Is a paternity test done to determine? whether there is any relationship between the child and the man.

Such examinations are carried out in order to satisfy the uncertainty of the father or to obtain alimony from the ex-husband.

Kinds

According to outward appearances

The method is not very reliable, and many people like to judge it by different elements of appearance.

Appearance is transmitted at the genetic level, but the child may change with age.

There are people who just look alike. Eye color, hair color, facial or lip configuration cannot accurately confirm paternity.

By date of birth of the embryo

If a woman had several sexual partners in a month, then you can try to remember a specific date.

Most often, fertilization occurs a week before ovulation and within 3 days.

In women with a standard menstrual cycle, ovulation occurs on the 14th day from the onset of menstruation. However, as practice shows, not everyone has a clear schedule, so there are difficulties with the exact number.

It is worth considering that spermatozoa in the female body are able to live from three to five days. Fertilization could happen on the day of sexual intercourse, and after some time.

By blood group

The blood type of children depends on the genes of the mother and father. Such a test does not show one hundred percent probability, and is used before a DNA screening examination. But if you look from the side of rhesus, then it is quite possible for parents with a positive rhesus to have a child with any rhesus. Rh-negative parents have only Rh-negative children. Exactly at this case definitely determine paternity. These studies are carried out after the baby is born.

There are special tables developed by doctors that show examples of coincidences during conception:

Blindly believing this is not worth it, since the probability of reliability is quite low.

By DNA analysis

Biologists have learned to read the genetic DNA code of the child and the DNA code of the parents. During the conception period, the DNA molecules from both parents are added to the embryo. Half from the father, half from the mother. During the examination, laboratory assistants take a plot and compare the DNA code of the probable father and his child, and with great accuracy they will be able to confirm or dispute the genetic relationship.

Establishing paternity without the consent of the father

It can be established either in court or voluntarily.

If a man refuses to confirm or deny his blood relationship, then the only way out is through lawsuits. This is especially true for couples who lived in an informal marriage.

The court may order a DNA test to truly confirm paternity. If the partner does not want to undergo an examination, a decision will be made at the trial based on other evidence.

There is also the option of an anonymous DNA test. You can collect the necessary biological material yourself and take it for examination.

But keep in mind, such a result has no legal force. The specialist cannot be sure from whom you took samples for analysis.

What is needed for analysis

We need genetic material from the father and from the child. Previously, only blood from a vein was called for determination. Now the most popular is sampling from the oral mucosa (behind the cheek).

This method is welcomed by the fact that everyone can perform it even at home.

This procedure is painless for both adults and children. You just need to draw a cotton swab along the inside of the cheek.

Now a similar genetic examination is also performed on saliva, hair, nails, teeth, etc. Without exception, all samples can be found on a comb, toothbrush, clothes, a razor, and even an unextinguished cigarette. If you need to determine paternity by hair, then it should be only with a bulb. A cut hair will not work. It is in the bulb that all genetic information is stored. There should be about 10 of them.

Price

Approximately the study costs 7,000 rubles.

Prices depend on the number of partners. For the child and the intended father, this amount is likely to be around 5,000 rubles. In case samples are taken for examination from the biological mother, the cost will increase to 8,000 rubles.
For a more accurate result, 25 or 33 markers are examined, and here the price of the procedure will naturally increase by 7000 rubles to the standard amount for the analysis.

If the result of the analysis is needed urgently and with all the components, the price will be about 26,000 rubles. On average, the examination takes 14 days.

Many are interested in whether genetic testing can be done for free. Unfortunately, even if paternity is confirmed through the court, the plaintiff will pay for it. At the expense of the state, it is impossible to find out whose child it is.

Reliability

Some people, even in the age of technology, do not trust analysis and cannot understand how, for example, saliva can show biological paternity.

In laboratories, all research is carried out on special equipment that excludes the mistake of a biologist.

Humans have 46 chromosomes. The kid collected equally from both mom and dad, but the chromosomes line up in a chaotic manner.

Exclusively in laboratories, one can examine the DNA strand and compare the sections of the child and the parent. The authenticity of such results is one hundred percent.

Udalov Dmitry

Scientific research. The history of the pencil. Graphite. Which pencil is best?

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IV city scientific readings

them. I.V. Kurchatova

Thread: What is a pencil made of?

Udalov Dmitry

Student 4 "B" class

MOU "Secondary School No. 21"

Scientific adviser:

Baradacheva I.G.

teacher of the highest category

MOU "Secondary School No. 21"

Ozersk

2010

Introduction …………………………………………………………………3

1. Theoretical part

1.1. The history of the appearance of the pencil…………………………………..……5

1.2. Taiginsk graphite deposit in the Urals…………..….… .…6 1.3. Pencil manufacturing technology……………………..…….….7

2. Practical part…………………………………………………..8

Conclusion ………………………………………………………….… ..10

Literature ……………………………………………………………….11

Applications …………………………………………………………… 12

Introduction.

Doesn't look like a human

But he has a heart

And work all year round

He gives his heart.

He writes when they dictate

He draws and draws.

