2018 marks the 20th anniversary of one of the most significant international space projects, the largest artificial inhabited Earth satellite - the International Space Station (ISS). 20 years ago, on January 29, the Agreement on the creation of a space station was signed in Washington, and already on November 20, 1998, the construction of the station began - the Proton launch vehicle was successfully launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome with the first module - the functional cargo block (FGB) "Zarya ". In the same year, on December 7, the second element of the orbital station, the Unity connection module, was docked with FGB Zarya. Two years later, a new addition to the station was the Zvezda service module.

On November 2, 2000, the International Space Station (ISS) began its work in a manned mode. The Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft with the crew of the first long-term expedition docked with the Zvezda service module.The rendezvous of the ship with the station was carried out according to the scheme that was used during flights to the Mir station. Ninety minutes after docking, the hatch was opened and the ISS-1 crew stepped aboard the ISS for the first time.The ISS-1 crew included Russian cosmonauts Yuri GIDZENKO, Sergei KRIKALEV and American astronaut William SHEPERD.

Arriving at the ISS, the cosmonauts carried out re-mothballing, retrofitting, launching and tuning the systems of the Zvezda, Unity and Zarya modules and established communication with mission control centers in Korolev and Houston near Moscow. Within four months, 143 sessions of geophysical, biomedical and technical research and experiments were performed. In addition, the ISS-1 team provided dockings with cargo spacecraft Progress M1-4 (November 2000), Progress M-44 (February 2001) and American shuttles Endeavor (December 2000) , Atlantis ("Atlantis"; February 2001), Discovery ("Discovery"; March 2001) and their unloading. Also in February 2001, the expedition team integrated the Destiny laboratory module into the ISS.

On March 21, 2001, with the American space shuttle Discovery, which delivered the crew of the second expedition to the ISS, the crew of the first long-term mission returned to Earth. The landing site was the J.F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida, USA.

In subsequent years, the Quest lock chamber, the Pirs docking compartment, the Harmony connection module, the Columbus laboratory module, the Kibo cargo and research module, the Poisk small research module, Tranquility Residential Module, Dome Observation Module, Rassvet Small Research Module, Leonardo Multifunctional Module, BEAM Convertible Test Module.

Today, the ISS is the largest international project, a manned orbital station used as a multi-purpose space research complex. The space agencies ROSCOSMOS, NASA (USA), JAXA (Japan), CSA (Canada), ESA (European countries) are participating in this global project.

With the creation of the ISS, it became possible to perform scientific experiments in unique conditions of microgravity, in vacuum and under the influence of cosmic radiation. The main areas of research are physical and chemical processes and materials in space, Earth exploration and space exploration technologies, man in space, space biology and biotechnology. Considerable attention in the work of astronauts on the International Space Station is given to educational initiatives and the popularization of space research.

The ISS is a unique experience international cooperation, support and mutual assistance; construction and operation in near-Earth orbit of a large engineering structure of paramount importance for the future of all mankind.

MAIN MODULES OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION	CONDITIONS SYMBOL	START	DOCKING

There is such a thing as gravity. The International Space Station is located about 400-450 kilometers above the Earth's surface, where gravity is only 10 percent lower than what we experience on our planet. This is quite enough for the station to fall to Earth. So why doesn't she fall?

The ISS is actually going down. However, due to the fact that the speed of the fall of the station is almost equal to the speed with which it moves around the Earth, it falls in a circular orbit. In other words, due to centrifugal force, it does not fall down, but sideways, that is, around the Earth. The same thing happens with our natural satellite, the Moon. It also falls around the Earth. The centrifugal force that occurs when the Moon moves around the Earth compensates for the gravitational force between the Earth and the Moon.

The constant fall of the ISS actually explains why the crew on board is in zero gravity, despite the fact that gravity is present inside the station. Since the speed of the fall of the ISS is compensated by the speed of its rotation around the Earth, the astronauts, while inside the station, actually do not move anywhere. They just float. Nevertheless, the ISS from time to time still decreases, approaching the Earth. To compensate for this, the station's control center adjusts its orbit by briefly starting the engines and bringing it to its previous height.

On the ISS, the Sun rises every 90 minutes.

The International Space Station makes one complete revolution around the Earth every 90 minutes. Thanks to this, her crew observes the sunrise every 90 minutes. Every day, people on board the ISS see 16 sunrises and 16 sunsets. Astronauts who spend 342 days at the station manage to see 5472 sunrises and 5472 sunsets. During the same time, a person on Earth will see only 342 sunrises and 342 sunsets.

Interestingly, the station crew sees neither dawn nor dusk. However, they can clearly see the terminator - a line dividing those parts of the Earth where in this moment different times of the day. On Earth, people along this line at this time watch the dawn or dusk.

First Malaysian astronaut on ISS has trouble praying

The first Malaysian astronaut was Sheikh Muzafar Shukor. October 10, 2007 he went on a nine-day flight to the ISS. However, before his flight, he and his country faced an unusual problem. Shukor is a Muslim. This means that he needs to pray 5 times a day, as required by Islam. In addition, it turned out that the flight took place during the month of Ramadan, when Muslims must fast.

Remember when we talked about how astronauts on the ISS see sunrise and sunset every 90 minutes? This turned out to be a big problem for Shokur, since in this case it would be difficult for him to determine the time of prayer - in Islam it is determined by the position of the Sun in the sky. In addition, when praying, Muslims must turn towards the Kaaba in Mecca. On the ISS, the direction to the Kaaba and Mecca will change every second. Thus, during prayer, Shukor could be first in the direction of the Kaaba, and then parallel to it.

The Malaysian space agency Angkasa brought together 150 Islamic clerics and scientists to find a solution to this problem. As a result, the meeting came to the conclusion that Shokur should begin his prayer facing the Kaaba, and then ignore any changes. If he fails to determine the position of the Kaaba, then he can look in any direction, where, in his opinion, it may be. If this causes difficulties, then he can simply turn towards the Earth and do whatever he sees fit.

