John Pecum described a method for coating glass with a thin layer of tin.
The production of the mirror looked like this. The master poured molten tin into the vessel through a tube, which spread evenly over the surface of the glass, and when the ball cooled, it was broken into pieces. The first mirror was imperfect: concave fragments slightly distorted the image, but it became bright and clear.
Application
Application in everyday life
The first mirrors were created in order to monitor one's own appearance [ ] .
Currently, mirrors, especially large ones, are widely used in interior design to create the illusion of space, large volume in small rooms. Such a tradition arose in the Middle Ages, as soon as the technical possibility of creating large mirrors appeared in France, not as ruinously expensive as the Venetian ones. Since that time, not a single wardrobe is complete without mirrors [ ] .
Mirrors as reflectors
Application in scientific instruments
As an optical instrument, flat, concave and convex spherical, parabolic, hyperbolic and elliptical mirrors are used.
Mirrors are widely used in optical instruments - spectrophotometers, spectrometers in other optical instruments:
- SLR Cameras
- Lenses, for example, a mirror-lens telephoto lens of the Maksutov system (MTO).
- Periscope and mirror pseudoscope
Safety devices, car and traffic mirrors
In cases where a person's view is limited for some reason, mirrors are especially useful. So, in every car, on road bikes there is one or more mirrors, sometimes slightly convex - to expand the field of vision.
On the roads and in tight parking lots, stationary convex mirrors help avoid collisions and accidents.
In video surveillance systems, mirrors provide a view in more directions from a single video camera.
Translucent mirrors
Translucent mirrors are sometimes referred to as "mirror glasses" or "one-way glasses". Such glasses are used for covert observation of people (in order to control behavior or espionage), while the spy is in a dark room, and the object of observation is in a lighted one. The principle of operation of mirror glass is that a dim spy is not visible against a bright reflection.
Application in the military
In medieval texts, a mirror is an image, a symbol of another world. The mirror is a symbol of eternity, since it contains everything that has passed, what is now, everything that is to come.
The literary device "through the looking glass" is widely used by the authors of books. The most famous was Lewis Carroll's dilogy - Alice in Wonderland and Alice in Through the Looking Glass. A similar technique was used by Gaston Leroux: in the book The Phantom of the Opera, Christina enters the underground dwelling of the Phantom through a mirror. Through the mirror in Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors Olya gets in - the heroine of the fairy tale of the same name by Vitaly Gubarev and staged on it
For the first time, people saw their reflection in the water surface - the surface of the lake, the puddles left after the rain were a kind of mirrors. Our ancestors did not immediately realize that the image they see is what they are. Despite the fact that the mirror, it would seem, is a common object made today from glass with a reflective coating applied to it, many mystical stories and legends are associated with it. So where did this attribute first appear and what did it look like?
How mirrors appeared in ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome
In ancient Egypt, mirrors appeared in the third century BC. They hardly resembled a modern accessory and were a polished surface, for example, black marble. Later came bronze, silver and gold. Their shape remained round. This item was surrounded by a magical halo. He was identified with the sun and moon.
In ancient Greece, the appearance of mirrors is usually attributed to about the fifth century BC, since there are no earlier references to them. The reverse side was decorated with engraving with various images. Among the Greeks, it served as a divine attribute.
In ancient Rome, the very first reflective surface was polished bronze. Similar products were decorated with various patterns and precious stones. The Romans were the first to change their round shape. As a result, pocket accessories and large full-length accessories appeared, which began to be mounted on the wall. Also appeared desktop products with a stand.
How did glass mirrors come about?
The glass mirror appeared in Holland in the first century AD. Glass plates were connected with a lead or tin gasket. This method of manufacture made it possible to see one's reflection more clearly, but there were still slight distortions.
REFERENCE! A little later, they began to use a different method of manufacturing. It consisted in the fact that hot tin was poured into a glass container, and after cooling it was split into pieces.
Improving the method of making mirrors in Venice
Three hundred years later, craftsmen from Venice immediately began to attach tin to a flat surface of glass. Soon Venice became the main manufacturer of such mirrors. Local craftsmen created a reflective mixture with the addition of gold and bronze, which made the reflection devoid of flaws. It was more beautiful than a person in reality.
Later, the glass there began to be coated with silver sputtering, which made it possible to achieve a clear and distinct reflection. Entire mirror cabinets appeared in the palaces of rich people. They served as a sign of wealth and were expensive.
When did mirrors appear in Rus'
In Rus', the mirror was not recognized for a very long time and was afraid. It was considered an "overseas sin", it was forbidden to hang it in the house until the end of the 17th century. The attribute was used for divination, various conspiracies. Many superstitions were associated with him.
Only after Peter I came to power in Rus', the mirror craft was born. Products were produced in very large sizes. Later they began to decorate with a patterned border, they finished the walls. Basically, this accessory served as a decoration for the home.