And tonight

He will color the album for me. ( Pencil)

It would seem that just not invented for writing or drawing!Goose and metal pens, ink and ink, ball pen, marker. But all the same, in the backpack of a first grader, in the artist and draftsman, accountant and carpenter, and on the table of the chairman of the board of the bank, there are always several simple pencils. A truly universal thing - writes always and everywhere: upside down, and in the cold, and under water, and in space. The pencil does not need advertising. Fair. A pencil is like bread. They don't notice it when it's there. And when he is not... In the early days Patriotic War the pencil factory in Moscow began to produce military, more necessary, it would seem, products - ammunition. And pencils disappeared from the city. There was an instruction from the government not to stop pencil production for a single day. The need for pencils has not decreased in our time. Statistics say that a person needs at least 10 pieces a year.

It's interesting that:

one ordinary wooden pencil can draw a line 56 km long or write more than 40 thousand words;

the world's largest pencil 12 meters long, weighing 24 centners;

most small pencil in the world a little less than two centimeters;

more than 14 billion pencils are produced in the world every year - from this amount, you can circumnavigate our planet 62 times.

one large tree can make approximately 300,000 pencils.

We were interested to find out which pencils are preferred by the students of our school, how they are used, whether they know what pencils are made of. For this purpose, a survey was conducted among students in grades 4, 8 and 11 of the MOU "Secondary School No. 21". (See Appendix #1) The students answered a series of questions regarding their use of pencils. The results are presented in the form of diagrams (see Appendix No. 2). We were surprised that not all students know what a pencil is made of. 3 people (10%) were able to answer this question correctly in the 4th grade, 11 people (50%) in the 8th grade, 18 people (90%) in the 11th grade. Based on the lack of awareness of students in this matter, we decided to carry out this work.

Purpose of work: find out what the pencil is made of.

Tasks:

study special literature (find out the history of the appearance of a pencil, the technology of its manufacture; learn about graphite deposits Chelyabinsk region, the method of extraction and processing of graphite, its main properties);

spend practical work(observation of graphite mining, questioning of students, competition for the best pencil);

compare the results;

identify the most popular pencil among students.

Object of study:simple pencil.

Practical significancethis material can be used in the lesson of the surrounding world on the topic "Minerals of the Urals", fine arts on the topic "History of the creation of a pencil", class hour“On the careful use of the forest”, etc.

Research methods:

1) descriptive;

2) experimental;

3) quantitative;

4) comparative.

The pencil is such a common item. The first writing instrument that adults have entrusted to us. It is simple and not at all mysterious. Indeed?

How old is he, for example? And has the question ever occupied you: how do they stuff a lead into it? And what happened when there was no pencil? With this, perhaps, we will begin.

1.1 History of the pencil.

Who and when gave the world this amazing object?

The history of the pencil begins in the 14th century.The principle itself - a solid substance that leaves a dark mark on cardboard, parchment or paper - has been known for a very long time. Metals were used as a writing material: silver - for richer people, lead - for those who could not boast of prosperity. It was with such writing instruments that such masters of graphics as Dürer, Van Dyck and Botticelli made their sketches.

Prototypes of modern graphite pencils appeared in the 16th century. Then for the first time graphite was used for writing.

A graphite deposit was first discovered in England, and quite by accident: shepherds from the Cumberland area discovered a dark mass in the ground, which they used to mark sheep. The trace from these rods was clearer and brighter than from lead rods of a similar purpose, which were widely used for writing and drawing in those years. Graphite is a black shiny soft mineral composed of carbon. To the touch graphite greasy and gets dirty. On surfaces, it easily gives a silver to black streak. This is a mineral, as if by nature intended for writing. And its name comes from the Greek "grafo" - I write. This material was soon noticed by artists and businessmen, who quickly established trade in thin plates and pieces of graphite on the English streets, began to make thin sticks pointed at the end from it and use them for drawing. Graphite began to be used everywhere and so massively that the deposits began to dry up rapidly. By order of the royal court, graphite could only be mined for a few weeks a year so as not to deplete its reserves. And in late XVIII centuryEnglish Parliamentintroduced a strict ban on the export of precious graphite. For violation of this prohibition, the punishment was very severe, up todeath penalty.

Of course, it was very inconvenient to use graphite - hands got dirty! It was necessary to wrap graphite with rope, paper, or even simply clamp it between the planks.

The idea to put graphite, which easily leaves a mark on paper and does not stain hands, in a case belongs to the French inventor and businessman Nicolas Jacques Comte (1775). Conte invented the technology for making a graphite rod from a mixture of powdered graphite, soot, clay and water. After stirring, the mixture was poured into a wooden mold and the water was evaporated. The pencils were made by hand. Therefore, the cost of graphite pencils was considerable. Only the court nobility could afford such pencils.

The first pencils were round. It's hard to imagine today, but inventors have spent decades trying to solve the problem of a pencil rolling off a table. Only in late XIX century Count Lothar von FabercastleI guessed to make the body of the pencil hexagonal -for a more stable position on inclined writing surfaces. He is also the author of the standard length and diameter of the pencil.

The great Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov also entered his page in the history of the pencil. Indeed, in Russia there is both graphite and wood - and in one of the villages of the Arkhangelsk province a manufactory appeared, producing graphite pencils in a wooden shell.