In addition, scientists and clerics agreed that there was no need for Shokur to kneel during prayer if it was difficult to do so in zero gravity on board the ISS. There is also no need to wash with water. He was allowed to simply dry his body with a wet towel. He was also allowed to reduce the number of prayers from five to three. They also decided that Shokur did not need to fast, since travelers are exempted from fasting in Islam.

Earth politics

As stated earlier, the International Space Station does not belong to any single nation. It belongs to the USA, Russia, Canada, Japan and a number of European countries. Each of these countries or groups of countries, if we are talking about the European Space Agency owns certain parts of the ISS along with the modules they sent there.

The ISS itself is divided into two main segments: American and Russian. The right to use the Russian segment belongs exclusively to Russia. Americans allow other countries to use their segment. Most of the countries involved in the development of the ISS, in particular the United States and Russia, have transferred their terrestrial policy to space.

The result of this was most troubling in 2014, after the US imposed sanctions on Russia and severed ties with several Russian businesses. One such enterprise was Roskosmos, the Russian equivalent of NASA. However, there was a big problem here.

Since NASA closed the space shuttle program, it has to rely entirely on Roscosmos for the delivery and return of their astronauts from the ISS. If Roscosmos withdraws from this agreement and refuses to use its rockets and spacecraft to deliver and return American astronauts from the ISS, NASA will be in a very difficult position. Immediately after NASA broke off relations with Roscosmos, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin tweeted that the US can now send its astronauts to the ISS using trampolines.

There is no laundry on the ISS

There is no washing machine on board the International Space Station. But, even if it were, the crew still does not have excess water that can be used for washing. One solution to the problem is to take enough clothes with you to last the entire flight. But this luxury is not always available.

It costs $5,000 to $10,000 to deliver a 450-gram cargo to the ISS, and no one wants to spend that much money shipping ordinary clothes. The crew returning to Earth also cannot take old clothes with them - there is not enough space in the spacecraft. Solution? Burn everything down.

It should be understood that the ISS crew does not need a daily change of clothes, as we do on Earth. Except for exercise (which we'll talk about below), astronauts on the ISS don't have to work as hard in microgravity. Body temperature on the ISS is also monitored. All of this allows people to wear the same clothes for up to four days before they decide to change.

Russia occasionally launches unmanned spacecraft to deliver new supplies to the ISS. These ships can only fly in one direction and cannot return to Earth (at least in one piece). As soon as they dock at the ISS, the station crew unloads the delivered supplies, and then fills the empty spacecraft with various debris, waste and dirty clothes. Then the device undocks and falls to Earth. The ship itself and everything on board burns in the sky over the Pacific Ocean.

The ISS crew is doing a lot

The crew of the International Space Station is constantly losing bone and muscle mass. Spending time in space for months, they lose about two percent of their mineral reserves in the bones of their limbs. It doesn't sound like much, but the number is growing fast. A typical mission to the ISS can take up to 6 months. As a result, some crew members may lose up to 1/4 of their bone mass in some parts of their skeleton.

Space agencies are trying to find a way to reduce these losses by forcing the crew to do two hours of daily exercise. Despite this, astronauts still lose muscle and bone mass. Since virtually every astronaut who is regularly sent to the ISS trains, the space agencies do not have control groups with which to determine the effectiveness of such training.

The simulators on the orbital station are also different from those we are used to using on Earth. The difference in gravity dictates the need to use only special simulators for physical exercises.

The use of the toilet depends on the nationality of the crew

In the early days of the International Space Station, astronauts and cosmonauts used and shared the same equipment, apparatus, food, and even toilets. Everything began to change around 2003, after Russia began demanding payment from other countries for their astronauts to use their equipment. In turn, other countries began to demand payment from Russia for the fact that its astronauts use their equipment.

The situation escalated in 2005, when Russia began to take money from NASA for the delivery of American astronauts to the ISS. The United States, in return, banned Russian astronauts from using American equipment, apparatus, and toilets.

Russia may close the ISS program

Russia does not have the ability to directly prohibit the US or any other country that participated in the creation of the ISS, the use of the station. However, it can block access to the station indirectly. As mentioned above, America needs Russia in order to deliver its astronauts to the ISS. In 2014, Dmitry Rogozin hinted that, starting in 2020, Russia plans to spend money and resources allocated to the space program on other projects. The United States, in turn, wants to continue sending its astronauts to the ISS until at least 2024.

If Russia reduces or even stops the use of the ISS by 2020, then this will be a serious problem for American astronauts, as they will be limited or even denied access to the ISS. Rogozin added that Russia would be able to fly to the ISS even without the United States, while the United States, in turn, does not have such a luxury.

NASA is actively working with commercial space companies to transport and return US astronauts from the ISS. At the same time, NASA can always use the trampolines that Rogozin mentioned earlier.

There are weapons on board the ISS

Usually there are one or two guns on board the International Space Station. They belong to the astronauts, but are stored in a "survival kit" that everyone on the station has access to. Each pistol has three barrels and is capable of firing flares, rifle rounds, and shotgun rounds. They are also equipped with folding elements that can be used as a shovel or knife.

It is not clear why astronauts keep such multifunctional pistols on board the ISS. Isn't it really to fight off aliens? However, it is known for certain that in 1965 some astronauts had to deal with aggressive wild bears who decided to taste people who returned from space to Earth. It is possible that the station has weapons just for such cases.

Chinese taikunauts denied access to the ISS

Chinese taikunauts are banned from visiting the International Space Station due to sanctions imposed on China by the United States. In 2011, the US Congress banned any cooperation on space programs between the US and China.

The ban was prompted by fears that the Chinese space program is behind the scenes for militaristic purposes. The United States, in turn, does not want to help the Chinese military and engineers in any way, so the ISS is banned for China.

