When and where did the events of the Mahabharata take place. Indian mythology


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« Mahabharata"(Skt. महाभारतम्, mahābhāratam IAST , " The great legend of the descendants of Bharata", named after King Bharata, a descendant of the ancient king Kuru) is an ancient Indian epic. One of the largest literary works in the world, the "Mahabharata" is a complex but organic complex of epic narratives, short stories, fables, parables, legends, lyrical-didactic dialogues, didactic reasoning of theological, political, legal nature, cosmogonic myths, genealogies, hymns, laments, united according to a typical for large forms of Indian literature, the principle of framing, consists of eighteen books (parva) and contains more than 75,000 couplets (slokas), which is several times longer than the Iliad and Odyssey taken together. "Mahabharata" is the source of many plots and images that have been developed in the literature of the peoples of South and Southeast Asia. In Indian tradition, it is considered the "fifth Veda". One of the few works of world literature, which claims about itself that it has everything in the world.

The authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to the sage Vyasa, who himself is the protagonist of the legend (the grandfather of the Pandavas and Kauravas). The epic is based on a story about a feud between two groups of cousins ​​- five Pandavas (sons of King Pandu and Queen Kunti) and one hundred Kauravas (sons of King Dhritarashtra and Queen Gandhari). Both the Pandavas and the Kauravas are distant descendants of an ancient king of the Lunar dynasty named Kuru, but the legend in most cases applies the family name Kauravas to the sons of Dhritarashtra. The strife was initiated by the eldest son of Dhritarashtra, the insidious and power-hungry Duryodhana, who, even in his youth, "from greed for domination, a criminal intention was born." The old king Dhritarashtra panders to the heir, despite the condemnation of the divine sages, advisers and elder relatives. As a result, the strife flares up and after many years culminates in a bloody eighteen-day battle on the sacred field of Kurukshetra. The participation of the most powerful knight - the unrecognized older brother of the Pandavas Karna - in the battle on the side of the Kauravas gives a special drama to the dynastic conflict.

The war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas has a mythological background: according to the plan of the gods, the Danava demons incarnated in the Kauravas should be exterminated in Kurukshetra. It was in order to provoke the dynastic conflict necessary for the start of enmity that Shiva created Duryodhana as a gift to the Danavas. In addition, from the sacrificial altar, Draupadi is miraculously born, who is destined to arouse the enmity of the kshatriyas. A special role in the plan of the gods is given to Karna: according to the omniscient Vyasa, the son of Surya Karna appeared on earth to sow discord.

The epic narrative occupies the end of book I and books II-XI, and in book I, the Pandavas, having inherited half the kingdom, create a huge and prosperous empire, in book II, the Pandavas lose the kingdom to the Kauravas in a ritual game of dice and retire to thirteen IV, V book is entirely devoted to unsuccessful attempts to resolve the conflict by means of diplomacy, the description of the battle is devoted to books VI-X, and in book XI there is a mourning for the fallen heroes. Before the battle, the middle of the Pandava brothers Arjuna (and their most powerful warrior) refuses to participate in the murder of relatives, but Krishna, who became his charioteer, resolves the hero's ethical doubts in the famous sermon - "Bhagavad Gita". The Great Battle of Kurukshetra marks the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the fourth and last, worst era of the current cycle of human history.

In the battle, the Pandavas, supported by Krishna, won, but for the sake of victory they repeatedly resorted to insidious tricks (the murder of their grandfather Bhishma, the mentor Drona, their relative the righteous Bhurishravas, nephew Ghatotkacha, their brother Karna and cousin Duryodhana). All Kauravas and their sons fell on the battlefield (except for their half-brother Yuyutsu, who went over to the side of the Pandavas), but the victorious Pandavas also lost all their sons and relatives. After the victory, the elder Pandava king Yudhishthira, repenting of the bloodshed committed, wanted to leave the kingdom and retire to the forest for the life of a hermit, but under pressure from the persuasion of the divine sages and relatives (books XII and XIII) to fulfill the duty of the king (rajadharma), he ruled for thirty-six years (books XIV and XV), without ceasing to condemn himself for the extermination of relatives and friends. Yudhishthira rules for the first fifteen years, paying honors and formally recognizing the headship of the old king. Unable to endure the reproaches and hatred of the second of the Pandava brothers, the mighty and indomitable Bhimasena, Dhritarashtra retires to the forest, accompanied by the wife, adviser and mother of the Pandavas, Kunti. For the last twenty years, Yudhishthira has ruled the kingdom on his own. In their declining years, the Pandavas, together with their common wife Draupadi, leave the kingdom and head to the Himalayas, die on the way and ascend to heaven (books XVII and XVIII). The actual epic plot occupies less than half of the volume of the Mahabharata, possibly supplemented over the centuries by inserted short stories and parables on mythological and religious-philosophical topics (some scholars consider the Bhagavad Gita as an example of such a late insert). The Bhagavad Gita is the most famous part of the Mahabharata and an important sacred scripture of Hinduism (especially Vaishnavism), revered by many as one of the Upanishads ("Gita Upanishad").

