" and "liberal" come from the Latin liberalis and literally mean "having to freedom." When it comes to a liberal as a supporter of a socio-political movement, it is assumed that this person stands on a platform that welcomes the deepening and development of political freedoms in the broadest sense of the word. As a rule, liberal ideology unites supporters of democratic parliamentarism, as well as those who stand for the freedom of private enterprise.

In everyday life, the label "liberal" is most often given to those who show unnecessary and inappropriate tolerance for other people's behavior that violates generally accepted norms and rules. It is believed, for example, that excessive in the upbringing of the younger generation negatively affects the formation of the personality of a teenager. Often the public is required to end liberalism against criminals and malicious violators of social norms.

in politics

Who can be attributed to the liberals in the field of activity? It's about about public figures who support and wholeheartedly approve of the idea of ​​limiting any interference state structures into social relationships. The main principles of the liberal system of values ​​were formed in those times when bourgeois relations based on free enterprise were born and strengthened in society.

The liberal considers personal, economic and political freedom to be the highest priority in social and political life. Rights and freedoms for a liberal become a kind of basis and starting point for the formation of a political position. According to liberal politicians, it is the free development of any social society that makes it possible to build a truly democratic state.

Liberal democracy is becoming the ideal of many Western politicians. However, today there is little left of the former free-thinking and free-thinking in it. The main emphasis of the Western liberals is placed not so much on the expansion of the actual freedoms of citizens, but on the removal of restrictions that hinder the development of the private sector. Political scientists and sociologists note that Western traditions are penetrating deeper and deeper into the economy, politics and culture of developing countries.

A few years ago, the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion conducted a survey of the population, the main question of which was: "What is liberalism, and who is a liberal?" Most of the participants were confused by this question, 56% could not give an exhaustive answer. The survey was conducted in 2012, most likely, today the situation is unlikely to change for the better. Therefore, now in this article we will briefly consider the concept of liberalism and all its main aspects for the education of the Russian audience.

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About the concept

There are several definitions that describe the concept of this ideology. Liberalism is:

• political movement or ideology that unites admirers of democracy and parliamentarism;
• worldview, which is characteristic of the industrial, defending their rights of a political nature, as well as entrepreneurial freedom;
• theory, which absorbed philosophical and political ideas, which appeared in Western Europe in the 18th century;
• the first meaning of the concept was free-thinking;
• tolerance and tolerance for unacceptable behavior.

All these definitions can be safely attributed to liberalism, but the main thing is that this term denotes an ideology that affects the structure and states. FROM Liberalism is Latin for freedom. Are all the functions and aspects of this movement really built in freedom?

Freedom or restriction

The liberal movement includes such key concepts as about public good, individual freedom and equality of people within the policy and . What liberal values ​​does this ideology promote?

1. Common good. If the state protects the rights and freedom of the individual, and also protects the people from various threats and controls compliance with the implementation of laws, then such a structure of society can be called reasonable.
2. Equality. Many shout that all people are equal, although it is obvious that this is absolutely not true. We differ from each other in various aspects: intelligence, social status, physical data, nationality, and so on. But liberals mean equality in human opportunity. If a person wants to achieve something in life, no one has the right to prevent this on the basis of race, social and other moments . The principle is that if you put in the effort, you will achieve more.
3. natural rights. British thinkers Locke and Hobbes came up with the idea that a person has three rights from birth: life, property and happiness. It will not be difficult for many to interpret this: no one has the right to take a person’s life (only the state for certain misconduct), property is seen as a personal right to own something, and the right to happiness is that very freedom of choice.

Important! What is liberalization? There is also such a concept that means the expansion of civil liberties and rights within the framework of economic, political, cultural and social life, it is also a process when the economy gets rid of the influence of the state.

Principles of liberal ideology:

• there is nothing more valuable than human life;
• all people in this world are equal;
• everyone has his inalienable rights;
• the individual and his needs are more valuable than society as a whole;
• the state arises by common consent;
• a person forms laws and state values ​​independently;
• the state is responsible to the person, the person, in turn, is responsible to the state;
• power must be divided, the principle of organizing life in the state on the basis of the constitution;
• only in fair elections can a government be elected;
• humanistic ideals.

These principles of liberalism formulated in the 18th century English philosophers and thinkers. Many of them never materialized. Most of them look like a utopia, to which humanity so vehemently strives, but cannot achieve in any way.