According to Time, this is a very unreasonable solution to the issue. The US government needs to understand that a ban on China's use of the ISS, as well as a ban on any cooperation between the US and China on the development of space programs, will not stop the latter from developing its own space program. China has already sent its tycoonauts into space, as well as robots to the moon. In addition, the Celestial Empire plans to build a new space station, as well as send its rover to Mars.

international space station

International Space Station, abbr. (English) International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multi-purpose space research complex. ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants were Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment - from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The control of laboratory modules - the European "Columbus" and the Japanese "Kibo" - is controlled by the Control Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American orbital station. In 1988, the planned station was named "Freedom" ("Freedom"). At the time, it was a joint project between the US, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one to the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high, and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned the creation of the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties, the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States entered into an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program provided for the flights of the American reusable Space Shuttle to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of ​​combining national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In March 1993, RSA General Director Yury Koptev and General Designer of NPO Energia Yury Semyonov proposed to the head of NASA, Daniel Goldin, to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a "truly international space station." From that moment on, the official name of the station became the International Space Station, although the unofficial name, the Alpha space station, was also used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. Above, the Unity module, below, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, the RSA and NASA signed the Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station.

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington an "Interim Agreement on Conducting Work Leading to a Russian Partnership in the Permanent Manned Civil Space Station", under which Russia officially joined the work on the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were signed with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia named after. S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - station configuration approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, member countries of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, was launched by the Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the Endeavor shuttle docked the American Unity module (Unity, Node-1) to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - the Zvezda service module (SM) was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - the Soyuz TM-31 transport manned spacecraft (TPK) delivered the crew of the first main expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Zvezda and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - the crew of the shuttle Atlantis during the STS-98 mission attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - Head of NASA Michael Griffin, at a hearing of the Senate Committee on Space and Science, announced the need for a temporary reduction in scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned spacecraft (CEV). The new manned spacecraft was needed to provide independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of ISS long-term crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the supply of the station with the materials necessary for the life of the crew was carried out only by Russian Progress cargo ships.

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the Discovery shuttle. Until the end of the shuttle operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights the equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for upgrading part of the equipment, in particular, the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second shuttle flight after the Columbia disaster (Shuttle Discovery STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, the German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived at the ISS, who joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, in a long-term expedition to the ISS, after a three-year break, three cosmonauts again began to work.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the shuttle Atlantis delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, and also radiators for the US segment's thermal control system.

On October 23, 2007, the American Harmony module arrived aboard the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After re-docking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. The construction of the main US segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station was expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus Module, commissioned by the European Space Agency, was docked; PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, the payload is 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(the first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the ISS-20 long-term crew of six people began work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on the Soyuz TMA-14, then the Soyuz TMA-15 crew joined them. To a large extent, the increase in the crew was due to the fact that the possibility of delivering goods to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before the launch it was called Poisk. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking station. The capabilities of the module make it possible to carry out some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian Small Research Module Rassvet (MIM-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock "Rassvet" to the Russian functional cargo block "Zarya" was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle "Atlantis", and then by the manipulator of the ISS.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the International Space Station Multilateral Board confirmed that there are no known technical restrictions at this stage on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration has provided for the continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this until at least 2024, and possibly extending to 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin stated: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, the flights of reusable ships of the "Space Shuttle" type were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 launch vehicle was launched from Cape Canaveral, carrying the Dragon private spacecraft. This is the first ever test flight to the International Space Station by a private spaceship.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, for the first time, he rendezvoused with the ISS and docked the private automatic cargo spacecraft Signus.

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz and Progress.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) Nauka to the ISS. It will take the place of the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully take over the functions of Pirs.

"NEM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned for 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station device

The station is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding another module or block to the complex, which is connected to the one already delivered into orbit.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet; American - Unity, Destiny, Quest, Tranquility, Domes, Leonardo, Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

• "Dawn"- functional cargo module "Zarya", the first of the ISS modules delivered into orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar arrays. The life of the module is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $250 million, the Russian one is over $150 million;
• P.M. panel- anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- the Zvezda service module, which houses flight control systems, life support systems, an energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking nodes. All its systems and blocks are Russian, with the exception of the onboard computer system, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules "Poisk" and "Rassvet", designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. The Poisk is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and the Rassvet is docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides for the storage of scientific equipment, scientific experiments, temporary accommodation of the crew. Also provides the functionality of a European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian scientific laboratory MLM;
• hermetic adapter- hermetic docking adapter designed to connect the ISS modules to each other and to ensure shuttle docking;
• "Calm"- ISS module performing life support functions. It contains systems for water treatment, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the Unity module;
• Unity- the first of the three connecting modules of the ISS, which acts as a docking station and power switch for the Quest, Nod-3 modules, the Z1 truss and the transport ships docking to it through the Germoadapter-3;
• "Pier"- mooring port intended for docking of Russian "Progress" and "Soyuz"; installed on the Zvezda module;
• GSP- external storage platforms: three external non-pressurized platforms designed exclusively for the storage of goods and equipment;
• Farms- an integrated truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. It is also intended for non-hermetic storage of goods and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian system of remote manipulators, serving as the main tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "dexter"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized gateway module designed for spacewalks of cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out of nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking station and power switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docking to it through Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• "Columbus"- a European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed that provide communication between the computer equipment of the station. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
• "Destiny"- American laboratory module docked with the "Harmony" module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for conducting physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in hermetic and non-hermetic conditions. In addition, due to the special design, it allows for unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

Observation dome of the ISS.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for experiments, space observation and docking of spacecraft, as well as a control panel for the main remote manipulator of the station. Resting place for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the nodal Tranquility module;
• TSP- four non-pressurized platforms, fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. They provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- warehouse for cargo storage, docked to the nadir docking station of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Rafael and Donatello, periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules having a common name "Multi-Purpose Supply Module", were delivered in the cargo compartment of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. The converted Leonardo module has been part of the station's modules since March 2011 under the name "Permanent Multipurpose Module" (PMM).

Station power supply

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is the light from which the solar panels of the station convert into electricity.

