And Ancient Rome word lira in a broad sense, any instrument of the lir family was designated - helis (ancient Greek. χέλυς , lat. chelys, chelis letters. turtle), barbit (other Greek. βάρβιτον, βάρβιτος , lat. barbitos, barbitus), forming (other Greek. φόρμιγξ ), or cithara (other Greek. κιθάρα , lat. cithara). In a narrow sense, helis was called a lyre - the simplest and lightest of the lyre, with a body made of tortoise shell covered with cowhide. Russian philologists-translators usually ignore the subtle differences in lyre-shaped and in all cases give "lyre".
The case (resonator) of a rounded or quadrangular shape (for the Greeks and Romans - only rounded) is connected to the crossbar (transverse bar) by two handles. Strings (made from sheep intestines) of the same length are stretched between the body and the crossbar.
The technique of playing on all ancient lyres is the same: the musician held the instrument at an angle of about 45 degrees to the body, playing standing (especially on the cithara) or sitting. The sound was extracted with a bone plectrum. Unnecessary strings were muted with the fingers of the free hand. There was no gender difference among lyre players, with the exception of the cithara, which was a male instrument. Learning to play the lyre was part of the basic education of a free citizen in Ancient Greece and ancient Rome.
The lyre was accompanied by verses sung solo and in chorus (more precisely, vocal ensemble); hence a whole genus of ancient poetry was called "lyrical", or lyric.
Functional descriptions varieties lyres in ancient literature are difficult to unify. Helis (apparently due to its light weight and simplicity of design) was considered an educational and home instrument. The larger barbit (especially in late antique texts) was described as a favorite instrument of lesbian poet-musicians - Terpander, Sappho and Alcaeus. Kifara is usually served as an instrument of professionals, participants in public competitions (speaking modern language, international competitions"stringers"). Forming, according to literary descriptions(Homer, Pindar, Bacchilid, Homeric hymns) and images in the archaic and classical, was an instrument functionally identical to the cithara; in later times, images and references to forminga in Greek literature almost completely disappear (for this reason, there is no corresponding term for forminga in the Latin musical treatises of the Middle Ages), apparently due to the development and wide distribution of cithara.
Other meanings of the term
The oldest stringed plucked instruments (2600-2400 BC, fragments) were found in Mesopotamia, in the Sumerian Ur. Archaeologists refer to them as either "Ur harps" or "Ur lyres".
A number of musical instruments containing the word "lyre" in their name are not related to lyre-shaped ones. Among them, the wheeled lyre, a common instrument in Ukraine and Belarus, varieties of the so-called "bowed" lyre - Pontic lyre, Cretan lyre, Byzantine lyre (English) Russian,
lyra) - an old stringed plucked instrument (chordophone).The case (resonator) of a rounded or quadrangular shape (for the Greeks and Romans - only rounded) is connected to the crossbar (transverse bar) by two handles. Strings (made from sheep intestines) of the same length are stretched between the body and the crossbar.
The technique of playing on all ancient lyres is the same: the musician held the instrument at an angle of about 45 degrees to the body, playing standing (especially on the cithara) or sitting. The sound was extracted with a bone plectrum. Unnecessary strings were muted with the fingers of the free hand. There was no gender difference among lyre players, with the exception of the cithara, which was a male instrument. Learning to play the lyre was part of the basic education of a free citizen in ancient Greece and ancient Rome.
The lyre was accompanied by verses sung solo and in chorus (more precisely, by a vocal ensemble); hence a whole genus of ancient poetry was called "lyrical", or lyric.