1.2 Taiginskoye graphite deposit in the Urals.

Many graphite deposits have been discovered in Russia. In the Urals, graphite deposits are located on the outskirts of the city of Zlatoust and 12-14 km south of the city of Kyshtym - the Taiginskoye deposit. (see Appendix No. 3)

In 1939, a geological exploration party of the Ural Geological Administration headed by geologist Z.I. Kravtsova arrived in Kyshtym, which explored the area of ​​the city of Kyshtym and in 1940 established reserves of crystalline graphite ore near Lake Taiga, 15 km from the city of Kyshtym (see .Appendix No. 4). The beginning of the Great Patriotic War set the task of the fastest development of deposits of crystalline graphite. Crystalline graphite is batteries used in combat aircraft, ships, and tanks. This is armored steel, heavy-duty refractory alloys, this is the raw material for the development of communications: receivers, transmitters, telephones. The Council of People's Commissars ordered the People's Commissariat of the USSR Building Materials Industry to immediately start building the Taiginsky graphite plant. In September 1941, on the shores of Lake Taigi in rainy conditions, cold autumn and the harsh winter unfolded construction. The builders, who lived in tents, semi-dugouts, temporary barracks, cleared the industrial site, led the power line, built the building of the processing plant, boiler room, canteen, utility shops, laid a railway line, imported and installed equipment. Simultaneously with the construction of the plant, the technology for producing graphite was being developed. In May 1942, ore mining began, and on June 27, 1942, an aircraft landed on Lake Temnoye, the crew of which took on board the first batch of graphite, a gift from Kyshtym graphite workers to the army and navy. During the Great Patriotic War, the plant was the only enterprise that gave the country thousands of tons of valuable products.

For more than 60 years, the Uralgrafit enterprise (see Appendix No. 5) has been producing natural graphite for enterprises in various industries:

For metallurgy - the production of crucibles, non-stick paints;

For mechanical engineering - electrodes, lubricants, heat-insulating material, batteries;

For the production of nuclear technology;

For the production of pencils.

The need for graphite is due to its special physical properties: fire resistance, acid resistance, high electrical conductivity, softness and plasticity.

The technology of extraction and processing of graphite is as follows: graphite is mined in an open pit in quarries. It is loaded by excavators and delivered to the factory by Belaz dump trucks. (see Appendix No. 6). Graphite enters the mill, where it goes through three stages of crushing. Next, the graphite is washed from impurities, in which graphite floats to the surface, and impurities sink to the bottom. Graphite collected from the surface is dried, ground, classified and packed in paper bags.

A large number of pencils were produced from Taiginsky graphite.

Currently, due to the economic crisis and strong competition with foreign companies, Uralgrafit is curtailing its production. (See Appendix No. 7)

1.3 Technology for the manufacture of pencils.

Though penciland is called simple, but it is quite a technological product. More than 80 production operations are carried out to produce one pencil.

The core is the main working part of the pencil. In the production of pencils, dry graphite powder is mixed with clay and water. The more clay, the harder the pencil, the more graphite, the softer the lead. Depending on the amount of clay, pencil rods have different degrees of hardness - T (hard), M (soft), TM (hard-soft). After forming a pasty paste from the mixture, it is passed through a molding press, obtaining thin sticky ropes. They are straightened, cut to size, dried and sent to the kiln for firing. Finished rods are sent to the pencil factory.

In the production of simple pencils, it is important to choose the right wood. The cheapest material is alder, followed by linden, tropical or European pine, thin-ribbed diera, growing only in tropical forests .. The most good pencils made from California cedar, we use wood Siberian cedar.

The process of making pencils begins with the production of a pencil board (see Appendix No. 8). To improve the properties of wood, pencil boards are subjected to thermal treatment followed by impregnation with paraffin. In the manufacture of pencils on pencil boards, semicircular grooves are milled for the rods. Processed boards are stacked in a foot.

The assembly of pencils is carried out on gluing equipment. The rods are placed in the groove of the boards, they are covered with other boards, with a layer of glue applied to them. The resulting blocks are clamped and held certain time in a thermal chamber. Then the ends of the blocks are polished on the machine, removing the protruding ends of the rods and the unevenness of the glued pairs of planks. After grinding, the blocks have a rectangular shape and smooth ends. The final part of the pencil production process is the milling of pencils of a given shape (round, faceted) with a special cutting tool. So, the pencil is ready.

At least seven layers of paint must be applied to the body of the pencil, otherwise “burrs” will form on its surface. Howpencilmore expensive, the more layers of paint it is covered with. The ideal coating is considered to be a coating consisting of 18 layers.

AT currently significant requirements are imposed on the production of pencils in terms of their environmental safety. It is recommended to use water-based varnishes.

More than 300 types of pencils are produced today. various kinds activities. There are pencils for writing on glass, fabric, cellophane, plastic and film. There are pencils used in construction that leave a mark on a surface that is outdoors for several years.

Currently, there are a large number of companies producing pencils in the world. What do you think, how many enterprises in Russia are engaged in the production of pencils? Only four. Two of them are in Moscow. The other two are in Tomsk and Slavyansk.