Karna should be recognized as the central epic hero of the Mahabharata. Karna discovered Krishna's plan about the need for a battle on Kurukshetra to exterminate the kshatriyas and the demons incarnated in them. According to Krishna, without the participation of Karna, the battle would not have taken place. In addition, it is with his death on Kurukshetra that the defeat of the Kauravas becomes inevitable, and Dvapara Yuga ends and Kali Yuga begins, as evidenced by cosmic cataclysms. The legend devotes more space to the description of the death of Karna than anyone else, including the divine Krishna, and the battle part of the central plot about the enmity of the Pandavas and Kauravas ends with his mourning.

The historical and philosophical basis of the "Mahabharata"

Material evidence of the authenticity of the events of the Mahabharata has not been found.

Problems of the genesis of the Mahabharata

The editorial work on the Mahabharata as a whole was completed in the first centuries of our era, but a single edition of the poem was not created, despite the fact that the creation of the Mahabharata is attributed to one author, the legendary sage and poet Vyasa. There are northern and southern editions. These differences are manifested in the order of arrangement of individual moments of the story and in the presence or absence of later inserts. Variants of the main legend - the story of the rivalry between the Pandavas and the Kauravas - differ slightly in different editions.

The structure of the poem (the presence in the first book of two largely coinciding catalogs of its contents) makes it possible to single out two of its main editions. The first can be roughly dated to the 7th century BC. e. (pre-Buddhist era), it included the main plot of the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, beginning with Shantanu (the great-grandfather of the main characters), and ending with the death of Krishna and the exodus of the Pandavas. The second edition can be dated to the period of the revival of Brahminism in the 2nd century BC. e. Then numerous inserts were made into the poem, in particular, an independent short version of the Ramayana. Modern look the epic acquired by the 5th century.

Mahabharata books

The Mahabharata consists of 18 parvas (books):

  1. Adiparva(The first book. The history of the origin of the Bharat family and describes the beginning of the enmity between the sons of King Dhritarashtra and their cousins ​​Pandavas)
  2. Sabhaparva(A book about the assembly. Tells about the unification of the ancient Indian principalities under the rule of the Pandavas and how they were deprived of the kingdom)
  3. Aranyakaparva(The Forest Book. Covers the twelve years that the Pandavas spent in the forest)
  4. Virataparva(A book about Virata. Tells about the events that happened to the Pandavas during the thirteenth year of exile)
  5. Udyogaparva(A book about diligence. Describes the diplomatic efforts of the Pandavas in every way to avoid war with the Kauravas)
  6. Bhishmaparva(A book about Bhishma. Tells about the first ten (out of eighteen) days of the Battle of Kurukshetra)
  7. Dronaparva(A book about Drona. It tells about battles and duels during five (from the eleventh to the fifteenth) days of the eighteen-day battle on Kurukshetra)
  8. Karnaparva(A book about Karna. It tells about battles and duels during two (sixteenth and seventeenth) days of the eighteen-day battle on Kurukshetra)
  9. Shalyaparva(The book about Shalya. Tells about battles and fights on the last day of the eighteen-day battle at Kurukshetra)
  10. Sauptikaparva(A book about the attack on the sleepers. It tells about the dishonorable extermination of the Pandava army by the son of Drona named Ashvatthaman)
  11. Striparva(A book about wives. Describes the grief of the wives of the dead warriors after Ashvatthaman treacherously destroyed the sleeping army of the Pandavas)
  12. Shantiparva(Book of Appeasement)
  13. Anushasanaparva(Book of prescription)
  14. Ashvamedhikaparva(The book about the sacrifice of a horse. It tells about the unification of the ancient Indian principalities under the Pandavas after they defeated the Kauravas)
  15. Ashramavasikaparva(A book about living in the forest. Talks about leaving for the forest monastery and completing life path King Dhritarashtra, wife of Gandhari and Kunti)
  16. Mausalaparva(A book about the battle on clubs. Tells about the internecine extermination of the union of kindred tribes - Yadavas, Vrishnis, Andhaks and Kukurs, about the death of Krishna and Baladeva)
  17. Mahaprasthanikaparva(A book about the great exodus. Talks about last days the life path of the Pandavas and Draupadi, carried out by them in wanderings and ascetic exercises)
  18. Svargarokhanikaparva(A book about the ascent to heaven. Tells about the posthumous fate of the Pandavas and their cousins ​​Kauravas)

There is also an appendix of 16,375 couplets (slokas), "Harivamshaparva", which tells about the life of Krishna.

Editions and translations of the Mahabharata

Back in the Middle Ages, the Mahabharata was translated into all the major languages ​​of India and South-East Asia.

Work on a critical edition of the poem was carried out in Pune for 40 years (1927-1966). It contains about 156 thousand lines.

Of the English translations, the most famous was made by K. M. Ganguly in 1883-1896. By 2009, the Indian poet P. Lal completed a full English translation of the poem, including all of its versions.