Functional descriptions varieties lyres in ancient literature are difficult to unify. Helis (apparently due to its light weight and simplicity of design) was considered an educational and home instrument. The larger barbit (especially in late antique texts) was described as a favorite instrument of lesbian poet-musicians - Terpander, Sappho and Alcaeus. Kifara is usually served as an instrument of professionals, participants in public competitions (in modern terms, international competitions of "stringers"). Forminga, judging by literary descriptions (Homer, Pindar, Bacchilids, Homeric hymns) and images in the archaic and classical, was an instrument functionally identical to the cithara; in later times, images and references to forminga in Greek literature almost completely disappear (for this reason, there is no corresponding term for forminga in the Latin musical treatises of the Middle Ages), apparently due to the development and wide distribution of cithara.
Looks like a violin case. This instrument is also known as the organistrum, or hardy gurdy. When played, the lyre must be held on the lap, and when played, most of the strings are played at the same time. Popular since the 10th century musical instrument is not used as often today. But thanks to the amazing sound, original design, the lyre is still remembered.
Sound Features
The sound of the hurdy-gurdy is provided by the work of most of the strings, when vibration occurs as a result of their friction against the wheel. It is noteworthy that most of the strings are responsible only for a monotonous buzz, and the reproduction of a melody is ensured by playing one or two. The hurdy gurdy sounds powerful, sad, monotonous, somewhat nasal. And to soften the sound, the strings have long been wrapped with linen or wool fibers. An important role is played by the exact centering of the wheel - it must be smooth and rosin.
Device
The three-stringed lyre has a deep wooden figure-eight body, two flat soundboards with bent shells. The upper part of the instrument is complemented by a head with wooden pegs, which allows you to tune the strings. The hurdy gurdy has a short peg box that often ends in a scroll. Since the wheel rim protrudes somewhat, it is hidden under a special bast protector in the form of an arc.
The top deck has holes, it also houses a key-sill mechanism with keys. They, in turn, are simple wooden planks with ledges. When a musician presses the keys, it is just the protrusions that come into contact with the strings, making sounds. The protrusions are attached in such a way that they can be displaced in different sides, thereby equalizing the sound range. The body of the instrument is thought out in such a way that the string sound is amplified. The amplification of the sound occurs due to the vibrations of the strings, which are caused by the movement of the wheel.
String Features
The hurdy-gurdy is an instrument with three stranded strings:
- melodic, which is called spivanitsa, or melody;
- two bourdon, which are called bass and pidbasok.
If the melodic string, by design, passes through the inside of the box, then the bourdon strings go over it. All strings are positioned so that they are in contact with the wheel rim. It is rubbed with resin before work, thanks to which the strings sound smooth and audible. The evenness of the sound is ensured smooth surface wheel and its precise centering. The melody is created or performed by pressing the keys located in the side cutouts of the box.
Historically, strings were constructed from strands, although metal or nylon strings are increasingly popular today. To get the desired timbre and sound quality, the musicians wrapped the strings with cotton wool or other fiber, and there should have been more on the bourdon ones. And if there is not enough cotton wool, then the sound will be either too dull or too harsh, especially in the upper range.
How to play?
The hurdy gurdy is a tool that is not easy to use. Lyra is placed on her knees, and a belt is thrown over her shoulders. The peg box should be located on the left side and slightly inclined, while the free keys should fall away from the string. Right hand the musician evenly and slowly rotates the wheel by the handle, pressing the keys with his left hand. In its sound, the lyre resembles a bagpipe or a whistle, since bourdons sound in all three instruments. As for sound quality, it depends primarily on the friction wheel, which is precisely centered and well lubricated. If the musician is playing while standing, the lyre is hung on a shoulder strap with a slight slope to distribute the weight of the instrument.
How did the lyre appear?
The wheeled lyre is a musical instrument that has been known since the 10th century. Most often it was used in monasteries for the performance of church music. By the 15th century, the instrument had not become so popular, but continued to be used by vagabonds, the blind, the crippled, who walked the streets and sang songs, fairy tales to the unpretentious sound of the lyre.