The Russian Segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian segment through an ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the voltage converter RACU ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be provided with electricity using the Russian module of the Science and Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, they also refused to deliver and install the NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized in the following way: two flexible folding solar panels form the so-called solar wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW), a total of four pairs of such wings are placed on the truss structures of the station. Each wing is 35 m long and 11.6 m wide, and has a usable area of ​​298 m², while generating a total power of up to 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary DC voltage of 115 to 173 Volts, which is then, with the help of DDCU units (Eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized DC voltage of 124 volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar array on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and it spends about half of this time in the shadow of the Earth, where the solar panels do not work. Then its power supply comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen batteries, which are recharged when the ISS again enters the sunlight. The service life of the batteries is 6.5 years, it is expected that during the life of the station they will be replaced several times. The first battery replacement was carried out on the P6 segment during the spacewalk of astronauts during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, solar arrays in the US sector track the Sun to maximize power generation. Solar panels are directed to the Sun with the help of Alpha and Beta drives. The station has two Alpha drives, which turn several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of the truss structures at once: the first drive turns the sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own Beta drive, which ensures the rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) (“Night planning mode”), while they turn edge in the direction of travel to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the altitude of the station.

Means of communication

The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations, they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communication systems.

The Russian Segment of the ISS communicates directly with the Earth using the Lira radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the satellite data relay system "Luch". This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but in the 1990s it fell into disrepair and is currently not used. Luch-5A was launched in 2012 to restore the system's operability. In May 2014, 3 Luch multifunctional space relay systems - Luch-5A, Luch-5B and Luch-5V are operating in orbit. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Another Russian communications system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone connection between the Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk modules and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground control centers, using the external antennas of the Zvezda module for this.

In the US segment, for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), two separate systems are used, located on the Z1 truss. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to the American geostationary TDRSS satellites, which allows you to maintain almost continuous contact with the mission control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between the modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, cosmonauts use a VHF transmitter of the decimeter range. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and Ku-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from members of the ISS crew. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking. Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is via two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and turns off after the ATV docks to the ISS and switches to interaction via the MIL-STD-1553 onboard bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making accurate docking with the station possible.

The station is equipped with about a hundred ThinkPad laptops from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU/Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the conditions of the ISS, in particular, they have redesigned connectors, a cooling system, take into account the 28 Volt voltage used at the station, and also meet the safety requirements for working in zero gravity. Since January 2010, direct Internet access has been organized at the station for the American segment. Computers aboard the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi into a wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbps for download and 10 Mbps for download, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet bowl is equipped with fixators for legs and holders for hips, powerful air pumps are mounted in it. The astronaut is fastened with a special spring fastener to the toilet seat, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction hole, where the air flow carries all the waste.

On the ISS, the air from the toilets is necessarily filtered to remove bacteria and odor before it enters the living quarters.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are officially on the menu for the first time on the International Space Station. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will taste lettuce harvested from the Veggie orbital plantation. Many media publications reported that for the first time the astronauts tried their own grown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station that require unique conditions of space flight: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation not attenuated by the earth's atmosphere. The main areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Research is carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its hermetic volume.

ISS Science Modules

At present (January 2012), the station has three special scientific modules - the American Destiny laboratory, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo ". The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine, and fluid physics. The rest of the racks are universal, in which the equipment can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module "Kibo" consists of several parts, which were sequentially delivered and assembled in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental-transport compartment (Eng. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered the leaky Experimental Transport Compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two "Small Research Modules" (MRM) on the orbital station - "Poisk" and "Rassvet". It is also planned to deliver the Nauka multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) into orbit. Only the latter will have full-fledged scientific capabilities, the amount of scientific equipment placed on two MRMs is minimal.

Joint experiments

The international nature of the ISS project facilitates joint scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. Well-known examples of such cooperation are the Plasma Crystal experiment, dedicated to the physics of dusty plasma, and conducted by the Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics of the Max Planck Society, the Institute for High Temperatures and the Institute for Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, a medical and biological experiment " Matryoshka-R”, in which mannequins are used to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments by ESA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wesling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and in microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. In eleven major research areas, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After evaluation by RSC Energia specialists of the technical feasibility of these applications, in 1999 the Long-Term Program of Applied Research and Experiments Planned on the Russian Segment of the ISS was adopted. The program was approved by RAS President Yu. S. Osipov and Director General of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first research on the Russian segment of the ISS was started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the original ISS project, it was supposed to launch two large Russian research modules (RMs). The electricity needed for scientific experiments was to be provided by the Science and Energy Platform (SEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of building a single science module that did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research conducted by Russia on the ISS is contract or joint with foreign partners.

Various medical, biological and physical studies are currently being carried out on the ISS.

Research on the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus shown with fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research carried out during shuttle flights with Spacelab modules and in the joint Mir-Shuttle program with Russia. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population are carriers of a latent form of this virus. Under the conditions of space flight, the immune system is weakened, the virus can become more active and become a cause of illness for a crew member. Experiments to study the virus were launched on the shuttle flight STS-108.

European studies

Solar observatory installed on the Columbus module

The European Science Module Columbus has 10 Unified Payload Racks (ISPR), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment is installed in the racks: the Biolab laboratory for biological experiments, the Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, the European Physiology Modules for experiments in physiology, as well as the European Drawer Rack, which contains equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental facilities for the Columbus module were also installed: the remote platform for technological experiments EuTEF and the solar observatory SOLAR. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes the study of global warming processes on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals, which are designed to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new treatments. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, as well as experiments in robotics, communications and energy will be carried out.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata conducted a series of experiments on the ISS, which were selected from those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut tried to "swim" in zero gravity, using various styles, including front crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted at the same time that even large sheets of paper will not be able to correct the situation if they are picked up and used as flippers. In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back with an overhead kick. Having finished these exercises, which were difficult under weightless conditions, the Japanese astronaut tried to do push-ups from the floor and do rotations in place.

