The period of Mongol-Tatar rule in Rus' lasted about two and a half centuries, from 1238 to 1480. During this era, Ancient Rus' finally collapsed, and the formation of the Moscow state began.
At the beginning of the 13th century. Among the Mongols, who had long roamed the steppes of Central Asia, the clan system was decomposing, replaced by early feudal relations. The nobility gradually accumulates wealth. War booty is becoming an important source of enrichment. A strong state is emerging, headed by Genghis Khan.
The first armed clash between Russian squads and Mongol troops took place in 1223 on the Kalka River. The combined forces of the Russians and Polovtsians opposed the Mongols. Many princes took part in the campaign, except for the strongest at that time, Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky. However, the lack of a unified command, the ambitions of the Russian princes, inconsistency in the organization of military operations, and the betrayal of the Polovtsians during the battle led to the defeat of the Russian squads, led by the Kyiv prince Mstislav Romanovich. Six Russian princes died, every tenth warrior died. The Russian princes lost up to 90% of their professional squads. Rus' has never known such a defeat in all the past years of its history. However, the Mongols did not take advantage of this victory to further advance into the territory of Rus' - they turned east and went to the Trans-Volga steppes. Thus, the Russian people received a historic chance to unite and join forces in the face of the impending danger looming over the country. However, the feudal fragmentation that reigned in Rus' and the reluctance of the princes to sacrifice their own interests for the sake of common interests prevented unification.
In 1235, at the kurultai (congress) of Mongolian feudal lords, it was decided that the Mongols would march to the West, to Europe. The campaign was led by Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. The total number of Mongol troops participating in the aggression against Rus' was, according to Arab sources, from 20 to 300 thousand people (according to other estimates, it did not exceed 120-140 thousand people). Northern and Southern Rus' could field about 100 thousand soldiers together, but the Russian principalities almost one by one resisted the united Mongol forces.
The Ryazan principality was the first to be attacked. This happened in 1237. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir did not provide assistance to the Ryazan people. Despite heroic resistance, the Ryazan land was completely devastated. Then Batu moved towards Vladimir, ravaged Kolomna and Moscow, and took Vladimir. On March 4, 1238, a battle between the main forces of North-Eastern Rus', led by Prince Yuri, and the Mongol-Tatars took place on the City River. In this battle, the Russian army was destroyed, the Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed, and Batu moved to Novgorod. However, before reaching 100 versts, in the Torzhok area the Mongols turned south. On the way they took Kursk and Kozelsk.
In 1239, hordes of Mongols invaded the lands of Southern Rus'. They took and burned Pereslavl, Chernigov and other settlements. On December 6, 1240, after stubborn resistance, Kyiv fell. In December - January 1240-1241. Almost all the cities of Southern Rus' were captured.
In 1237, Batu gathered troops in the upper reaches of the Irtysh and moved with them to the Middle Volga. He attacked the Volga Bulgarians, defeated them and occupied their capital. Then, crossing the Volga, he entered the Russian principalities. The first principality to be attacked by the Mongols was Ryazan. In conditions of general fragmentation and princely civil strife, Ryazan could not count on the help of neighboring principalities. After stubborn resistance, Ryazan fell, the city was destroyed and burned, and the population either fled and hid in forests and inaccessible places, or was destroyed.
After the defeat of Ryazan, the Mongols moved to the northwest, cutting off. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality from Smolensk and Chernigov. Walking through Kolomna to Moscow, the Mongols met the troops of the Suzdal prince, who was late coming to the aid of Ryazan; defeated his troops and occupied Moscow.
From Moscow, the Tatars moved to Vladimir-Suzdal, sending a detachment to Torzhok to cut off Tver from Novgorod. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols occupied Vladimir, burned it, and massacred the population. The Grand Duke of Suzdal, Yuri Vsevolodovich, at that time was gathering troops in the north, and met with the Tatars on the river. City. In the battle that took place, his troops were defeated and he himself was killed.
Having defeated the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities, the Tatars moved towards Novgorod. Batu took Torzhok along the way, but due to the onset of the spring thaw and the losses suffered, he turned his troops and stopped with them in the lower reaches of the Don and Volga. The army required replenishment and a new organization for further campaigns and conquests.
According to historians, the number of Batu’s troops that conquered Russian lands consisted of 33 subjects or 330,000 fighters. Among these troops there were only 4,000 Mongols and 30,000 related Tatars. The bulk of the army was made up of the Turkic-Mongolian tribes of the Kipchak, or, in Russian, the Polovtsy, whose total male population was estimated at 2 million.
Having conquered the northern Russian principalities, Batu stationed detachments of troops everywhere with the Baskaks, who began to collect a tenth of the property and a tenth of the population. “Having counted ten, they took one away: they did the same with the girls, they took them and took them to their lands, where they established them according to their custom. Men who did not have wives were also taken away, as well as women who did not have husbands, and beggars were also taken away... In addition, from a father who had three sons, one was taken away..."