2. Practical part.

According to the results of the survey among students in grades 4, 8 and 11 of the MOU "Secondary School No. 21", the following pencils were preferred (see Appendix No. 9):

1st place - "Designer" Russia (12 people)

"Koh-i-Noor" Czech Republic (12 people)

2nd place - " Nixon Austria (7 people)

3rd place - "EVOLUTION" France (6 people)

80% of students noted in the questionnaires (see Appendix No. 2) that these pencils are comfortable and write well.

These pencils became participants in the "Super Pencil" contest, which was held in my 4th "B" class. The students were divided into 4 expert groups who made observations and measurements. Each group had one test sample. Three contestants are made of wood ("Constructor", "Koh-i-Noor", "Nixon") and one plastic ("EVOLUTION”), with a plastic shell and lead. For the purity of the experiment, the contestants (pencils) were wrapped in paper and numbered. (see Appendix No. 10). All pencils had the same hardness (TM), standard sizes. The research groups were provided with the same accessories: a ruler, a sharpener, an eraser (see Appendix No. 10). The examination was carried out in two directions - the material and the stylus were evaluated.

Material

The quality of the wood from which the pencil body is made affects how the finished product will look and how easy the pencils will sharpen. It is very important for a pencil: what kind of wood looks like, what color, how well the stylus holds. The quality of the wood ensures even, neat chips.

The material was evaluated:

1.Color

2. Density.

3. Shavings

stylus

Compliance with production technologies also affects the strength of the rod and its consumer characteristics. The lead should have a high degree of strength, should not crumble and should be easily erased with an eraser. Also, during production, the technology of mixing the mixture for the lead should be especially carefully observed, its heterogeneity and the content of impurities can lead to scratching the paper when working with a pencil.

The stylus was checked:

1. Centering

2. Crumbles when writing or not.

3. How to erase with an eraser.

4. Scratches paper when writing or not.

5. Profitability (lead consumption for 5 minutes of work).

6. Brittleness.

During the competition, observations and experimental tests were carried out, the results of which are listed in the table (see Appendix No. 11).

1st place - pencil number 4 "EVOLUTION" France

2nd place - pencil number 3 "Koh-i-Noor" Czech Republic

And a pencil at number number 2 " Nixon Austria

3rd place - pencil number 1 "Designer" Russia

The winner was the "EVOLUTION" pencil. As we remember, it was a plastic pencil. Actually,plastic pencils are very popular at the moment. The main advantages of plastic pencils are their low cost and absolute safety in case of breakage. Unlike wooden counterparts, they are not able to form sharp edges at the place of breaking.

Let's compare the obtained results (see Appendix No. 12). There was a discrepancy between the survey of students and the results of the competition. What is the reason? The quickest choiceschoolchildren and their parents with wooden pencilsdue to their environmental safety. Even an adult sometimes catches himself in an indecent lesson - he sits and chews on a pencil. And what about children!50% of the students surveyed have a habit of taking (nibbling) a pencil in their mouths (see Appendix No. 2).

However, there may be other reasons as well. In the questionnaires, 20% of the students noted that they chose a pencil, considering that it was cheap, beautiful, it turned out to be by accident (see Appendix No. 2). This means that it is necessary to study the economic side of the issue (the cost of pencils), their design (color, quality of painting), etc. Perhaps this will be the topic of my further research.

Conclusion

After completing the work, we found out what the pencil is made of. A pencil is a writing instrument made from a wooden stick with a core made from a mixture of clay mass with graphite (S. Ozhegov “ Dictionary Russian language").

The tasks set by us are fulfilled: having studied the special literature, we learned the history of the appearance of the pencil, the technology of its manufacture; got acquainted with the graphite deposit in the Urals, the method of extraction and processing of graphite, its main properties; carried out practical work (observation of the extraction of graphite, questioning of students, competition for the best pencil).

This material can be used in the lesson of the surrounding world on the topic "Minerals of the Urals", fine arts on the topic "History of the creation of a pencil", class hour "On the careful use of the forest", etc.

Literature

Sharpen your pencils and draw, draw, write. Why and why? - 2005, No. 12

Kulikova R. Ivashka in a wooden shirt. Reader - 2008, No. 9

How old is the pencil? And why? 2004, No. 7

Ilyin M., Segal E. Stories about what surrounds you. book. 2 Where things come from. M., 1985

Dietrich A. Why. M., 1993

Kukushkin Yu.N. Chemistry around us M., 1992.

Sources

en.wikipedia.org- free encyclopedia, article "Pencil"

evolutsia.com- "The history of the pencil"

shkolazhizni.ru- the article "What did our ancestors write, draw, draw with?

Application No. 1

Questionnaire of the student ... .. class.

You have a simple pencil in your pencil case. He:

1.- regular

Auto

Round

Hexagonal

With an elastic band

No elastic

2. Why did you choose this particular pencil?

Nice

Convenient

writes well

Cheap

Turned out to be by chance

3. What brand is your pencil? (title)

4. What do you most often use a pencil for?

I draw

I emphasize

Church

5. Do you take a pencil in your mouth? Are you chewing on it?

Yes

No

6. Do you write all the way through your pencil?

Yes

No

7. Why yes?

Convenient

writes well

getting used to

Why not"?