Security questions

space junk

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS moves in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain chance that the station or astronauts going into outer space will collide with the so-called space debris. This can include both large objects like rocket stages or out-of-service satellites, and small objects like slag from solid rocket engines, coolants from reactor plants of US-A series satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects like micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering space velocities in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in an astronaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the skin and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of space debris elements is carried out from the Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a warning. Astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system (eng. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. The included engines are able to put the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuations took place on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds humans on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. On the day, crew members receive a dose of radiation in the amount of about 1 millisievert, which is approximately equivalent to the exposure of a person on Earth for a year. This leads to an increased risk of developing malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakening of the immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite attempts to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared to previous studies, conducted, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During the inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, traces of vital activity of marine plankton were found on scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows. It also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to contamination from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• First The level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of the countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven states - members of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international structure based on sincere partnership for the comprehensive design, creation, development and long-term use of a habitable civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.. When writing this agreement, the "Outer Space Treaty" of 1967, ratified by 98 countries, was taken as a basis, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level called Memorandums of Understanding. Memorandum of Understanding - MOU s ). These memorandums are agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, CSA and JAXA. Memorandums are used to describe in more detail the roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the appointed manager of the ISS, there are no separate agreements between these organizations directly, only with NASA.
• To third level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, a 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, the terms of which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut as part of the Soyuz spacecraft crews and part of the useful volume for American cargo on unmanned " Progress".
• Fourth the legal level complements the second (“Memorandums”) and enacts separate provisions from it. An example of this is the Code of Conduct on the ISS, which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The ownership structure of the project does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage for the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article 5 (IGA), the jurisdiction of each of the partners extends only to the component of the station that is registered with him, and violations of the law by personnel, inside or outside the station, are subject to proceedings under the laws of the country of which they are citizens.

Interior of the Zarya module

Agreements on the use of ISS resources are more complex. The Russian modules Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk and Rassvet are manufactured and owned by Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered into orbit by the Russian side, but this was done at the expense of the United States, so NASA is officially the owner of this module today. For the use of Russian modules and other components of the plant, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, trusses, solar panels and two robotic arms) as agreed by the parties are used as follows (in % of the total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. Kibo - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• Under an agreement with NASA, KSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew hours, solar power, use of ancillary services (loading/unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Prior to the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing space flights by individuals. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the countries participating in the project developed "Principles" that defined such a concept as "Space Tourist" and all the necessary questions for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical indicators, psychological fitness, language training and a cash contribution.

The participants of the first cosmic wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress passed legislation on the non-proliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on the Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to pass amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on “any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts” until January 1, 2012.

Costs

The cost of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much more than originally planned. In 2005, according to the ESA, about 100 billion euros (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds sterling) would have been spent from the start of work on the ISS project in the late 1980s to its then expected completion in 2010 \ . However, today the end of the operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, in connection with the request of the United States, which are not able to undock their segment and continue flying, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS. For example, it is not clear how Russia's contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, most of NASA's expenses are the complex of activities for flight support and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, current operating costs account for a much larger proportion of the funds spent than the costs of building modules and other station devices, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA spending on the ISS, excluding the cost of the "Shuttle", from 1994 to 2005 amounted to 25.6 billion dollars. For 2005 and 2006 there were approximately 1.8 billion dollars. It is assumed that the annual costs will increase, and by 2010 will amount to 2.3 billion dollars. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budgetary funds

To estimate the itemized list of NASA costs, for example, according to a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, spent on the development of navigation systems, on information support, and on technologies to reduce environmental pollution.
• Flight support- 800 million dollars. This amount included: per ship, $125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $150 million was spent on the flights themselves, avionics, and crew-ship communication systems; the remaining $250 million went to the overall management of the ISS.
• Ship launches and expeditions- $125 million for pre-launch operations at the spaceport; $25 million for medical care; $300 million spent on managing expeditions;
• Flight program- $350 million was spent on the development of the flight program, on the maintenance of ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- 140 million dollars were spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz.

The cost of the "Shuttle" as part of the cost of the ISS

Of the ten scheduled flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the main cost of the station, because it positions it as a separate project, independent of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 out of 31 shuttle flights were not associated with the ISS, and out of the eleven scheduled flights remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and crews of astronauts to the ISS amounted to:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, the costs amounted to $24 billion. Of these, 20% (5 billion dollars) did not belong to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend $ 20.5 billion on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to the Hubble from this amount, then in the end we get the same $ 19 billion.

That is, the total cost of NASA for flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately 38 billion dollars.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, you can get an average annual expenditure of $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 (25.6 billion dollars) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - 53 billion dollars.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in joint program with Russia on the use of the Mir station, in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were repeatedly used in the construction of the ISS. Given this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttle, we can talk about a more than twofold increase in the amount of expenses, compared with the official one - more than $ 100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will be 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $2.1 billion), including costs for ground control and command systems. The total ATV development costs are approximately 1.35 billion euros, with each Ariane 5 launch costing approximately 150 million euros.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experiment Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operating cost of the Japanese experimental module is $350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, with a total development cost of $1 billion. JAXA's 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed $10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant part of the budget of the Russian Space Agency is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen Soyuz and Progress flights have been made, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends on the station (in US dollars) is not simple. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs for their development are much lower than for other modules, however, in this case, by analogy with the American programs, one should also take into account the costs for the development of the corresponding station modules " World". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the expenses of the Russian space agency on the ISS can be obtained based on its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station spends less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a regular partner of NASA, so Canada has been involved in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a three-part mobile maintenance system: a movable trolley that can move along the station's truss structure, a Canadianarm2 robotic arm that is mounted on a movable trolley, and a special Dextre manipulator. ). Over the past 20 years, the CSA is estimated to have invested C$1.4 billion in the station.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, by its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases the experience of mankind in space flights, spending huge financial resources on this.