The captured population was sent to the location of Khan's Headquarters and distributed there depending on their physical qualities: some went to form an army, others to the internal service of the country and labor force.
The organization of the army, replenishment and training within the lower reaches of the Volga and Don took about two years. Replenished by Russians, Batu's army was doubled and instead of 33 troops that came from Asia, it was increased to 60, or 600,000 fighters.
In 1241 Batu moved west. He took Chernigov, which was burned, and moved towards Kyiv. The movement of the Mongol troops was accompanied by the entire population of the Ulus, moving on carts, with families, livestock and terrible dust that covered the sun. As the Mongol approached, the Galician prince Daniil Romanovich, who annexed Kyiv to his possessions, fled to Hungary, leaving the governor Eykovich to defend the city.
Kyiv was besieged by the Mongols and put up stubborn resistance. The Mongols could not take it with an open attack; they brought up heavy battering machines and began to destroy the camps of the defensive rampart.
Kyiv was taken and the population was massacred. An exception was made to Voivode Eykovich, and for his courageous defense, Batu not only spared him, but also appointed him thousand-man of Kyiv.
After the capture of Kyiv, Batu moved his troops in three columns to Poland, Silesia and Hungary. Along the way, the Mongols destroyed Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Sandomierz and Krakow; defeated the Teutonic knights and German-Polish troops and invaded Moravia. On the way, they encountered resistance from the troops of the Bohemian king and stronger resistance in the Czech Republic from the combined forces of the Austrian and Karingian dukes, in battles with which the Horde was defeated, turned back and went to join the main forces in Hungary.
By this time, Batu defeated the troops of the Hungarian king and invaded Hungary. King Bela concentrated the troops of Hungary, Croatia, Austria, French knights and other sovereign princes near Pest. The Mongols approached Pest, and, after standing for two months, began to retreat. The allies moved to pursue the Mongols; They walked forward for six days, seeing no one except individual horsemen. On the seventh day, the allies settled down on a plain surrounded by hills covered with vineyards. By morning they saw that all the surrounding hills were occupied by the Mongol army. The Allies went on the offensive, but were met from the hills by gunfire from bows and stone-throwing machines. Having suffered heavy losses, the allies began to retreat towards the Danube. During the six days of retreat, most of the troops were destroyed and the Mongols took Pest.
The troops of King Bel continued to retreat to Dalmatia, and the Mongols, in pursuit, destroyed European cities and, having passed through Slavonia, Croatia and Serbia, turned back.
There are notes from the Hungarian king and a letter to the Pope about the composition of Batu's troops, in which it is written that the Mongol troops included Russian troops. “When,” the king wrote, “the state of Hungary, from the Mongol invasion, as if from a plague, for the most part was turned into a desert, and like a sheepfold was surrounded by various tribes of infidels, namely: Russians, wanderers from the east, Bulgarians and other heretics from the south.” . Batu led his troops to the lower reaches of the Don and Volga and thus ended his campaigns of conquest to the west.
Batu's possessions included lands from the river. Ob in the east and to Novgorod and Galich in the west. The Principality of Galicia and Novgorod were not occupied by the Mongols, and the Russian population of the Azov region and the Brodniks occupied a special position. This part of the Russian population was not conquered by the Mongols before the campaign to the west, and according to the notes of Pope Gregory, at the end of the campaign they were subject to tribute, like other peoples. The peoples of the Azov region did not want to be tributaries of the Mongols and rebelled against them. The center of the outbreak of war was the Don Delta and the city of Tanais. The Mongols could not take Tanais by open assault and decided to flood it. They set up barriers along the numerous branches of the Don delta and flooded the city. Resistance was broken and the population was beaten. After which Batu began to establish a vast Empire with peoples different in race, religion and culture. For centuries, Rus' was placed in political, economic and moral dependence on the Mongols, which amounted to a sharp turning point in its history.
Tatar-Mongol yoke
Choose the correct answer
1) Vladimirskoye
2) Chernigovskoe
3) Kyiv
4) Ryazanskoe
The founders of the Mongolian state are
1) Genghis Khan
4) Subedey
3. Which answer option can be put in place of the blank?
Methods of politics of the Horde khans
The policy of “divide and rule” __________________________Punishment of the recalcitrant
1) convening of princely congresses
2) inculcation of one’s cultural traditions and religious views
3) maintaining friendly relations with the Catholic West
4) exemption from paying tribute to the Orthodox clergy
Horde exit is
1) a tenth of all income in favor of the Golden Horde
2) the deportation of the Russian population to the Horde
3) Horde raids on Rus'
4) the trip of the Russian princes to the Golden Horde for a label for the Russian reign
The task of Christianizing the Baltic peoples was entrusted to
1) Order of Malta
2) Templar Order
3) Teutonic Order
4) Livonian Order
What battle contributed to the crusaders’ refusal to quickly conquer north-west Rus'?