In Russia, this musical instrument was known around the 17th century, and experts answer that it appeared in our country from Ukraine. It was here that even whole schools of lyre players existed, who wandered from village to village, performed music and earned money. The lyre was also used at weddings, as it sounded loud, and the most cheerful repertoire could be chosen for it. The peculiarity of the hurdy-gurdy is that it was produced in different lengths. In some variations, even two people had to play music on it, since the instrument had a length of up to one and a half meters.
Brotherhood of Lyre Players
In Ukraine, whole classes of 30 people were taught to play the hurdy-gurdy. The elders got into practice, which involved visiting neighboring villages during bazaars and weddings, when the money earned was given to the mentor as tuition fees. After graduation, the musicians took exams.
AT Soviet years the hurdy gurdy underwent several changes. The photo shows that even outwardly the instrument has changed somewhat. Thanks to the improvement of the design, it became more original, the strings became 9, and they were tuned in minor thirds. Instead of a wooden wheel, a plastic transmission band was used, thanks to which the sound was more even. A special device changed the degree of pressure on the string, so the strength of the sound of the instrument was different. It should be noted that improved samples of the lyre are still used in folk art orchestras.
What today?
In Russia today, the hurdy-gurdy is rarely used. The musical instrument (the photo shows all its colorfulness) remained in the composition of the State Orchestra and the National Choir of Belarus. It is noteworthy that hardy-hardy was also used among rockers: the bands Led Zeppelin, In Extremo chose the instrument due to its unusual sound. Today, the instrument has been almost forgotten, but some orchestras, for their unusual sound, leave hardy gurdy as a highlight of their work.
Turkey is a state in the west of Asia and partly in the extreme southeast of Europe. The Asian part of Turkey is called Anatolia, the European part is called Eastern Thrace. The area is 767.1 thousand square meters. km. The population is 76,256 thousand people. Capital Ankara. Since October 1923 - a republic. Tourism is the main source of income for the country. Due to this, dollars and euros are in circulation.
The Turkish Lira is the official currency of Turkey. It also serves as the official currency of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, recognized exclusively by Turkey. Historically, the name "lira" comes from Latin word Libra, translated as "scales", and later used to denote a measure of the weight of silver in the calculations of merchants - the so-called troy pound.
1 lira is equal to 100 kurush. Denominations of current banknotes: 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5 lire. Coins: 1 lira, 50, 25, 10, 5, 2 and 1 kurush. The Turkish Lira code according to ISO is 4217, the official abbreviation is TRY, but in everyday life the previous abbreviation is often used - YTL (from the abbreviation Yeni Turk Liras, which translates as "New Turkish Lira").
The Central Bank of Turkey has the right to issue. Turkey currently has a floating exchange rate regime. The criterion for the effectiveness of the exchange rate policy (the exchange rate anchor) is inflation indicators. The Turkish lira has an unstable exchange rate in relation to other currencies of the world.
In March 2012, the Turkish lira received a graphic symbol, which passed a rigorous selection among 8,000 submitted for open competition options. As conceived by the authors, the symbol of the national Turkish currency will help increase recognition and strengthen the lira. It represents an anchor-like double-crossed letter, which is a cross between t and l.
Turkish money is a means of payment, and also perform many other functions.
HISTORY OF THE TURKISH LIRA
The history of Turkish money circulation dates back to the times of the Ottoman Empire, which lasted from 1299 until the end of the 19th century. Precious metals were widely used as money. Ancient coins were issued by sultans and bore their names, but not portraits - in accordance with Islamic tradition.
In 1327, Akche ("whitish") was minted by Orkhan. This small silver coin circulated in the territory Ottoman Empire and adjacent states in the 14th - 19th centuries.
The first gold coin (zekhin) in the Ottoman Empire was the sultani or altun. It began to be minted under Suleiman I the Magnificent in 1454 after the conquest of Constantinople.
Starting from 1623 until 1930, a silver Turkish coin was also in circulation - a pair. Then it was used exclusively as a counting unit, 1/40 kurush. Kurush (kurush) is a small Turkish coin used in the Ottoman Empire since 1688.