It is not convenient to write with a small pencil

I'm losing

I throw it away, cheap, it's not a pity

8. Do you know what a pencil is made of?

No

Yes

9. If you know, name what is used in its production.

Application No. 2

Application No. 3

Application No. 4

Application No. 5

Application No. 6

Wrote on March 25th, 2013

Each of us with early years, doing creative work, or at school lessons came across such an object as a pencil. Most often, people treat it as something ordinary, as a simple and useful thing. But few people thought about how complicated the technological process of its production is.

By the way, in the production of a pencil, it goes through 83 technological operations, 107 types of raw materials and materials are used in its manufacture, and the production cycle is 11 days. If you still look at all this from the side of the whole product line, then a complex well-established production with careful planning and control is drawn.

In order to see with our own eyes the production process of pencils, we go to the Moscow factory named after Krasin. This is the oldest pencil production in Russia. The factory was founded in 1926 with the support of the government. The main task of the government was to eliminate illiteracy in the country, and for this it was necessary to make stationery available. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Krasin factory remained the only pencil manufacturer in the CIS with a full production cycle. This means that everything is produced at the factory - from the stylus to the final product - pencils. Let's take a closer look at the pencil manufacturing process.
For the production of pencils, the factory receives specially processed and stacked linden boards. But before they are used, it is necessary to make writing rods.

Let's move on to the workshop for the manufacture of pencil rods. Writing rods are made from a mixture of clay and graphite. The preparation of the necessary mixture begins with such technological installations, where clay is crushed. The crushed clay is sent by conveyor to the next production site.

In the next section, special mills are installed, where the clay is more finely ground and mixed with water.

Installations for the preparation of a mixture of clay with graphite. Here, the mixture for future rods gets rid of impurities and is prepared for further processing.

It should be noted that only natural substances are used in the production of leads, which allows us to consider the production environmentally friendly. Installation for pressing the mixture. Rods are obtained from the semi-finished products obtained. There is practically no waste in production, as they reuse it.

At this production site, the rods themselves are already obtained, but in order for them to get into the pencil, a number of technological operations will be carried out on them.

The very technology of obtaining rods is reminiscent of extrusion. Carefully prepared and mixed mass is squeezed out through a special stamp with holes.

After that, blanks for writing rods are placed in a special container.

And dried in the closet for 16 hours.

After that, the rods are carefully sorted by hand.

This is how the workplace for sorting rods looks like. This is a very difficult and painstaking work. Cats sleep behind a table lamp.

After sorting, the rods are calcined in a special cabinet. The annealing temperature ranges from 800 to 1200 degrees Celsius and directly affects the final properties of the rod. The hardness of the pencil depends on the temperature, which has 17 gradations - from 7H to 8V.

After annealing, the rods are filled with fat under special pressure and temperature. This is necessary to give them the necessary writing properties: the intensity of the line, the ease of sliding, the quality of sharpening, the ease of erasing with an eraser. Depending on the required core hardness value, lard, confectionery fat or even beeswax and carnauba wax can be used.
Output product of the rod production area.

After that, the rods go to the assembly. Here on such machines, planks for pencils are prepared. Grooves are cut into them for the installation of writing rods.

The cutting part of the machine grinds grooves in planks.

The boards automatically enter such a clip.

After that, on another machine, the rods are placed in pre-prepared boards.

After laying, the halves of the boards are glued together with PVA glue, and they are left to dry under pressure. The essence of this operation is that the rod itself is not glued to the planks. Its diameter is larger than the diameter of the groove, and in order for the structure to close, a press is needed. The rod, on the other hand, will be held in the wood not due to glue, but due to the tension of the wooden shell (prestressing specially created in this way in the design of the pencil).

After drying, the workpiece is sawn with special cutters into individual pencils.

Pencils are gradually sawn over several processing cycles.

The output is ready-made, but not colored pencils.

Already at this stage, the shape of the pencil is laid due to the type of profile of the cutting cutter.

Next, on special lines, the surface of the pencil is primed. When painting pencils, enamels made at the factory are used. These enamels are made from components that are safe for humans.

Line for painting pencils.

I think that in stores we have seen gift pencils painted with colorful stains many times. It turns out that in order to color them like that, a whole specially developed technology is used. Here is a small snippet of the painting process.

When visiting the paint shop, I happened to see a batch of pencils for delivery to the government of the Russian Federation of a new sample. The tip of the pencil symbolizes our state flag. Pencils dry in a special technological framework. The regularity of the rows looks very unusual and attracts.

After painting, the pencils are stacked in batches for shipment to the next sections of the factory.

It is a great pleasure to look at thousands of pencils colored according to the factory's proprietary technology. This is a very unusual sight.

Technological surface finishing line.

Stamp storage cabinet. Here are stored stamps for the entire range of products.

If necessary, before packing, pencils are sharpened on a special machine. The photo shows the intermediate stage of sharpening.
I was amazed by the speed of the machine. Pencils fell into the tray in a continuous stream. I immediately remembered all my personal unsuccessful attempts to sharpen pencils. From these memories, this machine began to inspire even more respect.

The factory produces and these are interesting pencils oval shape, used in construction and repair.

Arrays of stored pencils look very unusual and attractive. You won't see this anywhere else.

