia;
4. From 1578 to 1582 - the attacks of Sweden and the Commonwealth, forcing Ivan IV to liberate the Livonian lands he had captured and proceed to peace negotiations.

The first victories of the Russian army

In 1558, the Russian army, without encountering serious resistance from the Livonian army, on May 11th took an important port located on the Narva River, and after that on July 19th conquered the city of Dorpat. After a long truce, which lasted from March to November 1559, in 1560 the Russian army made another attempt to attack Livonia. On August 2, the main army of the Order was defeated near Ermes (modern Ergeme), and on August 30, the Russian army, led by Prince Andrei Kurbsky, took Fellin Castle (modern Viljandi Castle).

When the fall of the weakened Livonian Order became obvious, the knightly society and the Livonian cities began to seek support from the Baltic countries - the Principality of Lithuania, Denmark and Sweden. In 1561, the country was divided: the last landmaster of the Order, Gotthard Ketler, became a subject of Sigismund II Augustus, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the destroyed Order. At the same time, the northern part of Livonia, including the city of Reval (modern Tallinn), was occupied by Swedish troops. Sigismund II was the main rival of Ivan IV in the Livonian War, therefore, in an attempt to unite with King Eric XIV of Sweden, the tsar declared war on the Principality of Lithuania in 1562. A huge Russian army, led by the Tsar himself, began the siege of Polotsk, a city on the eastern border of the Principality of Lithuania, and captured it on February 15, 1563. In the next few years, the Lithuanian army was able to take revenge, winning two battles in 1564 and capturing two minor fortresses in 1568, but it failed to achieve decisive successes in the war.

Tipping point: victories turn to defeat

By the beginning of the 70s of the 16th century, the international situation had changed again: a coup d'etat in Sweden (Eric XIV was deposed by his brother John III) put an end to the Russian-Swedish alliance; Poland and Lithuania, united in 1569 into the Commonwealth state, on the contrary, adhered to a peaceful policy due to the illness of King Sigismund II Augustus, who died in 1579, and periods of interregnum (1572-1573, 1574-1575).

Due to these circumstances, Ivan IV tried to oust the Swedish army from the territory of northern Livonia: the Russian army and the royal subject, the Danish prince Magnus (brother of Frederick II, king of Denmark), conducted a siege of the city of Reval for 30 weeks (from August 21, 1570 March 16, 1571), but in vain.

The alliance with the Danish king showed its complete failure, and the raids of the Crimean Tatars, such as, for example, the burning of Moscow by Khan Davlet I Gerai on May 24, 1571, forced the king to postpone military operations in Livonia for several years.

In 1577, Ivan IV made his last attempt to conquer Livonia. Russian troops occupied the entire territory of the country with the exception of the cities of Reval and Riga. The following year, the war reached its final stage, fatal for Russia in the Livonian War.

Defeat of Russian troops

In 1578, the Russian troops were defeated by the joint efforts of the armies of the Commonwealth and Sweden near the Wenden fortress (modern Cesis fortress), after which the royal subject, Prince Magnus, joined the Polish army. In 1579, the Polish king Stefan Batory, a talented general, laid siege to Polotsk again; in the following year, he invaded Russia and ravaged the Pskov region, capturing the fortresses of Velizh and Usvyat and subjecting Velikie Luki to devastating fire. During the third campaign against Russia in August 1581, Batory began the siege of Pskov; the garrison under the leadership of the Russian prince Ivan Shuisky repulsed 31 attacks.

At the same time, Swedish troops captured Narva. On January 15, 1582, Ivan IV signed the Yamzapolsky peace treaty near the town of Zapolsky Yam, which ended the war with the Commonwealth. Ivan IV renounced the territories in Livonia, Polotsk and Velizh (Veliky Luki was returned to the Russian kingdom). In 1583, a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which the Russian cities of Yam, Ivangorod and Koporye passed to the Swedes.

Results of the Livonian War

The defeat in the Livonian War was devastating for foreign policy Ivan IV, it weakened the position of Russia in front of its western and northern neighbors, the war had a detrimental effect on the northwestern regions of the country.

1) 1558–1561 - Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga;

2) 1561–1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577. However, the situation was complicated:

The weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen;

A change in the attitude of the local population towards the Russian troops as a result of military raids;

By going over to the side of the enemy, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who, moreover, knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible;

Devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars;

3) 1578–1583 - defensive actions of Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory, elected to the throne, went on the offensive; since 1579, Russian troops fought defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikiye Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the voivode I.P. Shuisky), which lasted five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

The Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. The main task - the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea - was not solved.

Assessing the foreign policy of Russia in the XVI century. - the conquest of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates, the Livonian War (1558–1583), the beginning of the colonization of Siberia, the creation of a defensive line of the Muscovite state that protected against devastating raids, mainly from the Crimean Khanate, it is important to keep in mind that the greatest The country achieved foreign policy successes in the first period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (50-60s).

In addition, it must be emphasized that Russia's military policy was determined not only by its fundamentally natural desire to defend the young statehood, secure borders, overcome the syndrome of more than two hundred years of yoke, finally reach the Baltic Sea, but also by expansionist and predatory aspirations. generated by the very logic of the formation of a centralized state and the interests of the military service class.

Features of the political development of the Muscovite state in the XVI century.

Unlike Europe, where national centralized states were formed, the unification of the Russian lands into the Muscovite state did not yet mean their merging into a single political and economic whole.

Throughout the 16th century there was a complex and contradictory process of centralization, elimination of the specific system.

In the study of the features of the political development of the Russian state in the XVI century. some of the most controversial issues can be identified.