Important! Liberal ideology could be a lifeline for many countries, but there will always be some "pitfalls" that hinder development.

Founders of ideology

What is liberalism? At that time, every thinker understood it in his own way. This ideology has absorbed completely different ideas and opinions of thinkers of that time.

It is clear that some of the concepts may contradict each other, but the essence remains the same.

The founders of liberalism can be considered the English scientists J. Locke and T. Hobbes (18th century) along with French writer of the Enlightenment, Charles Montesquieu, who was the first to think and express his opinion about the freedom of man in all spheres of his activity.

Locke laid the foundation for the existence of legal liberalism and stated that only in a society in which all citizens are free can there be stability.

The original theory of liberalism

The followers of classical liberalism gave more preference and paid more attention to the "individual freedom" of a person. The concept of this concept is expressed in the fact that a person should not obey either society or social orders. Independence and equality- these are the main steps on which the entire liberal ideology stood. The word "freedom" then meant the absence of various prohibitions, limits or vetoes on the implementation of actions by a person, taking into account the generally accepted rules and laws of the state. That is, the freedom that would not go against established dogmas.

As the founders of the liberal movement believed, the government should guarantee equality between all its citizens, but a person already had to take care of his financial situation and status on his own. Limiting the scope of governmental power was what liberalism, in turn, tried to achieve. According to theory, the only thing the state was supposed to provide for its citizens was security and policing. That is, the liberals tried to influence the reduction to a minimum of all its functions. The existence of society and power could only be on the condition of their general subordination to laws within the framework of the state.

The fact that classical liberalism still exists became clear when, in 1929, a terrible economic crisis arose in the United States. Its consequences were tens of thousands of bankrupt banks, the death of many people from starvation and other horrors of the state's economic downturn.

economic liberalism

The main concept of this movement was the idea of ​​equality between economic and natural laws. Government intervention in these laws was prohibited. Adam Smith is the founder of this movement and its main principles:

• for push economic development personal interest is needed;
• state regulation and the existence of monopolies harm the economy;
• economic growth must be promoted discreetly. That is, the government should not interfere in the process of the emergence of new institutions. Enterprises and suppliers operating in the interests of income and within the market system are subtly guided by an "invisible hand". All this is the key to competently meeting the needs of society.

neoliberalism

This direction was formed in the 19th century and implies a new trend in, which consists in the complete non-interference of the government in trade relations between its subjects.

The main tenets of neoliberalism are constitutionalism and equality between all members of society in the country.

Signs of this current: the authorities should contribute to the self-regulation of the economy in the market, and the process of redistributing finances, first of all, should take into account the strata of the population with low level income.

Neoliberalism does not oppose state regulation of the economy, while classical liberalism denies this. But the regulation process should include only the free market and the competitiveness of subjects to guarantee economic growth along with social justice. The main idea of ​​neoliberalism – support of foreign trade policy and internal trade to increase the gross income of the state, that is, protectionism.

All political concepts and philosophical movements have their own characteristics, and neoliberalism is no exception:

• the need for government intervention in the economy. The market must be protected from the possible emergence of monopolies, and a competitive environment and freedom must be ensured;
• protection of principles and justice. All citizens must be involved in political processes to maintain the right democratic "weather";
• government should support different economic programs, associated with financial support for low-income social strata.

Briefly about liberalism

Why is the concept of liberalism distorted in Russia?

Conclusion

Now the question is, "What is liberalism?" will no longer cause dissonance among the respondents. After all, the understanding of freedom and equality is simply presented under other terms that have their own principles and concepts that affect different areas of the state system, but remain unchanged in one thing - only then the state will flourish when it ceases to restrict its citizens in many ways.

(from the Latin liberalis - free) first appeared in literature in the 19th century, although as a current of socio-political thought it was formed much earlier. The ideology arose in response to the powerless position of citizens under the conditions of an absolute monarchy.

The main achievements of classical liberalism are the development of the "Theory of the Social Contract", as well as the concepts of the natural rights of the individual and the theory of separation of powers. The authors of the Theory of the Social Contract were D. Locke, C. Montesquieu and J.-J. Rousseau. According to her, the origin of the state, civil society and law is based on an agreement between people. The social contract implies that people partially renounce sovereignty and transfer it to the state in exchange for ensuring their rights and freedoms. The key principle is that a legitimate governing body must be obtained with the consent of the governed, and it has only those rights that have been delegated to it by citizens.