At the packaging area, the pencils are sorted and packaged by hand. There is a special atmosphere here. People work quietly and silently. Many employees have continuous work experience in the factory for more than 40 years.

The factory has its own equipped laboratory, where products are tested throughout the entire production cycle and new production technologies are developed. In the picture - Amsler's device for determining the resistance to breakage of writing rods.

Before leaving, I went into a room with demonstration stands for the factory's products. The emblem of the factory causes some kind of nostalgia. After all, these pencils are familiar to each of us since childhood.
The factory produces several product lines. Professional series of pencils for artists, decorators and designers.

Samples of pencils supplied to the government of the Russian Federation. For the design of the pencils, a drawing was chosen to match the color of standard malachite tableware for employees of the government of the Russian Federation. But besides this, they also have other differences from ordinary pencils: firstly, their shape is made with maximum consideration for the ergonomics of an adult’s hand, and besides, they use a special “lumograph” type rod for making notes in the margins and in the diary, it is not smeared by hand , but erases well with an eraser without damaging the paper.

Engineering drawing pencils:

Original souvenir products of the factory.

The visit to the factory was very exciting and informative. It was very interesting for me to see how much original technology and labor is invested in the manufacture of a seemingly simple object like a pencil.

I want to express my deep gratitude to the chief production technologist Marina for her help and explanation of the production processes. At the end of the visit to the factory, its management presented the editors with their branded pencils, including those supplied to the government of the Russian Federation.

A short video on how pencils are made.

Will the lead break or not? Today we will try to understand the technological process of production of pencils and find out what will happen to the stylus?

Although it is called simple, it is quite a technological product. For the manufacture of one pencil is spent over 80 manufacturing operations within 11 days. The quality and price of the final product largely depend on what material and how it is made.

Briefly, the process of making a pencil is as follows.

1. Getting a bar
2. The bar is sawn into planks
3. The boards are impregnated with wax (paraffin)
4. Indentations are made in the boards
5. The stylus is placed in the recesses
6. Another board is placed on top.
7. Pencil compartment
8. Coloring a pencil
9. The pencil has a metal rim
10. An elastic band is inserted into the metal rim

Wood for the manufacture of the shell of pencils must have a number of specific properties:

• be light, soft and durable, do not break or crumble in the process of making pencils;
• have the same resistance to cutting fibers both along and across, should not delaminate;
• the cut when cutting with a sharp knife should be smooth, shiny, the chips should curl, not chip or break;
• wood should be low hygroscopic, i.e. must not absorb moisture.

All these qualities correspond to the virgin juniper, which grows in the USA. The wood of cedar and linden is the closest in its properties and structure, but for use in pencil production, it must first be subjected to a special treatment - waxing (i.e., ennoblement). The boards are sawn into bars, the bars are cut along the length to the length of a pencil with allowances for machining and shrinkage, and then the bars are sawn into planks on a multi-saw machine. After that, the boards are impregnated with paraffin - this procedure improves the mechanical and chinking properties of the future pencil. All resins are removed from the boards for a couple, and the legnin of wood, when interacting with steam, changes its color to pinkish-brownish. Then the boards are thoroughly dried. After drying, they are sorted - cracked boards are rejected, boards sawn on the wrong fiber, etc. "Refined" with paraffin and dried boards are sorted and calibrated - "grooves" (grooves) for the rods are applied to them.

graphite rod made from a mixture of clay and graphite. Clay is pre-cleaned. To do this, it is crushed in special crushers, then mixed with warm water in special mills. Clay diluted in water during processing is poured with liquid glass, which, settling, removes all impurities from it - pebbles, twigs, sand, etc. Further, according to a special recipe, graphite is added to the clay, and each gradation has its own recipe. The mixture is mixed with a binder aparatin, cooked from starch. For the manufacture of rods, a rod mass of a certain temperature and humidity is required. In no case should the mixture be allowed to dry out, otherwise it will be like a stone.

Kneaded clay and graphite dough by screw press pressed for molding through special equipment - rollers with three different gaps. This is done for grinding and grinding the mass, averaging the humidity by volume and removing air bubbles. The thickness of the dough layer is first 1 mm, when reprocessed 0.5 mm, then 0.25 mm. Then the dough is passed through a die with holes, forming the so-called "noodles". The “noodles” are formed into cylinders, and from them a rod of the required diameter and length is pressed through a diamond die on a press. The rods are finally dried in special drying cabinets - continuously rotating for 16 hours. After this process, the moisture content of the rod is approximately 0.5%.

Then rods are calcined in a furnace. Firing is necessary in order to burn out the binder in the rod and sinter the clay to form the framework. The degree of hardness (gradation) of a pencil from 6M to 7T depends on the ratio of clay, the temperature and duration of firing, and the composition of the fatliquoring bath. Depending on the gradation of the rod, firing is carried out at a temperature of 800 to 1200 degrees.

After firing is carried out fattening operation: the pores formed after the binder is burned out are filled with fat, wax or stearin under pressure at a certain temperature. The choice of substance for fatliquoring depends on the gradation (hardness) of the rod. For soft pencils confectionery fat is used, for hard ones - wax. Intermediate values ​​of hardness, for example TM, are achieved by greasing with stearin. Leads for colored pencils are made from a mixture of pigments, fillers, fattening agents and a binder.