1) Battle of the Neva
2) Battle on the river. Sit
3) Battle on the ice
4) Battle of Rakovor
Where did the first clash between the Russian army and Mongol troops take place?
1) on the Kalka River
2) on the Don River
3) on the Piana River
4) on the Vozha River
In December 1237, the Mongol army entered the territory
1) Principality of Kozel
2) Ryazan Principality
3) Chernigov principality
4) Principality of Kyiv
In what year was Horde rule over Russia established?
The Golden Horde was part
1) state of Khorezmshahs
2) Polovtsian steppe
3) Mongol Empire
4) Crimean Khanate
Which Russian lands did NOT fall under the rule of the Horde?
1) Southwestern Rus'
2) Western Rus'
3) Southern Rus'
4) Northwestern Rus'
12. Eliminate the unnecessary ones in the series “Cities that showed stubborn resistance to Batu’s army”:
3) Vladimir
4) Kozelsk
Alexander Nevsky in the Battle of Lake Peipus defeated
1) by the combined forces of Swedes, Norwegians, Finns
2) Teutonic Order
3) the united army of the Swedes
4) knights of the Livonian Order
14. Indicate on what principle the series is constructed: Gavrila Oleksich, Savva, Yakov the Polotsk resident, Novgorodian Misha, Ratmir -
1) participants in the battle on Lake Peipus
2) organizers of the defense of Russian cities during the Horde invasion
3) heroes of the Battle of the Neva
4) instigators of the uprising against the Horde yoke
What was NOT a form of dependence of Rus' on the Horde?
1) issuance of a label for the great reign by the khans
2) control over the Orthodox clergy
3) payment of tribute
4) the obligation to send soldiers to the Mongol troops
Daniil Galitsky in the fight against the Horde
1) tried to rely on the Catholic powers
2) obtained a payoff to independently collect tribute
3) conducted active negotiations with the khans to reduce tribute
4) supported the policies of Alexander Nevsky
Choose the correct answers
Indicate the reasons for Alexander Yaroslavich’s victory over the Swedes in the Battle of the Ice
A) a strategically advantageous place for battle
B) significant numerical superiority of the Russian army
C) the courage of Russian soldiers
D) autumn weather conditions
D) the youth and daring of the prince
E) erroneous tactics of the knights
Indicate the reasons for the defeat of Rus' in the fight against the Mongols
A) the absence of fortified cities in Rus'
B) political fragmentation of Rus'
C) the transition to the side of the Horde of the princes of the southern lands
D) strife between Russian princes
D) the need to combat the invasion of the Crusaders in the north-west of Rus'
E) superiority of the Mongol army in combat qualities
Choose the correct answer
Which “table” was the most prestigious at the beginning of the 14th century?
1) Kyiv
2) Vladimirsky
3) Novgorod
4) Moscow
To which city did the metropolitan move from Kyiv in 1299?
1) Vladimir
4) Novgorod
What was the name of the type of large land property that was inherited in Ancient Rus'?
1) estate
2) fiefdom
3) estate
The collapse of the Golden Horde occurred after the death
1) Tamerlane
2) Tokhtamysh
Indicate the years of reign of Ivan Kalita
1) 1154–1212
2) 1325–1340
3) 1340–1353
4) 1359–1389
Name the first Russian metropolitan actually independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
4) Theognostus
By the example of his life, he “raised the fallen spirit of his native people, awakened in them confidence in themselves, in their strengths, and inspired faith in their future.” Who are we talking about?
1) Alexander Nevsky
2) Dmitry Donskoy
3) Sergius of Radonezh
4) Ivan Kalita
Fill the gaps
21. Independence, independence of the Russian Church - ________________.
22. According to legend, before the Battle of Kulikovo, ______________ fought in a duel with the Horde hero.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIII–XV centuries. (§ 16)
Choose the correct answer
Fill the gaps
20. Privileges are ____________________________________________________________
21. The Union of Krevo was concluded between Lithuania and ____________ in _________.
22. According to the ____________ union, the Lithuanian prince could not be elected without the consent of the Polish king.
Culture of Rus' XIII–XV centuries. (§§ 17–18)
Choose the correct answer
1. The bulk of the townspeople (merchants, artisans) lived in
1) child
3) estates
4) settlements
2. The first mention of the use of guns in Rus' was given in the chronicle
1) about the defense of Ryazan
2) about the capture of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382.