The Turkish lira first became the official currency of the Ottoman Empire in 1844. It replaced the previous currency - the kuru, which was not withdrawn from circulation, but was used to exchange lira. At that time, 1 lira was worth 100 kuru.
In 1844-1881, the Turkish lira was created on the basis of bimetallism (metallic monetary systems built on a fixed ratio of the value of silver to gold). One lira was worth 6.61519 grams of pure gold or 99.8292 grams of pure silver. In 1881, a standard based on gold was adopted, and during the First World War, the lira "broke its relations" with the value of precious metals.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, 9 series of banknotes have been issued in Turkey. At the end of the 20th century, during the action of the 7th series, the Turkish lira was considered an unstable currency, its exchange rate changed almost every day, and banknote denominations reached 20,000,000 liras.
At the end of December 2003, the National Assembly of the country passed a law, according to which 6 zeros of the currency are eliminated and a new type of Turkish lira is formed. On January 1, 2005, the "new Turkish lira" series 8 was put into circulation, replacing the previous lira at a rate of 1 new lira = 1,000,000 old lira.
The next, Series 9, was issued on January 1, 2009, and Series 8 banknotes ceased to be valid after December 31, 2009 (although they can be freely exchanged at the Central Bank until December 31, 2019). Series 9 banknotes have the inscriptions "Turkish lira" without the word "new", as in 8.
TURKISH LIRA BANKNOTES
In monetary circulation there are denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 liras. On the front side of all Turkish banknotes there is a portrait of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and first president of Turkey, under whose leadership the power of the Sultan was abolished and a republic was proclaimed.
5 Turkish Lira. Size 64x130 mm. Brown colour.
On the reverse side depicts a portrait of the outstanding Turkish historian Aydin Sayyli (Ayd n SAYILI), fragment solar system, atom structure and DNA chain fragment.
10 Turkish Lira. Size 64x136 mm. The color is red.
On the front side is a portrait of Ataturk.
On the reverse side is a portrait of the mathematician Cahit Arf and the formula he derived for the quadratic Arf invariant.
20 Turkish Lira. Size 68x142 mm. Green color.
On the front side is a portrait of Ataturk.
The reverse side depicts a portrait of the outstanding Turkish architect Mimar Kemaleddin, the building of Gazi University, an aqueduct, geometric figures: cube, sphere, cylinder.
50 Turkish Lira. Size 68x148 mm. Orange color.
On the front side is a portrait of Ataturk.
On the reverse side is a portrait of the Turkish writer Fatma Aliye Topuz (Fatma Aliye Han m), a stack of papers, an inkwell with a pen, books.
First woman featured on a Turkish banknote.
100 Turkish Lira. Size 72x154 mm. The color is blue.
On the front side is a portrait of Ataturk.
The reverse side depicts a portrait of the Turkish musician Buhurizade Itri, a seated figure of Rumi, musical instruments, musical notes.
200 Turkish Lira. Size 72x160 mm. The color is lilac.
On the front side is a portrait of Ataturk.
On the reverse side are depicted: a portrait of the Turkish poet Yunus Emre (Yunus Emre), who died in 1321, his mausoleum, flying doves, roses.
The larger the bill, the earlier the historical figure depicted on it lived. 200 lira is the largest banknote in Turkey.
In addition to the Turkish lira, US dollars, euros and pounds sterling are used in the country, which are accepted for payment in shops, restaurants and hotels in large cities and resorts. However, in the provinces it is difficult to pay with foreign currency.