During the Rococo period, entire mirrored rooms and galleries were built. In the era of classicism, grand staircases and huge halls were decorated with accessories. In the 20th century, this item ceased to be an attribute of luxury and decoration and became an ordinary household item.
Mysticism and mirrors
Since ancient times, the mirror was considered a mystical object with magical properties. Until now, many superstitions are associated with it. It is believed that if you break it, then misfortune will soon happen. It is also used in various divination in order to see the future and change fate. The mirror surface is a portal to the other world, so they are hung when a person dies. It is believed that the soul of the deceased can linger in it.
REFERENCE! Mirrors perfectly preserve the energy of the person looking into it. They can be emitters of both positive and negative energy. Therefore, you should not see your reflection in a bad mood. And vice versa, smiling at your reflection, you can be positively charged for the whole day.
You should choose a place for the location of this element of the interior, knowing a few rules:
- you can not hang it opposite the bed and the front door;
- it should not reflect ugly objects in the house (garbage, toilet bowl, dirty laundry, etc.);
- reflection of beautiful objects promises an increase in cash flow;
- the accessory can be hung in the kitchen in such a way that it reflects the dining table with food (it is believed that food will attract abundance to the house).
Mirror today
Today, the mirror has a variety of options in shape, size and color. It is used in almost all areas of life. It serves as an integral part in creating the overall interior of the room. Designers use it to visually increase space, adjust and enhance perception.
In medicine, concave mirrors are used. They are used by otolaryngologists, dentists, ophthalmologists. They are used in medical instruments and devices.
The military uses various devices with complex optical schemes, in which the mirror surface is the main element. Using reflective properties, they collect solar energy, thanks to which you can cook food, warm water and even increase crops.
In the 21st century, mirrors are made in huge factories using technology. They have three layers:
- Silver plated glass.
- Copper layer (protects against moisture and mechanical stress).
- polymer coating.
The history of mirrors is undoubtedly interesting. Everyone needs to take it into account and be guided by some aspects in everyday life. In addition, it is important to understand the value of the aesthetic perception of one's own reflection.
in which country and when did the first mirror appear?
The first glass mirrors were created by the Romans in the 1st century AD. http://www.domstr.ru/Products/dirid_6/te...It is clear that the very first mirror was an ordinary ... puddle. But here's the trouble - you can't take it with you and you can't hang it on the wall at home.
There were polished pieces of obsidian, which in ancient times were in use in China and Central America, and polished bronze discs, which found distribution in the Mediterranean.
A completely new type of mirror - concave - appeared only in 1240, when they learned how to blow glass vessels. The master blew a large ball, then poured molten tin into the tube (there was no other way to combine metal with glass), and when the tin spread evenly over the inner surface and cooled down, the ball was broken into pieces. And, please: you can look as much as you like, only the reflection was, to put it mildly, a little distorted.
Finally, around 1500, in France, they came up with the idea of "wetting" flat glass with mercury and thus sticking thin tin foil on its surface. However, flat glass in those days was incredibly expensive, and they were only able to make it well in Venice. Venetian merchants, without thinking twice, negotiated a patent from the Flemings and for a century and a half held a monopoly on the production of excellent "Venetian" mirrors (which should be called Flemish). Their price can be represented by the following example: a mirror measuring 1.2 meters by 80 centimeters cost ... two and a half times more than Raphael's canvas!
For a long time, a mirror has been considered a magical object, full of secrets and magic (and even evil spirits). It faithfully served and still serves the pagan cults of many peoples who see in it the cosmic power of the Sun.
Even the ancient Egyptians interpreted the cross, turning into a circle, as an erotic life key. And many centuries later, in the era of the European Renaissance, in this symbol they saw the image of a ladies' dressing mirror with a handle, in which the goddess of love Venus loved to look at herself so much.
The modern history of mirrors dates back to the 13th century, when their handicraft technology was mastered in Holland. It was followed by Flanders and the German the city of masters Nuremberg, where in 1373 the first mirror shop was founded.
In the 15th century, the island of Murano, located near Venice, became the center of glassmaking. in the sea lagoon. A specially created "Council of Ten" jealously guarded the secrets of glassmaking, encouraging the craftsmen in every possible way, at the same time isolating them from the outside world: the profits from the monopoly were too great to lose it. Glassmakers were relocated to the island of Murano under the pretext of protecting Venice from fires. At the beginning of the 16th century, the brothers Andrea Domenico from Murano cut a still hot cylinder of glass lengthwise and rolled it in half on a copper tabletop. The result was a sheet mirror canvas, distinguished by its brilliance, crystal transparency and purity. This is how the main event in the history of mirror production took place.
European monarchs tried by any means to ferret out the mirror secrets of Venice. This was succeeded in the 17th century by the minister of Louis XIV - Colbert. With gold and promises, he seduced three masters from Murano and took them to France.