3) about the Battle of Kulikovo
4) about the Battle of Grunwald
3. Appears in Rus' in the 14th century
2) papyrus
3) parchment
4) printed book
4. Indicate who was a contemporary of Andrei Rublev?
1) Metropolitan Hilarion
2) Yuri Dolgoruky
3) Sergius of Radonezh
4) Prince Mindovg
5. Under which Moscow prince was the white-stone Kremlin built?
1) Daniil
2) Ivan Kalita
3) Vasily I
4) Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy)
6. What new genre emerges in Russian literature in the 13th–14th centuries?
1) satirical story
2) hagiographic
3) journalistic
4) autobiographical
7. A prerequisite for canonization was the compilation
1) prayers
3) walking
4) a word of praise
Who or what are we talking about?
20. “...living with his brothers, he endured many hardships and performed great feats and labors of fasting life... And he participated in all other monastic affairs needed by the brethren: sometimes he carried firewood on his shoulders from the forest and, having smashed and stabbed it, cut it into logs, and carried it to the cells. ... He ... did not snatch rank from anyone, did not make promises for this, did not give payment, like some ambitious people who snatch everything from each other ... The blessed one never stopped charity and ordered the servants in the monastery to give shelter to the poor and wanderers and help those in need. .." _________________________
21 . In an Orthodox Russian church there is a wall lined with icons separating it from the altar. ________________
22. A sublime style, the first signs of which are present in the writings of Metropolitan Cyprian. Pachomius Logothetes – a virtuoso of this style of “weaving words”, with deliberate solemnity and pretentiousness __________________
Part C*
1. Read a passage from a historical source and briefly answer questions 1–3. Answers involve the use of information from the source, as well as the application of knowledge from the history course of the relevant period.
Prince Alexander prepared for battle, and they went against each other, and Lake Peipus was covered with many of these and other warriors. Alexander's father, Yaroslav, sent his younger brother Andrei with a large squad to help him. And Prince Alexander had many brave warriors, like King David in ancient times, strong and steadfast. So Alexander’s men were filled with the spirit of war, because their hearts were like the hearts of lions... It was Saturday then, and when the sun rose, the opponents met. And there was a cruel slaughter, and there was a crash from breaking spears and a ringing from the blows of swords, and it seemed that a frozen lake was moving, and no ice was visible, for it was covered with blood.<…>And so he defeated the enemies with the help of God, and they fled, but Alexander cut them down, chasing them as if through the air, and they had nowhere to hide.<…>And Prince Alexander returned with a glorious victory, and there were many captives in his army, and they led barefoot next to the horses of those who call themselves “God’s knights.”<…>And his name became famous in all countries...
1. What battle is described in this fragment?
2. What is the significance of Prince Alexander's victory?
3. Why was Alexander Nevsky canonized by the church back in the Middle Ages?
A task on a generalized description of historical events and phenomena.
How did Rus' become dependent on the Golden Horde? (Give at least three examples).
What views did the Russian princes have on relations with the Horde? (Name at least two points of view).
A task to consider historical versions and assessments.
There is an opinion that the yoke also had positive features for the development of Rus', and “the alliance of Moscow and the Horde lasted as long as it was mutually beneficial.”
What other opinion do you know about the period of Mongol rule? Which argument do you find more convincing? Name the facts that can serve as arguments for your chosen point of view (at least three).
4. Task to analyze the historical situation.
Historian N.M. Karamzin wrote: “...A miracle happened. A town barely known before the 14th century. .., raised the head..."
What changes took place in the Moscow Principality by the 14th century? (at least two)? What were the reasons for these changes (at least three)?
Comparison task.
In the XIV–XV centuries. The state structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is being formalized, and Moscow firmly holds leadership in the process of unification of Russian lands. Compare the paths along which the formation of the state structure of these lands took place. Indicate what was common (at least two) and what was different (at least three differences).
Tatar-Mongol yoke
Choose the correct answer
Which principality was the first to be attacked by the Mongol hordes in 1237?
1) Vladimirskoye
2) Chernigovskoe
3) Kyiv
If you remove all the lies from history, this does not mean at all that only the truth will remain - as a result, there may be nothing left at all.
Stanislav Jerzy Lec
The Tatar-Mongol invasion began in 1237 with the invasion of Batu's cavalry into the Ryazan lands, and ended in 1242. The result of these events was a two-century yoke. This is what the textbooks say, but in reality the relationship between the Horde and Russia was much more complicated. In particular, the famous historian Gumilyov speaks about this. In this material we will briefly consider the issues of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar army from the point of view of the generally accepted interpretation, and also consider controversial issues of this interpretation. Our task is not to offer fantasy on the topic of medieval society for the thousandth time, but to provide our readers with facts. And conclusions are everyone’s business.