The Turkish lira is protected from counterfeiting in many ways. Each banknote has a watermark, a holographic strip that changes color. In the right corner of the banknote, the number of the denomination is engraved, which can be felt by touch, which allows recognition of the denomination by touch. Turkish banknotes use multi-stage security systems. This makes them one of the most technologically advanced banknotes in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Due to the rapid wear of the Turkish lira, the question arose of introducing plastic banknotes into circulation. In terms of wear and tear, plastic banknotes are five times more efficient than paper ones, which significantly extends their service life. To date, many countries have successfully used plastic money in circulation. They cost 50% more than their predecessors, but in terms of wear duration they are five times more durable than paper ones. The advantages of plastic banknotes over paper ones are obvious, they do not get wet, do not wear off, and, most importantly, they cannot be counterfeited.
COINS
The new coins were issued in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 kurush and 1 lira. On the obverse of the Turkish coins, the portrait of Ataturk is printed, on the reverse - the denomination, the ornament and the year of minting. The only exception is a coin worth 50 kurush: on it is a suspension bridge, a landmark of Istanbul.
1 Turkish lira. Bimetal: ring - brass (Cu 79%, Ni 4%, Zn 17%), insert - copper-nickel-zinc alloy (Cu 65%, Ni 18%, Zn 17%). Diameter 26.15 mm, thickness 1.90 mm, weight 8.20 grams. Corrugated edge. The coin was put into circulation on 01.01.2009.
Obverse: in the center, in a circle, to the left, the head of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) (1881 - 1938), Ottoman and Turkish politician, statesman and military leader, founder and first leader of the Republican People's Party of Turkey; the first President of the Republic of Turkey from October 29, 1923 to November 10, 1938 Under the portrait there is a dot, along the edge of the coin there is a circular inscription: TURKIYE CUMHURIYETI.
Reverse: in the center - denomination in two lines against the background of an ornament: 1 TURK LIRASI. At the top of the coin is a crescent with a star, at the bottom is the year of issue.
50 chickens. Bimetal: ring - copper-nickel-zinc alloy (Cu 65%, Ni 18%, Zn 17%), insert - brass (Cu 79%, Ni 4%, Zn 17%). Diameter 23.85 mm, thickness 1.90 mm, weight 6.80 grams. Corrugated edge. The coin was put into circulation on 01.01.2009.
Obverse: in the center, in a circle, to the left is the head of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk). Under the portrait there is a dot, along the edge of the coin there is a circular inscription: TURKIYE CUMHURIYETI.
Reverse: in the center – denomination in two lines: 50 KURUS. against the background of the "Ataturk bridge", connecting the European and Asian parts of Turkey, which are symbolically depicted at the bottom of the coin. At the top of the coin is a crescent with a star, at the bottom is the year of issue.
25 chickens. Diameter 20.5 mm, thickness 1.65 mm, weight 4 grams, composition: 65% copper, 18% nickel and 17% zinc, ribbed edge. The coin was put into circulation on January 01, 2009.
10 chickens. Diameter 18.5 mm, thickness 1.65 mm, weight 3.15 grams, composition 65% copper, 18% nickel and 17% zinc, smooth edge. The coin was put into circulation on January 01, 2009.
Obverse: Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
Reverse: face value, pattern, year of minting.
5 chickens. Diameter 17.5 mm, thickness 1.65 mm, weight 2.9 grams, composition: 65% copper, 18% nickel and 17% zinc, smooth edge. The coin was put into circulation on January 01, 2009.
Obverse: Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
Reverse: face value, pattern, year of minting.
1 chicken Diameter 16.5 mm, thickness 1.35 mm, weight 2.2 grams, composition: 70% copper and 30% zinc, smooth edge. The coin was put into circulation on January 01, 2009.
Obverse: Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
Reverse: face value, pattern, year of minting.
Note to tourists
In tourist places, both dollars and euros are accepted for payment, but it is better to have Turkish lira with you. You can exchange currency at banks, exchange offices, hotels, and post offices. In banks, the exchange rate is not the most profitable, but only they give confirmation of the exchange, on the basis of which you can exchange unused Turkish liras. In exchange offices, it is often more attractive, although there is a chance of encountering unpleasant surprises. The most attractive rate is usually observed in post offices (yellow sign with the inscription "PTT").