Criticism in the US

The criticism of the American side is mainly aimed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $100 billion. That money, critics say, could be better spent on robotic (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on science projects on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, defenders of manned spaceflight say that criticism of the ISS project is shortsighted and that the payoff from manned spaceflight and space exploration is in the billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee Jerome Schnee) estimated the indirect economic contribution from additional revenues associated with space exploration as many times greater than the initial public investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists claims that NASA's rate of return on additional revenue is actually very low, except for developments in aeronautics that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often lists third-party developments as part of its achievements, ideas and developments that may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. Really useful and profitable, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA widely publicizes additional revenues from the construction of the ISS and from work performed on it, while NASA's official list of expenses is much more concise and secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park Robert Park), most of the planned scientific studies are not of high priority. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to carry it out in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in artificial weightlessness (in a special aircraft that flies along a parabolic trajectory (eng. reduced gravity aircraft).

The plans for the construction of the ISS included two science-intensive components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module (Eng. Centrifuge Accommodation Module) . The first has been operating at the station since May 2011. The creation of the second one was abandoned in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans for completing the construction of the station. Highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were conducted on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (the cyclical nature of biological processes in the human body), the effect of cosmic radiation on nervous system person. Critics argue that these studies have little practical value, since the reality of today's exploration of near space is unmanned automatic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust Jeff Foust) argued that maintenance of the ISS required too many expensive and dangerous EVAs. Pacific Astronomical Society The Astronomical Society of the Pacific At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention was drawn to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. If for the Russian side this reduces the cost of launches, then for the American side it is unprofitable. The concession that NASA made to the Russian Federation due to geographical location Baikonur, in the end, may increase the total cost of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society is reduced to a discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with the right efforts and improvements, make flights to and from more economical. One way or another, the main point of responses to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FCA) in defending Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always strictly monitors the observance of its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own orbital station project, and why money is being spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on an entirely Russian development. According to the head of RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopota, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became a source of experience for the United States in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, almost single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to criticism of the FKA about the underestimation of Russia's role in the project. So, for example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that the partnership agreement with NASA does not meet the national interests financially. However, it should be taken into account that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the US paid for the Russian segment of the station by providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only by the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note a small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS increases to 6 people. In addition, questions are raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the station. So, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, then it cannot be flooded like the Mir station.

According to critics, international cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station, is also controversial. As you know, under the terms of an international agreement, countries are not required to share their scientific developments at the station. In 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives and large projects in the space sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country that invests 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which, moreover, is its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were directed to manned programs, and a number of programs to develop satellites failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, stated that, in order to please the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, among the experts of the Russian space industry, there was an opinion that practical use from orbital stations has already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries have been made:

The era of orbital stations, which began in 1971, will be a thing of the past. Experts do not see practical expediency either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS are significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes. Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Magazine "Expert" 2015

Delivery ships

The crews of manned expeditions to the ISS are delivered to the station at the Soyuz TPK according to a "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day schedule. Until July 2011, the delivery of goods, the installation of station elements, the rotation of crews, in addition to the Soyuz TPK, were carried out as part of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type of	Agency/country	The first flight	Last flight	Total flights

Exactly 20 years ago, on November 20, 1998, the construction of the International Space Station began, today it is the largest extraterrestrial laboratory, which employs astronauts from around the world.

A little-known fact: the history of the station goes back to the revolutionary events of the fall of 1993. The implementation of the "truly international space station" project was announced by the US Vice President and the Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers on September 2 of that year.

And on October 4, when tanks were shelling the White House, a meeting of representatives of the Russian Space Agency was held in Moscow,

“We found a significant decrease in gray matter in the temporal region of the cortex, the maximum decrease in volume was 3.3%. As for the white matter of the brain, it is also characterized by a decrease in volume, - told Gazeta.Ru the head of the department of sensorimotor physiology of the Institute of Biomedical Problems, Ph.D. Elena Tomilovskaya. “After six months, gray matter levels return to about pre-flight levels.”

In the course of another Russian experiment "Test" at the height of the ISS, bacteria were found that live in the Barents Sea and the island of Madagascar. DNA of plant genomes, archaebacteria and fungi has also been found.

After the US abandoned the Space Shuttle program, Russian Soyuz spacecraft remained the only means of delivering people to the ISS.

The situation should change at the end of 2019, when the US plans to start flying its own manned spacecraft.

Today, cargo and products are delivered to the ISS by the American Cygnus and Dragon spacecraft, the Japanese HTV and the Russian Progress.

Practice has shown that the operation of the ISS is highly dependent on the rhythm of launches from the Earth and their failure-free operation. So, the disaster of the American shuttle Columbia

in 2003, forced to interrupt shuttle flights, which led to a reduction in the station's crew to two people.

And the recent accident of the Soyuz-FG manned rocket temporarily called into question the possibility of supplying the station with Soyuz rockets. However, the reasons were sorted out, and the next crew will go to the ISS on December 3.

The main question is related to the fate of the ISS after 2024, until which the current agreements of the participating countries are valid. " Technical condition The ISS allows its operation until 2028-2030,” said a representative of the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation.

“Discussions are underway to extend the operation of the station until 2028. I think she can definitely serve until 2028, and then tests will show, ”said Sergey Krikalev, director of manned space programs at the state corporation Roscosmos. Meanwhile, there are calls in the United States to refuse to participate in the project after 2024 and even to hand over the American part of the ISS to private traders.

The modular International Space Station is the largest artificial satellite of the Earth, the size of a football field. The total hermetic volume of the station is equal to the volume of the Boeing 747 aircraft, and its mass is 419,725 kilograms. The ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries: Russia, Japan, Canada, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland, Sweden and, of course, the USA.

Have you ever wanted to visit the International Space Station? Now there is such an opportunity! You don't have to fly anywhere. An amazing video will guide you around the ISS with the full effect of being in an orbital post. A fisheye lens with sharp focus and extreme depth of field delivers an immersive visual experience in virtual reality. During the 18-minute tour, your point of view will move smoothly. You will see our delightful planet 400 kilometers under the seven-window module of the ISS "Dome" and explore the habitable nodes and modules from the inside from the perspective of an astronaut.

international space station
Manned Orbital Multipurpose Space Research Complex

The International Space Station (ISS) was created to carry out scientific research in space. Construction began in 1998 and is being carried out with the cooperation of the aerospace agencies of Russia, the United States, Japan, Canada, Brazil and the European Union, according to the plan, it should be completed by 2013. The weight of the station after its completion will be approximately 400 tons. The ISS revolves around the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. Tentatively, the station will operate in orbit until 2016-2020.