Based on these signs, the supporters of liberalism did not recognize absolute monarchy and believed that such power corrupts, because. it has no limits. Therefore, the first insisted on the expediency of the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Thus, a system of checks and balances is created and there is no room for arbitrariness. A similar idea is described in detail in the works of Montesquieu.

Ideological liberalism developed the principle of the natural inalienable rights of a citizen, including the right to life, liberty and property. The possession of them does not depend on belonging to any class, but is given by nature.

classical liberalism

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a form of classical liberalism emerged. Its ideologues include Bentham, Mill, Spencer. Proponents of classical liberalism put at the forefront not public, but individual interests. Moreover, the priority of individualism was defended by them in a radical extreme form. This distinguished classical liberalism from the form in which it originally existed.

Another important principle was anti-paternalism, which assumed minimal state interference in private life and the economy. State participation in economic life should be limited to the creation of a free market for goods and labor. Freedom was perceived by liberals as a key value, the main guarantee of which was private property. Accordingly, economic freedom had the highest priority.

Thus, the basic values ​​of classical liberalism were the freedom of the individual, the inviolability of private property and minimal state participation. However, in practice, this model did not contribute to the formation of the common good and led to social stratification. This led to the spread of the neoliberal model.

Modern liberalism

In the last third of the 19th century, a new trend began to take shape -. Its formation was due to the crisis of liberal doctrine, which went to the maximum rapprochement with conservative ideology and did not take into account the interests of the widespread stratum - the working class.

As a leading virtue political system proclaimed justice and consent and ruled. Neoliberalism also sought to reconcile the values ​​of equality and freedom.

Neoliberals no longer insisted that man should be guided by selfish interests, but should contribute to the formation of the common good. And although individuality is the highest goal, it is possible only with a close relationship with society. Man began to be perceived as a social being.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the need for state participation in the economic sphere for a fair distribution of benefits also became apparent. In particular, the functions of the state included the need to create an education system, establish a minimum wage and control working conditions, provide unemployment or sickness benefits, etc.

They are opposed by libertarians who advocate the preservation of basic principles liberalism - free enterprise, as well as the inviolability of natural freedoms.

Liberalism

In its emergence and development, liberalism went through two stages:

1_17-19 century: classical liberalism

2_from the beginning of the 20th century to today: neoliberalism or social liberalism

John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau ("On the Social Contract"), John Stuart Mill ("On Liberty"), Thomas Paine ("Rights of Man", "Common Sense") are considered the founding fathers of liberal ideology. The ideology of liberalism is the ideology of the new time, when the Middle Ages and feudalism are fading into the past and capitalism is developing. The main ideas of classical liberalism:

1_Recognition of a person as the highest value. Liberalism is the ideology of individualism.

2_Recognition of the equality of all people and the recognition of a person's natural, acquired by virtue of the birth of inalienable rights (basic: the right to life, property, freedom).

3_Recognition of freedom as the highest of the values ​​that a person possesses. At the same time, a person is responsible for his actions. The unity of freedom and responsibility is one of the cornerstones of the liberalist ideology.

4_The rule of law. Only the law can limit a person's freedom.

5_Anti-statism - the state as minimized as possible.

6_Moral and religious tolerance.

7_Relations between society and the state are in the nature of a contract.

8_Faith in social progress.

9_Recognition of free competition, free private enterprise and the market as natural regulators of economic and social relations.

Statism is the active intervention of the state in the economic and political life countries.

The liberals faced a number of problems: the equality of people, free enterprise and the market can regulate many, but not all, other regulators are required, the result of which was an increase in the state and its role.

neoliberalism

Over time, a number of provisions of classical liberalism have been revised and neoliberal ideas were mainly formulated after the Second World War.

In 1947, the Liberal International was created, which united more than 20 parties. Now all the countries of Europe are present in it.

Theorists of neoliberalism are: Hayek, Bell, Toffler, Aron.

The main ideas of neoliberalism:

1_Improve production efficiency based on high technology

2_The main tool is to encourage the freedom of private property and entrepreneurship.

3_The state should reduce its direct participation in the economy.