The French turned out to be capable students and soon even surpassed their teachers. Mirror glass began to be obtained not by blowing, as was done in Murano, but by casting. The technology is as follows: molten glass is poured directly from the melting pot onto a flat surface and rolled out with a roller. The author of this method is called Luca De Nega.
The invention came in handy: the Gallery of Mirrors was being built in Versailles. It was 73 meters long and needed large mirrors. In Saint-Gabin, 306 of these mirrors were made in order to stun with their radiance those who were lucky enough to visit the king at Versailles. How then was it not possible to recognize the right of Louis XIV to be called the "Sun King"? Before the invention of the first mirror, people admired their reflection in the water. The ancient Greek myth of Narcissus tells of a handsome young man who spent days looking at his face in the smooth surface of the lake. However, already in those days, about 5 thousand years ago, the rich inhabitants of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome could purchase mirrors made of metal polished to a shine - steel or bronze. These accessories required constant care and cleaning. their surface was constantly oxidized and darkened, and the quality of the reflection was poor - it was quite difficult to distinguish details and colors.
In different countries in different eras, gold, copper, silver, tin, rock crystal were used to obtain a reflective surface. Only the wealthiest people could afford a mirror. A product similar to a modern mirror was invented in 1279 by the Franciscan John Peckam, who was the first to try to cover glass with a thin layer of lead: molten metal was poured into a glass flask, and after solidification, it was broken into smaller pieces. The mirrors obtained in this way were concave.
A little later, mirrors began to be produced in Venice. The masters slightly improved the John Peckam method and used tin foil, mercury and paper in the production. The Venetians strictly guarded their secret, in 1454 they even issued a decree forbidding mirror craftsmen to leave the country, and hired assassins were even sent for those who disobeyed. And although such a mirror was also cloudy and faded, for three centuries it remained a very rare and expensive commodity.
In the 17th century, the French king Louis XIV had a burning desire to build a magnificent Gallery of Mirrors in Versailles. The king's minister, Colbert, seduced three Venetian masters with money and promises and brought them to France. Here the technology was changed again: the French learned not to blow molten glass, but to roll it. Thanks to this method, large-sized mirrors could be made. The built Gallery of Mirrors delighted the people of that time: all objects were endlessly reflected, everything shimmered and sparkled. And by the 18th century, mirrors had become a familiar item for many Parisians - the prices for this accessory had fallen dramatically.
The French production method remained unchanged until 1835, when Professor Justus von Liebig of Germany discovered that a silver coating produced a cleaner image.
How did mirrors affect people's lives?
For many centuries, people have been afraid of mirrors, which were considered gates to the other world. In the Middle Ages, a woman could be accused of witchcraft if this item was among her things. Later, mirrors began to be actively used for divination, including in Rus'.With the advent of the opportunity to see their reflection, people began to pay more attention to their appearance and behavior. Thanks to the mirror, one of the directions in psychology, called reflection, was born, i.e. - "reflection".
In a modern interior, a mirror has not only reflective functions, it is used to enhance the feeling of space and light. Properly installed mirrors push the boundaries of the room, make it bright and cozy.
For a person, the main way of perceiving information about the world around us is visual. Ancient people looked at their reflection in the water. In the Stone Age, people carefully polished pieces of obsidian. Similar pieces were found during excavations in Turkey.With the development of civilization, mankind began to use metals as mirrors - silver, copper or gold. Discs polished to a shine on one side were made from these metals. On the reverse side, the discs were trimmed with various decorations. But metal ones had a big drawback - the image in them was muddy and blurry.
The invention of the real mirror
The first glass mirror was in France. The Franciscan John Pecamum described in 1279 a method of coating glass with a layer of tin. The production of mirrors was done according to the following technology - a thin layer of molten tin was poured into a glass vessel. When the vessel cooled, it was broken into pieces. Of course, the concave pieces gave a distorted image, but it was clear and. Handicraft production of mirrors first began in Holland in the 13th century. Then mirrors began to be made in Flanders and in the city of Nuremberg.Development of mirror production
In 1407, Venice bought a patent for the production of mirrors from the Flemings. For a century and a half, Venice had a monopoly in the production of mirrors. Venetian mirrors were of high quality and price. Venetian craftsmen added gold and bronze to the reflective compositions. The reflection in such mirrors was more beautiful than reality. Such mirrors were very expensive, for the same amount it was possible to purchase a small ship.A breakthrough in the production of mirrors occurred at the beginning of the 16th century. Craftsmen from Murano were able to cut a hot glass vessel and roll it out on a copper tabletop. In this way, a mirror sheet was obtained - shiny and clean. Mirror sheets did not distort the image.
Since mirrors were very expensive, the French decided to organize their own production.
In the 17th century, the French were able to bribe the craftsmen from Murano. The masters and their families were secretly taken to France. Having adopted the secrets of making mirrors, in 1665 the French opened the first mirror factory. After the opening of the manufactory, the price of a mirror sheet decreased and became affordable for the majority of the population.