History of creation
Ten years after the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin, in April 1971, the world's first space orbital station, Salyut-1, was put into orbit. Long-term habitable stations (DOS) were necessary for scientific research, including the long-term effects of weightlessness on the human body. Their creation was a necessary step in the preparation of future human flights to other planets. The Salyut program had a dual purpose: the Salyut-2, Salyut-3 and Salyut-5 space stations were intended for military needs - reconnaissance and correction of the actions of ground forces. During the implementation of the Salyut program from 1971 to 1986, the main architectural elements of space stations were tested, which were subsequently used in the design of a new long-term orbital station, which was developed by NPO Energia (since 1994 RSC Energia) and the design bureau Salyut - leading enterprises of the Soviet space industry. Mir, which was launched in February 1986, became the new DOS in earth orbit. It was the first space station with a modular architecture: its sections (modules) were delivered into orbit by spacecraft separately and already in orbit were assembled into a single whole. It was planned that the assembly of the largest space station in history would be completed in 1990, and in five years it would be replaced in orbit by another DOS - Mir-2. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union led to a reduction in funding for the space program, so Russia alone could not only build a new orbital station, but also maintain the Mir station. Then the Americans had practically no experience in creating DOS. In 1973-1974, the American station Skylab worked in orbit, the DOS Freedom project ("Freedom") faced sharp criticism from the US Congress. In 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin signed the Mir-Shuttle space cooperation agreement. The Americans agreed to finance the construction of the last two modules of the Mir station: Spektr and Priroda. In addition, from 1994 to 1998, the United States made 11 flights to Mir. The agreement also provided for the creation of a joint project - the International Space Station (ISS), and it was originally supposed to be called "Alpha" (American version) or "Atlant" (Russian version). In addition to the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos) and the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA), the project was attended by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA, it includes 17 participating countries), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) , as well as the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB). Interest in participating in the ISS project was expressed by India and China. In Washington on January 28, 1998, the final agreement was signed to start construction of the ISS. The first module of the ISS was the basic functional-cargo segment "Zarya", launched into orbit four months late in November 1998. There were rumors that due to the underfunding of the ISS program and the failure to meet the deadlines for the construction of the basic segments, they wanted to exclude Russia from the program. In December 1998, the first American Unity I module was docked to Zarya. Concerns about the future of the station were caused by the decision to extend the operation of the Mir station until 2002, made by the government of Yevgeny Primakov against the backdrop of deteriorating relations with the United States due to the war in Yugoslavia and UK and US operations in Iraq. However, the last cosmonauts left Mir in June 2000, and on March 23, 2001, the station was flooded in the Pacific Ocean, having worked 5 times longer than originally planned. The Russian Zvezda module, the third in a row, was docked to the ISS only in 2000, and in November 2000 the first crew of three people arrived at the station: American captain William Shepherd and two Russians: Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko .

General characteristics of the station
The weight of the ISS after the completion of its construction, according to plans, will be more than 400 tons. In terms of dimensions, the station roughly corresponds to a football field. In the starry sky, it can be observed with the naked eye - sometimes the station is the brightest celestial body after the Sun and the Moon. The ISS revolves around the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions around it per day. Scientific experiments are carried out on board the station in the following areas:
Research on new medical methods of therapy and diagnostics and life support in weightlessness
Research in the field of biology, the functioning of living organisms in outer space under the influence of solar radiation
Experiments on the study of the earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays, cosmic dust and dark matter
Study of the properties of matter, including superconductivity.
Station design and its modules
Like Mir, the ISS has a modular structure: its various segments were created by the efforts of the countries participating in the project and have their own specific function: research, residential, or used as storage facilities. Some of the modules, such as the US Unity series modules, are jumpers or are used for docking with transport ships. When completed, the ISS will consist of 14 main modules with a total volume of 1000 cubic meters, a crew of 6 or 7 people will be permanently on board the station.

Zarya module
The first station module weighing 19.323 tons was launched into orbit by the Proton-K launch vehicle on November 20, 1998. This module has been used for early stage construction of the station as a source of electricity, also to control the orientation in space and maintain the temperature regime. Subsequently, these functions were transferred to other modules, and Zarya began to be used as a warehouse. The creation of this module was repeatedly postponed due to lack of funds from the Russian side and, in the end, was built with US funds at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Center and belongs to NASA.

Module "Star"
The Zvezda module is the main habitation module of the station; life support and station control systems are on board. The Russian transport ships Soyuz and Progress are docked to it. With a delay of two years, the module was launched into orbit by the Proton-K launch vehicle on July 12, 2000 and docked on July 26 with the Zarya and the previously launched Unity-1 American docking module. The module was partially built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 station; its construction was completed with Russian funds. Since Zvezda was created in a single copy and was the key to the further operation of the station, in case of failure during its launch, the Americans built a less capacious backup module.

Pirs module
The docking module weighing 3,480 tons was manufactured by RSC Energia and launched into orbit in September 2001. It was built with Russian funds and is used for docking the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as for spacewalks.

"Search" module
The docking module "Poisk - Small Research Module-2" (MIM-2) is almost identical to "Pirs". It was launched into orbit in November 2009.

Module "Dawn"
Rassvet - Small Research Module-1 (MRM-1), used for biotechnological and materials science experiments, as well as for docking, was delivered to the ISS by a shuttle mission in 2010.

Other modules
Russia plans to add another module to the ISS - the Multifunctional Laboratory Module (MLM), which is being created by the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center and, after launching in 2013, should become the station's largest laboratory module weighing more than 20 tons. It is planned that it will include an 11-meter manipulator that will be able to move cosmonauts and astronauts in space, as well as various equipment. The ISS already has laboratory modules from the US (Destiny), ESA (Columbus) and Japan (Kibo). They and the main hub segments Harmony, Quest and Unnity were launched into orbit by shuttles.