4_Own social functions the state should limit itself to taking care of those employed in post-industrial production, that is, it should only take care of the well-being of the two-thirds of society that create the wealth of the country.

5_Internationalization of the economy, development and implementation of regional and global integration programs.

6_Caring for a favorable natural environment, development of environmental programs, solving global problems.

The Essence of the Basic Ideas of Social Democracy

The main ideas of democratic socialism, they are set out in the Declaration of Principles of the Socialist International (1989)

The interdependence of society and the individual

Political Democracy:

Parliamentarism

Multi-party system

Recognition of the opposition

The right to dissent

Orientation towards non-violent evolutionary development

Economic democracy, mixed economy

Socio-political organizations and movements, their typology and functions

Socio-political organizations and movements are voluntary formations that have arisen as a result of the free will of citizens united on the basis of common interests and goals.

Parties are also included in this group, but stand out strongly. Only they set a clear goal of achieving power, the use of power. Only parties have a rigid structure and a clear scheme for achieving power. Other public organizations less politicized.

Unlike parties, these movements and organizations don't put the goal is to master state power. The number of socio-political organizations and movements greatly exceeds the number of parties.

Typology of socio-political organizations and movements

By field of activity:

1_RSPP - Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs

2_trade unions

3_sports unions

4_creative unions and associations

5_human rights organizations

6_ecological movements, etc.

According to the degree and form of organization:

1_elemental

2_weakly organized

3_with a high degree of organization

By lifetime:

1_short-term

2_long-term

Polish sociologist and political scientist Yevhen Vyatr believes that almost all socio-political organizations and movements go through a number of stages in their development:

1_Creating the prerequisites for movement. Real problems and contradictions become the basis for discussion and the emergence of active individuals who offer options for solving these problems. A common vision of the problem is developed.

2_Development of ideological and organizational foundations. The movement forms a clear position, creates a program, holds organizational congresses or speeches of the leaders of the movement in the press or television.

3_Agitation stage. For any organization, mass character is the key to success.

4_Stage deployed political activity. The work of the party itself begins. This stage depends on your goals. If the goals are achievable, the stage may not last long; if the goals are unattainable or difficult to achieve, the stage can stretch for a very long time.

5_Stage of attenuation of motion. A movement or organization can cease to exist when the goal is achieved or turns out to be false / unattainable; under pressure from the authorities; when there are no means to continue the struggle, etc.

Recently (20-30 years) in many countries of the world, the so-called alternative movements (AD) have become most widespread. These are new social movements seeking to find original solutions to global and some other actual problems Key words: nuclear proliferation, resources, ecology, war and peace, quality of life. The leaders of these movements claim that the old political structures are ineffective and incapable of solving global problems.

These movements are unpopular in Russia and popular in Europe. People who, as a rule, do not have economic difficulties participate in alternative movements. Age - from 18 to 35 years old, city dwellers, representatives of the middle class, schoolchildren and students. The level of education is high.

The most active and organized alternative movements are:

1_Environmental (Greenpeace, World wildlife and etc.).

2_Anti-war and anti-nuclear.

3_Civil Rights Movement.

4_Organizations of supporters of an alternative way of life.

5_Feminist.

6_Movement of pensioners.

7_Consumer.

Subsidiary movements are extremist, for example, environmental - Peta.

Party systems

In their functioning within the framework of the political system, depending on the nature and number of parties, all the parties of a given country are formed into the so-called party system.

It is customary to single out:

1) One-party systems

2) Bipartisan

3) Multiparty

1e are considered an anachronism and are less common than others (China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam). There is a coalescence of party and state bodies. First of all - the party and the executive branch.

Much depends on the requirements that are imposed on a party in order for it to be considered parties of a social scale. One of the most stringent requirements is in the Russian Federation.

The party must meet the following requirements:

1) Composition - at least 50,000 people

2) Must have regional branches in more than half of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation

3) More or half of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation must have regional branches of at least 500 people

2nd. Operates in countries where there are several parties (approx. 20). However, only 2 parties have a real opportunity to win the parliamentary elections and come to power.

The 2 most influential parties succeed each other in power (in the classical form it is represented in the USA - Democrats and Republicans). In some countries, a modified 2-party system (2 + 1, 2.5) operates - such a system has developed in Germany - XDC | XCC, SPD. The Party of Free Democrats - the role of the pendulum. Approximately the same system exists in the UK.