Beginning of the invasion and background
For the first time, the troops of Rus' and the Horde met on May 31, 1223 in the battle of Kalka. The Russian troops were led by the Kiev prince Mstislav, and they were opposed by Subedey and Juba. The Russian army was not only defeated, it was actually destroyed. There are many reasons for this, but all of them are discussed in the article about the Battle of Kalka. Returning to the first invasion, it occurred in two stages:
- 1237-1238 - campaign against the eastern and northern lands of Rus'.
- 1239-1242 - a campaign against the southern lands, which led to the establishment of the yoke.
Invasion of 1237-1238
In 1236, the Mongols began another campaign against the Cumans. In this campaign they achieved great success and in the second half of 1237 they approached the borders of the Ryazan principality. The Asian cavalry was commanded by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan. He had 150 thousand people under his command. Subedey, who was familiar with the Russians from previous clashes, took part in the campaign with him.
Map of the Tatar-Mongol invasion
The invasion took place in the early winter of 1237. It is impossible to establish the exact date here, since it is unknown. Moreover, some historians say that the invasion took place not in winter, but in late autumn of the same year. With tremendous speed, the Mongol cavalry moved across the country, conquering one city after another:
- Ryazan fell at the end of December 1237. The siege lasted 6 days.
- Moscow - fell in January 1238. The siege lasted 4 days. This event was preceded by the battle of Kolomna, where Yuri Vsevolodovich and his army tried to stop the enemy, but was defeated.
- Vladimir - fell in February 1238. The siege lasted 8 days.
After the capture of Vladimir, virtually all the eastern and northern lands fell into the hands of Batu. He conquered one city after another (Tver, Yuryev, Suzdal, Pereslavl, Dmitrov). At the beginning of March, Torzhok fell, thereby opening the way for the Mongol army to the north, to Novgorod. But Batu made a different maneuver and instead of marching on Novgorod, he deployed his troops and went to storm Kozelsk. The siege lasted for 7 weeks, ending only when the Mongols resorted to cunning. They announced that they would accept the surrender of the Kozelsk garrison and release everyone alive. People believed and opened the gates of the fortress. Batu did not keep his word and gave the order to kill everyone. Thus ended the first campaign and the first invasion of the Tatar-Mongol army into Rus'.
Invasion of 1239-1242
After a break of one and a half years, in 1239 a new invasion of Rus' by the troops of Batu Khan began. This year based events took place in Pereyaslav and Chernigov. The sluggishness of Batu’s offensive is due to the fact that at that time he was actively fighting the Polovtsians, in particular in the Crimea.
Autumn 1240 Batu led his army to the walls of Kyiv. The ancient capital of Rus' could not resist for long. The city fell on December 6, 1240. Historians note the particular brutality with which the invaders behaved. Kyiv was almost completely destroyed. There is nothing left of the city. The Kyiv that we know today no longer has anything in common with the ancient capital (except for its geographical location). After these events, the army of invaders split:
- Some went to Vladimir-Volynsky.
- Some went to Galich.
Having captured these cities, the Mongols went on a European campaign, but it interests us little.
Consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus'
Historians describe the consequences of the invasion of the Asian army into Rus' unambiguously:
- The country was cut up and became completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
- Rus' began to annually pay tribute to the victors (money and people).
- The country has fallen into a stupor in terms of progress and development due to the unbearable yoke.
This list can be continued, but, in general, it all comes down to the fact that all the problems that existed in Rus' at that time were attributed to the yoke.
This is exactly what the Tatar-Mongol invasion seems to be, in short, from the point of view of official history and what we are told in textbooks. In contrast, we will consider Gumilyov’s arguments, and also ask a number of simple but very important questions for understanding the current issues and the fact that with the yoke, as with the Rus-Horde relations, everything is much more complex than is commonly said.
For example, it is absolutely incomprehensible and inexplicable how a nomadic people, who several decades ago lived in a tribal system, created a huge empire and conquered half the world. After all, when considering the invasion of Rus', we are considering only the tip of the iceberg. The Empire of the Golden Horde was much larger: from the Pacific Ocean to the Adriatic, from Vladimir to Burma. Giant countries were conquered: Rus', China, India... Neither before nor after has anyone been able to create a military machine that could conquer so many countries. But the Mongols were able...
To understand how difficult it was (if not to say impossible), let's look at the situation with China (so as not to be accused of looking for a conspiracy around Rus'). The population of China at the time of Genghis Khan was approximately 50 million people. No one conducted a census of the Mongols, but, for example, today this nation has 2 million people. If we take into account that the number of all peoples of the Middle Ages is increasing to the present day, then the Mongols were less than 2 million people (including women, old people and children). How were they able to conquer China with 50 million inhabitants? And then also India and Russia...
The strangeness of the geography of Batu’s movement
Let's return to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. What were the goals of this trip? Historians talk about the desire to plunder the country and subjugate it. It also states that all these goals have been achieved. But this is not entirely true, because in ancient Rus' there were 3 richest cities:
- Kyiv is one of the largest cities in Europe and the ancient capital of Rus'. The city was conquered by the Mongols and destroyed.