Next comes assembly process. The rods are placed in the grooves of the prepared plank and covered with a second plank. The boards are glued together with PVA glue, but the rod itself is not glued to the board, but is held due to the tightness of the board. The diameter of the rod is slightly larger than the diameter of the groove, so it is very important to properly compress the boards in a special mechanism, where future pencils are glued together. Each pencil size has its own pressure rating for pressing in, so as not to break the core.

In addition to p prevent lead from breaking In the event of a pencil drop, many manufacturers use the so-called SV lead sizing technology. If the pencil is dropped, the lead can only break at the sharpened tip, not inside the body.

Further the ends of the glued boards are processed- Trimmed, removed the remnants of glue. On the milling line, the blocks are divided into pencils. The shape of the future pencil depends on the shape of the knives - it will turn out round, faceted or oval. "Newborn" pencils are sent on a conveyor belt for sorting.

Finishing pencil surfaces is carried out by extrusion (broaching), and the end face is finished by dipping. Extrusion is the process of passing a pencil through a primer. At the end of the conveyor, the pencil is turned over so that the application of the next layer of paint or varnish occurs from the other end. This results in an even coverage.

It is well known that less than 7 layers when painting with pencils is not allowed, otherwise the tree will become covered with burrs. Companies that are more serious about the quality of their products usually start with 12 layers. Very expensive products are stained up to 18 times, sometimes up to 20. Then the pencil acquires an unsurpassed glossiness and a downright mirror surface. However, many believe that more than 18 layers is already an excess. Application dark colors made 5 times with paint and 4 times with varnish, light - 7 times with paint and 4 times with varnish. Pencils are sharpened automatically, and all pencils are marked at the factory. The packaging of sharpened pencils is done by hand; about 15,000 pencils can be packed in one full shift.

So, if the pencil was glued using a special SV technology, then be calm, it will not break.

About the technology of making pencils

A pencil (from the Turkic kara - black and tash-dash - stone), a rod made of coal, lead, graphite, dry paint (often framed in wood or metal), which is used for writing, drawing, sketching.

The first description of a pencil was made by Konrad Gesner of Zurich in 1565 in his Treatise on Fossils. It showed a detailed structure of a pencil, showing a wooden tube into which a piece of graphite was inserted.

Pencil prototypes - lead and silver pins inserted into metal clips (giving a dark gray tone) - were used in the 12-16 centuries. In the 14th century, artists drew mainly with sticks made of lead and tin, they were called "silver pencils". From the 16th century. graphite pencils (the stroke of which has a low intensity and a slight sheen) and pencils made of burnt bone powder, fastened with vegetable glue (gives a strong black matte stroke), spread.

In the 17th century, graphite was commonly sold on the streets. Buyers, mostly artists, clamped these graphite sticks between pieces of wood or twigs, wrapped them in paper or tied them with twine. In England, the rod was a stick made of soft graphite, suitable for drawing, but not for writing. In Germany, graphite powder was mixed with glue and sulfur, thus obtaining a rod of not the most High Quality. In 1790, wooden pencils were invented by the French scientist N. Conte. At the same time, the Czech I. Hartmut suggested making writing rods from a mixture of crushed graphite and clay. In principle, this method underlies modern technology production of pencils.

Modern production: At first glance, a pencil seems to be a simple object, consisting of a stylus and a wooden shell. But in order to make one pencil, more than 80 production operations are carried out within 11 days. In addition, the range of products manufactured by the factory uses more than 70 types of raw materials and materials. These are mainly natural food substances and products.

Pencil Shells The wood used to make pencil shells must have a number of specific properties:

To be light, soft and durable, not to break or crumble in the process of making pencils.

Have the same resistance to cutting fibers both along and across, should not delaminate.

The cut when cutting with a sharp knife should be smooth, shiny, the chips should curl, not chip or break.

Wood should be low hygroscopic, i.e. must not absorb moisture. All these qualities correspond to the virgin juniper, which grows in the USA.

None of the tree species growing in Russia fully meets all these requirements. The wood of cedar and linden is the closest in its properties and structure, but for use in pencil production, it must first be subjected to a special treatment - waxing (i.e., refining).

The boards are sawn into bars, the bars are cut along the length to the length of a pencil with allowances for machining and shrinkage, and then the bars are sawn into planks on a multi-saw machine. After that, the boards are impregnated with paraffin in special autoclaves. This procedure allows you to improve the mechanical and chinochny properties of the future pencil. All resins are removed from the boards for a couple, and the legnin of wood, when interacting with steam, changes its color to pinkish-brownish. Then the boards are thoroughly dried. For drying, they are folded into special "wells" using a machine tool. A special way of laying the boards for drying allows you to increase the area of ​​the board in contact with the drying agent - hot steam, and therefore dry them as thoroughly as possible. The wells are placed in drying rooms for 72 hours. After drying, they are sorted - cracked boards are rejected, boards sawn on the wrong fiber, etc. “Refined” with paraffin and dried boards are sorted and calibrated - “grooves” (grooves) for the rods are applied to them. The graphite rod is made from a mixture of clay and graphite. Clay is pre-cleaned. To do this, it is crushed in special crushers, then mixed with warm water in special mills. Clay diluted in water during processing is poured with liquid glass, which, settling, removes all impurities from it - pebbles, twigs, sand, etc. And then, according to the recipe, graphite is added to the clay, and each gradation has its own recipe. The mixture is mixed with a binder - aparatin, cooked from starch.