Analysts note that such a system has obvious advantages:

1) Convenience of choice for voters

2) The system contributes to the gradual mitigation of ideological conflicts between parties and their transition to more moderate positions

3) Allows you to get closer to the ideal of "responsible government": one is in power, the other is in opposition.

If voters are dissatisfied with the work of the government, they vote for the opposition party in parliamentary elections.

3rd. A multi-party system operates, where there are several fairly large and influential parties in the country, each of which gains a significant number of votes in parliamentary elections. (Italy, Finland, Greece).

Under such a system, there can be up to 10 parties in parliament. There would have been even more if the so-called “electoral threshold/barrier” had not been established. As a rule, it is 5%. In the Russian Federation before the 2007 elections. Was 5% - now - 7%

In a multi-party system, parties often form electoral blocs in elections. In the Russian Federation, such blocks could be created until 2007. This is prohibited under the new law.

For the first time the term "liberalism" (from Latin liberalis - free) was used in Spain in 1811 in Spain. In the future, this term entered all European languages. The ideas of liberalism were actively developed and defended by such thinkers as J. Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith, S. Montesquieu, I. Kant, T. Jefferson, B. Constant, A. De Tocqueville, I. Bentham, J. St. Mill and others. As an ideological and political phenomenon, liberalism was born on the basis of the ideas of the Enlightenment at the end of the XYII - beginning of the XYIII centuries. On the early stages in its development, it was the most important means of struggle led by the bourgeoisie of the "third estate" against the existing absolutist order. Therefore, its content was directly related to the needs and interests of the emerging bourgeoisie. From the very beginning, the principles of individual freedom, its high intrinsic value and the right to self-realization, as well as the recognition of its responsibility to society, were laid in the foundation of liberalism. Freedom was understood by liberals as freedom from state, church and other forms of social control. On the basis of these prerequisites, the economic and political attitudes of liberalism were formed. In the field of economics, the idea of ​​individual freedom was interpreted by liberals as the freedom of private enterprise and the market. They consistently advocated the release of economic activity from state regulation, for the maximum scope for private initiative. Economic freedom, according to liberals, is the basis of civil and political freedoms. The principle of freedom in the political sphere was interpreted by liberals as freedom from state restrictions. On the basis of such an attitude, the idea of ​​a “night watchman state” was formulated, the essence of which was that the state should be endowed with only the most minimal and necessary functions to ensure the protection of order, the rule of law and the protection of the country from external danger. It was noted that civil society should have priority over the state, which can be achieved on the basis of the principles of constitutionalism and parliamentarism. Liberals defended the ideas of the rule of law as a means of limiting the state and the separation of powers as a tool for society's control over the state. Opposing class privileges, they emphasized the idea of ​​equality of citizens before the laws, which should be more of the nature of prohibitions, rather than prescriptions. Similar ideas of liberalism have created a theoretical basis for the formation of the rule of law. By the beginning of the 20th century, liberalism found itself in a rather difficult position in Western countries. The development of the free market and entrepreneurship has turned from an idea into a reality. But it was then that it became clear that the unrestricted play of market forces in the conditions of the social vulnerability of the working people did not bring prosperity or freedom to the majority of society. In such an environment, trust in traditional liberal values ​​fell sharply and a revision of the most important provisions of classical liberalism began. Under the influence of the current situation, as well as the development of the labor and social democratic movement, the ideas of social justice, state support for the poor, elimination of extremes of property inequality, etc. appeared in the arsenal of liberals. As a result, liberalism evolved into "social liberalism (neoliberalism)" The socialist revolution in Russia and the global economic crisis of the early 1930s played a role in establishing neoliberalism as one of the most important reformist ideologies of the 20th century, which raised the question of the need to rethink such postulates of classical liberalism as unlimited individual freedom and freedom of competition. Of particular importance were the ideas of the English economist J. Keynes (1881–1946), widely popular in those years, who developed a model of state regulation aimed at a sharp expansion of state intervention in the economy and a significant limitation of its market principles. The Keynesian model also provided for a significant expansion of the consumer demand of the population based on a significant increase in government spending, the creation of social guarantees for the poor in the field of medicine, education, employment, pensions, etc. In practice, the ideas of neoliberalism were first implemented in the "new course" President F. Roosevelt, elected in 1932. His government began to actively pursue a policy of demonopolization of the economy and carry out its state regulation. Unemployment benefits were introduced, the activities of trade unions were legalized, and collective agreements between workers and entrepreneurs began to be concluded. In the future, similar processes covered almost all industrialized countries. The main difference between neoliberalism and classical liberalism is the recognition of the active role of the state in regulating the economy and pursuing social policy. The idea of ​​its detachment from economic and social processes was replaced by the understanding that the state should in every possible way contribute to ending social conflicts and smoothing out excessive social inequality by supporting the poorest and most vulnerable sections of society. It was recognized that such a policy could be carried out by the state only on the basis of its active influence on economic processes. Under these conditions, liberals, like the Social Democrats, began to defend the ideas of health care available to all citizens, free school and higher education, expansion of the social security system, etc. e. They were also adherents of the idea of ​​progressive taxation, believing that large owners should bear their share of responsibility for the social stability of society. As a result of the implementation of such a policy in the West, a new model of the state was created, called the "welfare state." However, in the 1970s, the neoliberal ideology began to lose its influence, which, while remaining faithful to the basic principles of freedom and market entrepreneurship, absorbed a number of previously unusual ideas (emphasis on the social equality of citizens, recognition of the need for state intervention in the economy and social life society, etc.), which gave rise to a violation of its internal integrity and consistency. The crisis phenomena of the economy of the 1970s, accompanied by the crisis of the "welfare state", were largely the result of the policy pursued by neoliberal parties. As a result of their decline in popularity, they were forced to cede state power to parties pursuing neo-conservative policies. However, in the future, liberalism again embarked on the path of rethinking its leading principles. In particular, the need was recognized to return to the principles of stimulating market mechanisms while reducing the regulatory role of the state.