- Novgorod is the largest trading city and the richest in the country (hence its special status). Didn't suffer from the invasion at all.
- Smolensk is also a trading city and was considered equal in wealth to Kyiv. The city also did not see the Mongol-Tatar army.
So it turns out that 2 of the 3 largest cities were not affected by the invasion at all. Moreover, if we consider plunder as a key aspect of Batu’s invasion of Rus', then the logic cannot be traced at all. Judge for yourself, Batu takes Torzhok (he spends 2 weeks on the assault). This is the poorest city, whose task is to protect Novgorod. But after this, the Mongols do not go to the North, which would be logical, but turn to the south. Why was it necessary to spend 2 weeks on Torzhok, which no one needs, in order to simply turn to the South? Historians give two explanations, logical at first glance:
- Near Torzhok, Batu lost many soldiers and was afraid to go to Novgorod. This explanation could well be considered logical if not for one “but”. Since Batu lost a lot of his army, then he needs to leave Rus' to replenish the army or take a break. But instead, the khan rushes to storm Kozelsk. There, by the way, the losses were huge and as a result the Mongols hastily left Rus'. But why they didn’t go to Novgorod is unclear.
- The Tatar-Mongols were afraid of the spring flooding of the rivers (this happened in March). Even in modern conditions, March in the north of Russia is not characterized by a mild climate and you can easily move around there. And if we talk about 1238, then that era is called by climatologists the Little Ice Age, when winters were much harsher than modern ones and in general the temperature was much lower (this is easy to check). That is, it turns out that in the era of global warming, Novgorod can be reached in March, but in the era of the Ice Age everyone was afraid of river floods.
With Smolensk, the situation is also paradoxical and inexplicable. Having taken Torzhok, Batu sets off to storm Kozelsk. This is a simple fortress, a small and very poor city. The Mongols stormed it for 7 weeks and lost thousands of people killed. Why was this done? There was no benefit from the capture of Kozelsk - there was no money in the city, and there were no food warehouses either. Why such sacrifices? But just 24 hours of cavalry movement from Kozelsk is Smolensk, the richest city in Rus', but the Mongols don’t even think about moving towards it.
Surprisingly, all these logical questions are simply ignored by official historians. Standard excuses are given, like, who knows these savages, this is what they decided for themselves. But this explanation does not stand up to criticism.
Nomads never howl in winter
There is one more remarkable fact that official history simply ignores, because... it is impossible to explain. Both Tatar-Mongol invasions took place in Rus' in winter (or began in late autumn). But these are nomads, and nomads begin to fight only in the spring in order to finish the battles before winter. After all, they travel on horses that need to be fed. Can you imagine how you can feed a Mongolian army of thousands in snowy Russia? Historians, of course, say that this is a trifle and that such issues should not even be considered, but the success of any operation directly depends on the support:
- Charles 12 was unable to provide support for his army - he lost Poltava and the Northern War.
- Napoleon was unable to organize supplies and left Russia with a half-starved army that was absolutely incapable of combat.
- Hitler, according to many historians, managed to establish support only by 60-70% - he lost the Second World War.
Now, understanding all this, let's look at what the Mongol army was like. It is noteworthy, but there is no definite figure for its quantitative composition. Historians give figures from 50 thousand to 400 thousand horsemen. For example, Karamzin talks about Batu’s 300 thousand army. Let's look at the provision of the army using this figure as an example. As you know, the Mongols always went on military campaigns with three horses: a riding horse (the rider moved on it), a pack horse (it carried the rider’s personal belongings and weapons) and a fighting horse (it went empty, so that it could go into battle fresh at any time). That is, 300 thousand people are 900 thousand horses. To this add the horses that transported ram guns (it is known for certain that the Mongols brought the guns assembled), horses that carried food for the army, carried additional weapons, etc. It turns out, according to the most conservative estimates, 1.1 million horses! Now imagine how to feed such a herd in a foreign country in a snowy winter (during the Little Ice Age)? There is no answer, because this cannot be done.
So how much army did Dad have?
It is noteworthy, but the closer to our time the study of the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol army occurs, the smaller the number is. For example, historian Vladimir Chivilikhin speaks of 30 thousand who moved separately, since they could not feed themselves in a single army. Some historians lower this figure even lower – to 15 thousand. And here we come across an insoluble contradiction:
- If there really were so many Mongols (200-400 thousand), then how could they feed themselves and their horses in the harsh Russian winter? The cities did not surrender to them peacefully in order to take food from them, most of the fortresses were burned.
- If there were really only 30-50 thousand Mongols, then how did they manage to conquer Rus'? After all, every principality fielded an army of about 50 thousand against Batu. If there really were so few Mongols and they acted independently, the remnants of the horde and Batu himself would have been buried near Vladimir. But in reality everything was different.