For the manufacture of rods, a rod mass of a certain temperature and humidity is required. In no case should the mixture be allowed to dry out, otherwise it will be like a stone and lead to equipment wear - there will not be enough press pressure. The kneaded clay and graphite dough is pressed with a screw press for molding through special equipment - rollers with three different gaps. This is done for grinding and grinding the mass, averaging the humidity by volume and removing air bubbles. The thickness of the dough layer is first 1mm, when re-processed 0.5mm, then 0.25mm. Then the dough is passed through a die with holes, forming the so-called "noodles". The “noodles” are formed into cylinders, and from them a rod of the required diameter and length is pressed through a diamond die on a press. The rods are finally dried in special drying cabinets in very nice barrels - continuously rotating for 16 hours. After this process, the moisture content of the rod is approximately 0.5%. Then the rods are calcined in a furnace in special crucibles. Instead of a lid, crucibles with rods are filled with the same “raw material”. The filling density of crucibles affects the quality of the rods. Firing is necessary in order to burn out the binder in the rod and sinter the clay to form the framework.

The degree of hardness (gradation) of a pencil from 6m to 7t depends on the ratio of clay, the temperature and duration of firing, and the composition of the fatliquoring bath. Depending on the gradation of the rod, firing is carried out at a temperature of 800 to 1200 degrees. After firing, a fatliquoring operation is carried out: the pores formed after the binder is burned out are filled with fat, wax or stearin under pressure at a certain temperature. Some factories use edible and confectionery fats as raw materials, binders. (for example, aparatin is made from starch). The choice of substance for fatliquoring depends on the gradation (hardness) of the rod. For soft pencils, confectionery fat is used, for hard pencils, wax is used. Intermediate values ​​of hardness, for example, TM are achieved by greasing with stearin. Rods of large diameters are made on vertical masonry presses.

Colored pencil leads are made from a mixture of pigments, fillers, greases and a binder. "Assembly" The rods are placed in the grooves of the prepared plank and covered with the second plank. The boards are glued together with PVA glue, but the rod itself is not glued to the board, but is held due to the tightness of the board. The diameter of the rod is slightly larger than the diameter of the groove, so it is very important to properly compress the boards in a special mechanism (clamp), where future pencils are glued together. Each pencil size has its own pressure rating for pressing in, so as not to break the core. Next, the ends of the glued boards are processed - they are trimmed, the remaining glue is removed.

On the milling line, the blocks are divided into pencils. The shape of the future pencil depends on the shape of the knives - it will turn out round, faceted or oval. And the "newborn" pencils are sent on a conveyor belt for sorting. The sorter checks (“rolls”) all pencils, looking for and eliminating marriage. Then the pencils should be "dressed" - go for painting. Painting The surface finishing of the pencils is carried out by extrusion (broaching), and the end finishing is done by dipping. Extrusion is the process of passing a pencil through a primer. At the end of the conveyor, the pencil is turned over so that the application of the next layer of paint or varnish occurs from the other end. This results in an even coverage. Dark colors are applied 5 times with paint and 4 times with varnish, light colors - 7 times with paint and 4 times with varnish. And for finishing the butt, a dipping machine is used. With smooth rotational movements, the dipper lowers the frame with pencils into the paint tank. Marking of pencils is carried out by shock hot stamping. Pencil sharpening is automatic. All pencils are marked. Sharpened pencils are packed manually, unsharpened - manually and automatically: on automatic and semi-automatic machines. On a semi-automatic machine for one full shift, you can pack 15 thousand pencils, on an automatic machine - 180 thousand. The machines are capable of stacking both 6 and 12 pencils in boxes.

Quality control Incoming control of all raw materials and materials and technological control of the production process and finished products is carried out by the laboratory. Chemists check everything thoroughly! They also make soil formulations. By the way, the products of one well-known factory are even tested for contact with the mouth, like baby pacifiers! In the 2nd half of the 19th century. appeared, and in the 20th century. mechanical or automatic pencils are widely used. According to their writing properties and production technology, pencils are divided into graphite (black), color, copying, etc., according to their purpose - into school, stationery, drawing, drawing, carpentry, dressing rooms, pencils for retouching, marking and marking on various materials. Special types of pencils are sanguine and pastel. Graphite drawing pencils of several degrees of hardness are produced in Russia; the degree of hardness is indicated by the letters M (soft), T (hard) and MT (medium hard), as well as numbers in front of the letters. A large number means a greater degree of hardness or softness. Abroad, instead of the letter M, they use the letter B, and instead of T - N. Automatic pencils are divided by design into: screw - with the supply of the writing rod by rotating one of the parts; collet - with a clip of the writing rod with a split sleeve-collet and the supply of the rod by pressing a button; multi-colored - with two, four or more rods pulled out one by one from the magazine.