Having inherited a number of ideas of the ancient Greek thinkers Lucretius and Democritus, liberalism as an independent ideological trend was formed on the basis of the political philosophy of the English enlighteners D. Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. Linking the freedom of the individual with respect for fundamental human rights, as well as with the system of private property, liberalism based its concept on the ideals of free competition, the market, and entrepreneurship.

Liberalism- this is an ideology that proclaims the recognition of the political and economic rights of the individual within the framework of laws, which are a generalization of the natural needs and inalienable rights of people to life, freedom, property, security, order. Liberalism provides for such a structure of society and power mechanisms, when free competition and the market limit the role of the state in the life of society.

The main, backbone principles of liberalism are the following:

1) the natural equality of people;

2) the existence and guarantee of the inalienability of such human rights as the right to life, liberty, property;

3) the rule of law, its binding on all;

4) the contractual nature of relations between the state and citizens, providing for their mutual responsibility;

5) a democratic political regime that provides all citizens with equal rights to vote and be elected;

6) the presence of a developed civil society and guarantees of non-interference in private life;

7) constitutionalism, which provides for the restriction of legislative and executive power through, first of all, the system of separation of powers, the mechanism of checks and balances, the establishment of limits and "clear" procedures for the activities of legislators.

The main problems of liberal ideology have always been the definition of the permissible degree and nature of state interference in the private life of an individual, the combination of democracy and freedom, loyalty to a particular Fatherland and universal human rights.

Attempts to resolve these issues have led to the emergence of numerous internal currents in liberalism. So, in the XX century. along with traditional liberalism, directions were formed that tried to combine its core values ​​with a total reliance on the state, or with socially oriented ideas that asserted a greater responsibility of society for the welfare of all people than an individual, or with ideas that denied the social orientation of the state's activities ("conservative liberalism"). ") etc.

The strengthening of the elements of the state ideology and social goals, which adapted the traditional values ​​of liberalism to the economic and political realities of the second half of the 20th century, forced us to talk about its historically renewed form - neoliberalism. Justice was proclaimed the most important advantage of the political system, and governments - orientation to moral principles and values. The political program of the neo-liberals was based on the ideas of consensus between the rulers and the ruled, the need for the participation of the masses in the political process, and the democratization of the procedure for making managerial decisions.

In contrast to the previous tendency to mechanically determine the democratic nature of political life by the majority, pluralistic forms of organization and exercise of state power began to be preferred. Moreover, R. Dahl, C. Lindblum and other neo-pluralists believe that the weaker the rule of the majority, the more it corresponds to the principles of liberalism. True, representatives of right-wing liberal movements (F. Hayek, D. Escher, G. Olson) believe that under pluralism mechanisms of expropriation of the wealthy minority by the majority can be formed, and this can threaten the fundamental principles of liberalism.