In no case should you believe the hotel and transfer guides who say that they have the most favorable rate and that in other places you will certainly be deceived. It is strongly not recommended to change money from your hands! Moreover, the rate on the "black market" is not very different.
It is best to carry money partly in cash and partly on a card. Cash may be required for passport control. In Turkey, no one has repealed the law requiring those entering the country to have on hand a justification for arrival (tourist voucher, tour package, invitation to an event) and cash at the rate of $50 per day. They are asked to present them very rarely, but no one is immune from this. A plastic card in this case will not be an argument, even if it has a very large amount.
It is better not to take VISA Electron, Maestro and American Express cards, as some ATMs simply do not take them seriously and often delay them. Classic VISA and Master Card are accepted absolutely everywhere and serviced by all ATMs. Better take a ruble card.
In Turkey, small denominations are considered running. If you pay with a 200 lire bill at dinner, you will have to wait until the evening for your change. Therefore, try to exchange money with a change, that is, in such a way as to have as many small banknotes as possible in denominations of 5, 10 and 20 Turkish liras. The concept of change from 1 dollar or euro does not exist.
In the shops of merchants in numerous bazaars, there is sometimes no difference in currency at all. That is, the goods cost conditionally 50 ... and it does not matter what: lira, dollars or euros. Therefore, having Turkish lira in your pocket is not only convenient, but also profitable. In the markets, one should bargain for every lira. If a compromise on price is not reached, you can safely leave, but always with a smile.
Many goods are cheaper in Turkey than in Russia. For example, jewelry, wardrobe items, accessories, household appliances. It is not surprising, because many of these goods are brought to Russian cities from Turkey. Transportation costs and price markup by resellers lead to an increase in their cost. Therefore, shopping in Turkey is considered not only exciting, but also profitable.
It is difficult to imagine the music of ancient Greece and Rome without the lyre, because it was in these cultures that it played the most important role. However, this tool was known to mankind long before the appearance of the civilizations mentioned above. The images that have survived to this day testify to the close connection between the lyre and poetry.
During the excavations of the Sumerian city of Ur, richly decorated lyres were found, created around the 3rd millennium BC. In Assyria, the first lyres were known as sabitu. Given their size, historians suggest that these instruments were placed on the floor during the game, which is why they received the name "Sumerian standing lyres". These models had eight to twelve strings strung between the bottom left of the resonator and the crossbar to which they were attached. Most often, the resonator of the Sumerian lyres was shaped like a bull's head, a symbol of fertility. Usually the ancient lyre was played with two hands.
Over time, the earlier models were replaced by more convenient portable lyres. Hand lyre, or Algar, had an asymmetrical shape and on one side, which was higher than the second, towered over the head of the musician.
Around 1800 BC, the lyre appeared on the island of Crete, and then went to Greece, where it acquired the characteristic shape of a horseshoe. The lyre was mainly played by women: they held the instrument horizontally and played wooden strings along its strings.
Thanks to the illustrations of ancient books, musicologists managed to establish that in the Middle Ages the lyre occupied a significant place in musical life society. Most of them claim that the most common at that time was seven-stringed lyre.
Around the 11th century, the lyre, which was played with a plectrum, left the musical scene, but the model with a bow that arose on its basis survived for another four centuries. However, in the late Middle Ages, the instrument gradually disappeared from the world of music. The place of the lyre was taken by the so-called folk violin, which received great recognition throughout the continent.
However, the lyre still managed to survive in some regions where it can still be found today. For example, part of Welsh culture is considered mole- lyre model specific form which was widely used until the 19th century.
In Africa, the lyre is mainly used as a solo instrument. The five-stringed Ethiopian lira is known as the " kissar". In Kenya, they believe that the lira has healing properties, so the Kenyans use this tool as a ritual attribute.