We invite the reader to look for conclusions and answers to these questions on their own. For our part, we did the most important thing - we pointed out facts that completely refute the official version of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. At the end of the article, I would like to note one more important fact that the whole world has recognized, including official history, but this fact is hushed up and is rarely published. The main document by which the yoke and invasion were studied for many years is the Laurentian Chronicle. But, as it turned out, the truth of this document raises big questions. Official history admitted that 3 pages of the chronicle (which speak of the beginning of the yoke and the beginning of the Mongol invasion of Rus') have been changed and are not original. I wonder how many more pages from Russian history have been changed in other chronicles, and what really happened? But it is almost impossible to answer this question...
a) Chernigovskoe
b) Tverskoye
c) Ryazanskoe
When the Mongols took Kyiv and Chernigov
In the Battle of the Neva, to whom did Alexander Yaroslavich “put a stamp on his face with his sharp copy”?
a) Birger
b) Mindovgu
c) Casimir.
Under which khan did the Golden Horde flourish and convert to Islam?
b) Uzbek
c) Tokhtamysh.
When did the battle on the river take place? Kalka, where the Russian princes first met the Mongols?
What was the name of the Ryazan governor, whose detachment acted in the rear of Batu’s army?
a) Mstislav Udaloy
b) Philip Nyanko
c) Evpatiy Kolovrat
Which of the Russian princes headed in 1252? rebellion against the Golden Horde?
a) Alexander Nevsky
b) Daniil Galitsky
c) Andrey Yaroslavich
Which Russian city did the Mongols call the “evil city”?
b) Torzhok
c) Kozelsk
When and where did Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir die while fighting the Mongols?
a) in 1238 on the river Sit
b) in 1238 in defense of the city of Vladimir
c) in 1239 on the river Klyazma.
Which of the Russian princes in the middle of the 19th century? He was the initiator of the creation of the Anti-Horde Union of Russian Princes
A) Alexander Nevsky
B) Yaroslav Vsevolodovich
B) Daniil Galitsky
What was the name of the capital of the Golden Horde?
B) Karakorum
B) Astrakhan.
Which of the Russian governors, on Batu’s orders, “wasn’t killed for the sake of his bravery”?
A) Dmitra
B) Philippa Nyanko
B) Evpatiya Kolovrata
What does the term "basma" mean?
a) a plate that was issued by the Mongol khans as a pass and credentials
b) type of bladed weapon
c) trade tax, which was paid by the Russian lands to the Golden Horde.
Did Rus' become dependent on the Golden Horde as a result?
a) invasions of Khan Batu
b) the campaign of Khan Mamai
c) campaigns of Genghis Khan
d) Polovtsian raids.
What battle took place on the spot where Peter the Great founded the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg?
a) Battle of the Neva
b) Battle on the Ice
c) Battle of Rakovor.
How did the territory of fertile lands south of the Oka come to be called?
a) black lands
b) wild field
c) white settlements.
Who came up with the idea that tormented Russia stopped the Mongol conquerors and thereby saved European civilization?
a) K.F. Ryleev
b) A.S. Pushkin
c) F.I. Tyutchev.
113.Indicate the correct correspondence between the date and the event of the period of struggle against foreign invaders KhSh-Khuvv...
1237 invasion of Khan Batu in North-Eastern Rus'
1240 Battle of the Neva
1380 Battle of Kulikovo
Baskak system of domination over Russian lands
tribute in favor of the Golden Horde
yoke representative of the khan who exercised control
for local authorities
Indicate the correct correspondence between the term characterizing the relationship between Rus' and the Golden Horde and its definition
label province in the Golden Horde
ulus tribute in favor of the Golden Horde
output khan's letter confirming the right
1. Barsenkov A.S., Vdovin A.I. Russian history. 1917-2004: Textbook for university students.─M.: Aspect-Press, 2005.
2. Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: Textbook. M.: PROSPECT, 2006.
3. History of Russia for technical universities/Ed. prof. B.V. Leachman. 2nd edition. Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 2005.
4. Orlov A.S. History of Russia. Textbook. M.: PROSPECT, 2006.
5. Domestic history: Textbook for technical universities / Ed. E.V. Bodrovoy, T.G. Popova. M., 2004.
6. Domestic history. Textbook for technical universities/Ed. V.V. Fortunatova. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005.
7. Semin V.P. History of the Fatherland: Textbook for universities. M.: Academic project: Gaudemus, 2005.
1. Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N. History: Textbook. M.: Academy, 2007.
2. World history: a reference book for schoolchildren and students / Gubarev V.K. ─ Rostov n/d: “Phoenix”, Donetsk: “Credo”, 2007.