Expeditions
Over the first 10 years of operation, the ISS was visited by more than 200 people from 28 expeditions, which is a record for space stations (only 104 people visited Mir. The ISS became the first example of the commercialization of space flights. Roscosmos, together with Space Adventures, sent space tourists into orbit for the first time The first of these was American entrepreneur Dennis Tito, who spent 20 million dollars aboard the station for 7 days and 22 hours in April-May 2001. Since then, entrepreneur and founder of the Ubuntu Foundation Mark Shuttleworth has visited the ISS ), American scientist and businessman Gregory Olsen, Iranian-American Anousheh Ansari, former head of the Microsoft software development team Charles Simonyi and computer game developer, founder of the genre role playing(RPG) Richard Garriott, son of American astronaut Owen Garriott. In addition, under the contract for the purchase of Russian weapons by Malaysia, Roskosmos in 2007 organized the flight to the ISS of the first Malaysian cosmonaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor. The episode with the wedding in space received a wide response in society. On August 10, 2003, Russian cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko and an American of Russian origin Ekaterina Dmitrieva got married remotely: Malenchenko was on board the ISS, and Dmitrieva was on Earth, in Houston. This event received a sharply negative assessment from the commander of the Russian Air Force Vladimir Mikhailov and Rosaviakosmos. There were rumors that Rosaviakosmos and NASA were going to ban such events in the future.

Incidents
The most serious incident was the disaster during the landing of the shuttle Columbia ("Columbia", "Columbia") on February 1, 2003. Although Columbia did not dock with the ISS while conducting an independent research mission, this disaster led to the fact that the shuttle flights were terminated and resumed only in July 2005. This pushed back the deadline for completing the construction of the station and made the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft the only means of delivering cosmonauts and cargo to the station. Other most serious incidents include smoke in the Russian segment of the station in 2006, computer failures in the Russian and American segments in 2001 and twice in 2007. In the fall of 2007, the station's crew was repairing a solar battery rupture that occurred during its installation. In 2008, the bathroom in the Zvezda module broke down twice, which required the crew to build a temporary system for collecting waste products using replaceable containers. A critical situation did not arise due to the presence of a backup bathroom on the Japanese module "Kibo" docked in the same year.

Ownership and funding
By agreement, each project participant owns its segments on the ISS. Russia owns the Zvezda and Pirs modules, Japan owns the Kibo module, ESA owns the Columbus module. Solar panels, which after the completion of the station will generate 110 kilowatts per hour, and the rest of the modules belong to NASA. Initially, the cost of the station was estimated at 35 billion dollars, in 1997 the estimated cost of the station was already 50 billion, and in 1998 - 90 billion dollars. In 2008, the ESA estimated its total cost at 100 billion euros.

Criticism
Despite the fact that the ISS has become a new milestone in the development of international cooperation in space, its project has been repeatedly criticized by experts. Due to funding problems and the Columbia disaster, the most important experiments, such as the launch of the Japanese-American module with artificial gravity, were canceled. The practical significance of the experiments carried out on the ISS did not justify the costs of creating and maintaining the operation of the station. Michael Griffin, who was appointed head of NASA in 2005, although he called the ISS "the greatest engineering miracle", said that because of the station, financial support for space exploration programs by robotic vehicles and human flights to the Moon and Mars is decreasing. The researchers noted that the design of the station, which provided for a highly inclined orbit, significantly reduced the cost of flights to the Soyuz ISS, but made shuttle launches more expensive.

The future of the station
The construction of the ISS was completed in 2011-2012. Thanks to the new equipment delivered aboard the ISS by the Space Shuttle Endeavor expedition in November 2008, the station crew will be increased in 2009 from 3 to 6 people. It was originally planned that the ISS station should work in orbit until 2010, in 2008 another date was called - 2016 or 2020. According to experts, the ISS, unlike the Mir station, will not be sunk in the ocean, it is supposed to be used as a base for assembling interplanetary spacecraft. Despite the fact that NASA spoke in favor of reducing the funding of the station, the head of the agency, Griffin, promised to fulfill all US obligations to complete the construction of the station. One of the main problems is the further operation of the shuttles. The flight of the last expedition of the shuttle is scheduled for 2010, while the first flight of the American spacecraft Orion (“Orion”), which should replace the shuttles, was scheduled for 2014. Thus, from 2010 to 2014, cosmonauts and cargo were supposed to be delivered to the ISS by Russian rockets. However, after the war in South Ossetia, many experts, including Griffin, said that the cooling of relations between Russia and the United States could lead to the fact that Roscosmos would cease cooperation with NASA and the Americans would lose the opportunity to send their expeditions to the station. In 2008, the ESA violated the monopoly of Russia and the United States on the delivery of cargo to the ISS by successfully docking an Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) cargo ship to the station. Since September 2009, the Japanese Kibo laboratory has been supplied by the unmanned automatic spacecraft H-II Transfer Vehicle. It was planned that RSC Energia would create a new apparatus for flying to the ISS, the Clipper. However, the lack of funding led the Russian Federal Space Agency to cancel the competition for the creation of such a ship, so the project was frozen. In February 2010, it became known that US President Barack Obama ordered the closure of the Constellation lunar program. According to the American president, the implementation of the program was far behind in terms of time, and it itself did not contain a fundamental novelty. Instead, Obama decided to invest additional funds in the development of space projects of private companies, and as long as they can send ships to the ISS, the delivery of astronauts to the station should be carried out by Russian forces.
In July 2011, the shuttle Atlantis made its last flight, after which Russia remained the only country with the ability to send people to the ISS. In addition, the United States temporarily lost the ability to supply the station with cargo and were forced to rely on Russian, European and Japanese colleagues. However, NASA considered options for concluding contracts with private companies, which included the creation of ships that could deliver cargo to the station, and then astronauts. The first such experience was the Dragon spacecraft developed by the private company SpaceX. Its first experimental docking with the ISS was repeatedly postponed technical reasons, but was successful in May 2012.