At the same time, the orientation preserved in neoliberalism is predominantly towards public types of human activity (political activity, enterprise, freedom from prejudices, etc.), the traditional attitude to morality as a private matter of a person (which contributes to the strengthening of not all ties and relations in society, and at times carries the danger of atomization of society) limit the electoral base of these ideas in modern conditions.

On the other hand, it was precisely the core values ​​of liberalism that led to a radical change in mass political views in many countries of the world, and formed the basis of many national ideologies, guidelines for neoconservatism and Christian democratic ideology. Various theories of political participation, democratic elitism, and so on have developed on a liberal basis.

Liberalism - a school in international studies that is fundamentally opposed to realism. The origins of this trend are in the works of J. Locke, I. Kant, A. Smith, J. S. Mill. The founder of this school is Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), the 28th President of the United States, one of the founders of the League of Nations. Representatives of this school are also called idealists, and the school itself is idealistic. Idealism was especially widespread in 1919-1939 and represented an attempt through international institutions, primarily the League of Nations, to ensure peace and cooperation between states.

The idealistic approach is distinguished from other approaches by a pronounced ethical position. It proceeds from an optimistic view of human nature as a rational being, capable of moral improvement, peaceful coexistence, ready to abandon the policy of force and the desire for domination for the sake of the common good. Idealists sought to create a harmonious model of international relations devoid of military conflicts. They put international cooperation, the legal resolution of conflicts, the regulation of relations between peoples with the help of international organizations, and the discussion of controversial issues in negotiations in the foreground. The power factor in politics was not evaluated as highly as by the realists; economic and legal levers were considered more effective means of influence. The liberals proceeded from the fact that the interaction of states on the world stage in order to maintain peace and economic prosperity must necessarily be regulated by intergovernmental organizations and international regimes (rules, norms, procedures jointly developed by members of the world community in a specific area of ​​international relations, for example, in trade, financial policy and etc.). States with a liberal approach, although they are recognized as the main participants in international relations, are not the only ones. It is emphasized that along with them intergovernmental (UN, OSCE, etc.) and non-governmental organizations (human rights, environmental, humanitarian, transnational corporations, etc.) operate.

School founded in the 1980s neoliberalism a(or structural liberalism) which continues classical liberalism, but takes into account the new realities of the world political process: complex interdependence, developing interstate cooperation, integration, and the creation of a global community. Neoliberalism pays special attention to the relationship between politics and economics. Due to the interdependence of states, the opportunities for their cooperation through international organizations should increase, and the influence of anarchy on the international environment should weaken.

As part of neoliberalism but several directions, concepts have arisen, which are sometimes considered as independent conceptual schools. These include primarily the concept complex interdependence. Its representatives are American political scientists Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. In this concept, international politics is analyzed from the point of view of the participation of many political actors in it - not only states, but also non-governmental organizations (there are over 10,000 of them in the world today), including influential transnational corporations. Parties, churches, trade unions and other organizations actively joined political life. The state has ceased to be the only actor on the world stage; moreover, it is losing its role as the main subject of international politics in favor of international organizations. Recognition of the diversity of actors, types and channels of interaction between them has led to the fact that in the study of world politics now, instead of the concept of international (and, in fact, interstate) relations, the concept has been used transnational relations. The model of transnational relations, which emphasizes the role of non-state actors, was formulated by R. Keohane together with J. Nye, and the concept of complex interdependence is often referred to as transnationalist or globalist school.

According to the theory of interdependence, all political actors, to a greater or lesser extent, influence international politics. They are interested not only in economic cooperation, but also in joining efforts to solve common, global problems, for example, environmental protection, arms limitation, nuclear non-proliferation, etc. The position of any country depends on its relations with other states and on the international system in in general. Due to the growing interdependence of various countries, the distinction between internal and foreign policy the state is becoming more and more relative: not only does foreign policy depend on domestic policy, but also domestic policy on foreign policy, and to an ever greater extent. The multilateral dependence of states makes it unprofitable to resolve conflicts by force, while cooperation and cooperation create conditions for peace and prosperity, transnationalists argue.