An English academic translation is currently underway, begun by J. A. B. Van Byutenen (University of Chicago) in 1975. The following books have been published: I (Van Butenen, 1980), II and III (Van Butenen, 1981), IV and V (Van Butenen, 1978). After Van Byutenen's death came VI (D. Gitomer), XI and Part I of XII (J. Fitzgerald, 2003). Translation of VII (G. Tubb, University of Chicago), VIII (K. Minkowski, Oxford), Part II of XII (Brown University), XV-XVIII (W. Doniger, University of Chicago) is in progress. The translation, like the Russian academic one, is based on the critical edition of the Mahabharata (Pune, 1927-66), but taking into account some variants that were not included in the critical edition.

Work on a complete Russian (prose) translation was started by V. I. Kalyanov (1908-2001) in Leningrad in 1939, and continues to this day. Translations of 16 books (I-XI, XIV-XVIII) have been published, work is underway on the remaining two. In addition to the complete translation, there are also numerous partial translations (rather transcriptions) in verse form.

see also

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Notes

Literature

In English
  • Brokington J. The Sanskrit Epics. Leiden-Boston, 1998
  • Dahlman J. Das Mahabharata als Epos und Rechtsbuch. Berlin, 1895.
  • Dahlman J. Genesis des Mahabharata. Berlin, 1899.
  • Goldman R.P. Gods, Priests and Warriors. The Bhrgus of the Mahabharata. N.Y., 1977.
  • Gonzalez-Reimann L. The Mahabharata and the Yugas. N.Y., 2002
  • Gupta S.P., Ramachandran K.S. Mahābhārata: Myth and Reality. different views. Delhi, 1976.
  • Held G.J. The Mahābhārata. An Ethnological Study. London-Amsterdam, 1935.
  • Hiltebeitel A. The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahābhārata. Ithaca-London, 1976. 2nd ed. N.Y. 1990.
  • Hopkins E.W. epic mythology. Strassburg, 1915.
  • Hopkins E.W. The Great Epic of India. Its Character and Origin. N.Y. 1901.
  • Jacobi H. Mahabharata. Inhaltsangabe, Index und Concordanz der Calc. and Bomb. Ausgaben. Bonn, 1903.
  • Laine J.W. Vision of God. Narratives of Theophany in the Mahābhārata. Vienna, 1989.
  • Patil N.B. Folklore in the Mahābhārata. Delhi, 1983.
  • Sharma R.K. Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata. Berkeley L.A. 1964.
  • Sorenson S. An Index to the Names in the Mahabharata. Delhi, 1978.
  • Sukthankar Memorial Edition. Vol. I. Critical Studies in the Mahabharata. Poona, 1944.
  • Sukthankar V.S. On the Meaning of the Mahābhārata and its Critics. Bombay, 1957.
  • Sullivan Bruce M. Seer of the Fifth Veda. Krishna Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata. Delhi, 1999.
  • Suton N. Religious Doctrines in the Mahābhārata. Delhi, 2000.
  • Tivari J.N. Disposal of the Dead in the Mahābhārata. Varanasi, 1979.
  • Vaidya C.V. The Mahābhārata: A Criticism. Bombay, 1929.
  • Yardi M.R. Epilogue of the Mahabharata. Pune, 2001.
In Russian
  • Grintzer P.A. "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". (Series "Mass Historical and Literary Library"). M., artist. lit. 1970. 96 pages, 8000 copies.
  • Grintser P. A. Ancient Indian epic. Genesis and typology. (Series "Research on the folklore and mythology of the East"). M., Nauka (GRVL). 1974. 424 pages, 4800 copies.
  • Dandekar, R. N. "" in the collection of articles "From the Vedas to Hinduism. Evolving Mythology". M., "Eastern Literature" RAS ISBN 5-02-016607-3; 2002
  • Ibragimov A.R. The image of Karna in the Mahabharata. Inquiries about the tragic hero of the Indian epic. M., CK. 2009. 248 pages.
  • Ibragimov A. R. The old king of the Mahabharata. Freedom of choice and fate in the Indian epic. Montreal, AGC. 2016. 464 pp. ISBN 9781533730299.
  • Neveleva S. L. Mythology of the ancient Indian epic (Pantheon). (Series "Research on the folklore and mythology of the East). M., Nauka (GRVL). 1975. 120 pages. 5000 copies.
  • Neveleva S. L. Questions of the poetics of the ancient Indian epic: Epithet and comparison. Series "Research on the folklore and mythology of the East". M., Nauka (GRVL). 1979. 136 pages. 2150 copies.
  • Neveleva S. L. Mahabharata. The study of the ancient Indian epic. M., Nauka (GRVL). 1991. 232 pages, 2500 copies.

Links

  • - a site with a complete Russian translation of Mahabharata books for reading online.
  • on the site "Epic Power"
  • translated by B. L. Smirnov
  • in the library of the Monastery-Academy of Yoga "Collection of Secrets"
  • at the Library of Vedic Literature
  • in electronic library Institute of Philosophy RAS. (English)
  • (Russian)