In domestic and foreign literature, there is no consensus on the definition of the state form, established in Russia. Some authors characterize this form as a class-representative monarchy, others - as a class.

Some define political system Russia in the 16th century as autocracy, understanding by it the despotic form of absolutism and even Eastern despotism.

The discussion is influenced by the following factors:

Firstly, demonization in assessing the personality and politics of Ivan the Terrible, which was initiated by N.M. Karamzin;

Secondly, the vagueness of the concepts of "autocracy", "absolutism", "oriental despotism", their relationship.

The formal-legal, or purely rational, definition of these concepts does not take into account the traditional power characteristic of the medieval worldview, which influenced the essence and form of statehood. Autocracy in the 16th century - this is the Russian national form of Orthodox estate statehood, a churched state, which cannot be identified either with varieties of Eastern despotism or with European absolutism, at least before the reforms of Peter I (V.F. Patrakov).

MM. Shumilov drew attention to the fact that the opinions of the authors differ in characterizing the Russian autocracy. So, according to R. Pipes, the autocratic system in Russia was formed under the influence of the Golden Horde. The American historian believes that since for centuries the khan was the absolute master over the Russian princes, then “his power and greatness almost completely erased the image of the Byzantine basileus from memory.” The latter was something very remote, a legend; none of the specific princes had ever been to Constantinople, but many of them knew the road to Saray very well.

It was in Sarai that the princes had the opportunity to closely contemplate the power, "with which it is impossible to enter into an agreement, which must be obeyed unconditionally." Here they learned to tax courts and trade deals, conduct diplomatic relations, manage a courier service, and crack down on recalcitrant subjects.

S.G. Pushkarev believed that the political system of the Russian state was formed under the influence of the Byzantine church-political culture, and the power of the Moscow grand dukes (Ivan III, Vasily III) and tsars (with the exception of Ivan IV) was only formally unlimited. “In general, the Moscow sovereign was - not formally, but morally - limited by old customs and traditions, especially church ones. The Moscow sovereign could not and did not want to do what "did not happen."

Depending on the answer to the question about the essence of monarchical power in Russia, historians also speak differently regarding the political role of the Boyar Duma. So, according to R. Pipes, the Duma, having neither legislative nor executive power, performed only the functions of a registration institution that approved the decisions of the king. “The Duma,” he said, “did not have a number of important features that distinguish institutions that have real political power. Its composition was extremely unstable ... There was no regular schedule of meetings. There were no minutes of discussions, and the only evidence of the participation of the Duma in the development of decisions is the formula written in the text of many decrees: "The tsar indicated, and the boyars were sentenced." The Duma did not have a clearly defined sphere of activity.

In the XVI century. The Duma turned into a permanent government institution, where Duma people acted not only as advisers to the tsar on issues of legislation and administration, not only participated in the development of decisions, often discussing, and sometimes objecting to the tsar, but also controlled the central orders, carried out special assignments for Central and Local Administration Affairs (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Another facet of the question of the essence of Russian statehood in the 16th century. - activity of zemstvo councils of 1549–1550, 1566 and 1598, the study of their formation, functions and relationships with the tsar.

Attempts to solve this problem in the spirit of the Eurocentric concepts that dominate historiography give polar, sometimes mutually exclusive points of view of researchers. Zemsky Sobors in Russia did not have a permanent composition, clearly defined functions, in contrast to the class-representative authorities of European countries. If the Parliament in England, the States General in France and other class-representative bodies arose as a counterbalance to the royal power and were, as a rule, in opposition to it, then the Zemsky Sobors never came into conflict with the tsar.

In historical studies, an opinion is often expressed about the class-representative nature of the Zemsky Sobors (S.G. Goryainov, I.A. Isaev, etc.). However, M.M. Shumilov believes that, apparently, Zemsky Sobors of the 16th century. were neither popular, nor class-representative institutions, nor advisory bodies under the tsar. Unlike the corresponding institutions of Western Europe, they did not interfere in public administration, did not seek any political rights for themselves, and did not even perform advisory functions. The participants of the first Zemsky Sobors were not elected representatives. Their composition was dominated by representatives of the upper capital nobility and merchants appointed or called by the government itself. Although the work of the Zemsky Sobor of 1598, unlike the previous ones, was also attended by elected representatives who vouched for their worlds, however, it was still not they who prevailed, but representatives of the government itself: holders of power of various degrees, officials, managers, "agents of military and financial institutions "(V.O. Klyuchevsky). All of them were convened to councils not to tell the government about the needs and desires of their constituents, and not to discuss socially significant issues, and not to give the government any powers. Their competence was to answer questions, and they themselves had to return home as responsible executors of conciliar obligations (in fact, government decisions).

Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with the opinion of some foreign and domestic historians about the underdevelopment of Zemsky Sobors. According to V.F. Patrakova, if the idea of ​​separation of powers is being formed in the West, then in Russia the idea of ​​conciliarity of power is developing on the basis of its spiritual, Orthodox community. Ideally, in the Councils a spiritual and mystical unity of kings and people was achieved (including through mutual repentance), which corresponded to Orthodox ideas about power.

Thus, in the XVI century. Russia has become a state with an autocratic political system. The sole bearer of state power, its head was the Moscow Grand Duke (Tsar). In his hands concentrated all the power of the legislative, executive and judicial. All governmental actions were carried out on his behalf and according to his personal decrees.

In the XVI century. in Russia, the birth of an empire and imperial politics takes place (R.G. Skrynnikov). Almost all historians see in the oprichnina one of the factors that prepared the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.