3. Danilov A.A. National history. Textbook. M.: “Project”, 2003.
4. History of Russia for those entering universities: textbook/V.I. Moryakov, V.A. Fedorov, Yu.A. Shchetinov.M.: TK "Velby", Prospekt Publishing House, 2006.
5. Krivosheev Yu.V. Rus' and the Mongols.−SPb.: St. Petersburg Publishing House. Univ., 2003.
6. Pipes R. Russia under the old regime. M.: ZAKHAROV, 2004.
7. Khrustalev D.G. Rus' from the invasion to the “yoke”. 30-40s of the 13th century. − St. Petersburg: EURASIA, 2004.
Topic 3. Formation of the Russian centralized state. The rise of autocracy
North-Eastern Rus' in the XIV century. The emergence of new political centers (Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow). The struggle of the Moscow princes for dominance in North-Eastern Rus'. The rise of Moscow and its role in the unification of the northeastern Russian lands. Specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state: socio-economic and political prerequisites.
Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Completion of the unification of North-Eastern Rus' around Moscow. Development of forms of feudal land ownership. Approval of the local land tenure system, stages of enslavement of peasants. "Code of Law" of Ivan III. Order system.
Ivan groznyj. Reforms of the 50s XVI century and the formation of forms of class-representative monarchy. Oprichnina, causes and consequences. Strengthening autocracy.
Western policy of Ivan IV. Livonian War. The struggle for access to the Baltic states. Expansion of the Muscovite kingdom in the East. Conquest of the Kazan Khanate. Annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate. Conquest of Siberia. The meaning of Russian colonization. Formation of an ethnically and socially heterogeneous society. The influence of space on the formation of national character, political culture, principles of state organization, reproduction of traditionalism on a new scale.
Differences in the socio-political development of Western European countries and Russia. Russian idea: “Moscow is the Third Rome.”
1. Thanks to what event did Ivan Kalita receive a “label” to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and the right to collect tribute?:
a) the construction of the Kremlin;
b) an invitation to Moscow by the Metropolitan;
c) participation in the suppression of the uprising in Tver.
2. The event, which went down in history as “standing on the Ugra River,” led to:
a) the defeat of the Horde army;
b) the resumption of payment of tribute to the Golden Horde;
c) the end of Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde.
3. At the end of the 13th century. in order to become a Grand Duke in Rus', it was necessary to obtain:
a) blessing of the Patriarch of Constantinople;
b) consent of the Master of the Livonian Order;
c) a label for a great reign from the Horde.
4. What were the specifics of the socio-economic development of Rus' in the 9th-11th centuries? compared to Western Europe:
a) in the approval of serfdom;
b) the presence of subsistence farms;
c) in the predominance of free community members among the population.
5. Characteristic feature of feudalism:
a) the conditional nature of land ownership;
b) civilian labor;
c) private property relations.
6. The first mention of Moscow is found in the chronicle in:
7. Who was the ancestor of the Moscow appanage princes:
a) Alexander Nevsky;
b) Daniil Alexandrovich;
c) Ivan Kalita.
8. Between which two principalities was there a struggle for hegemony in North-Eastern Rus' in the first quarter of the 14th century:
a) between Moscow and Ryazan;
b) between Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod;
c) between Moscow and Tver.
9. Name the Russian prince of the first “collector” of Rus':
a) Andrey Bogolyubsky;
b) Ivan Kalita;
c) Ivan the Red.
10. When the white stone Kremlin was built in Moscow:
a) in 1272;
b) in 1328;
11. Under the leadership of which Russian prince the defeat of Mamaev’s army took place on September 8, 1380 on the Kulikovo field:
a) Alexander Nevsky;
b) Ivan Kalita;
c) Dmitry Ivanovich;
12. The main difference in the process of creating a single centralized state compared to similar processes in Western Europe?:
a) foreign policy factor;
b) intensification of trade;
c) European Renaissance.
13. The final stage of the formation of the Moscow centralized state:
a) end of the 13th – beginning of the 14th centuries;
b) late XIV – early XV centuries;
c) second half of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries.
14. When the Horde yoke in Rus' was overthrown:
a) in 1480;
b) in 1500;
15. The first Russian metropolitan elected at a general meeting of Russian bishops was:
b)Antony
d) Hilarion
16. Which of the following statements is true? Union of Florence:
a) was an attempt by the Pope to subordinate the Russian Orthodox Church to his influence
b) was concluded between the Russian Patriarch and the Pope to oppose Islam
c) was concluded between Poland and Lithuania, as a result of which the state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth arose
d) an agreement between the Pope and Russia on a joint struggle against the Golden Horde
17. Payment for the elderly was first introduced:
a) Ivan the Terrible in the “decree on reserved years”
b) in the Code of Laws of 1550
c) in the Code of Laws of 1497
d) in “Russkaya Pravda”