from lat. liber - free) - bourgeois. ideological and social and political. a current that united supporters of the bourgeois-parliament. building and bourgeois freedom. L. was widespread among the bourgeoisie during the pre-monopoly period. capitalism. Then L. represented a more or less integral system of views, according to which social harmony and the progress of mankind are achievable only on the basis of private property by ensuring sufficient freedom of the individual in the economy and in all other spheres of humanity. activity (because the common good allegedly spontaneously develops as a result of the implementation by individuals of their personal goals), and the capitalist. system - natural and eternal. The real content of L., specific for each stage of the development of capitalism, manifested itself in the activities of the social strata united under the banner of L. (“middle classes” - the industrial-trade bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia associated with them, the bourgeois nobility, a certain part of the large, in including part of the monopolistic, bourgeoisie) and has undergone a complex evolution with an extreme diversity of concrete-ist. (in particular, national) forms. In a modified form (in relation to the conditions of imperialism and the general crisis of capitalism), the ideas of L. are still used by the defenders of capitalism. L. was born in the conditions of the struggle of the young progressive bourgeoisie and the bourgeois nobility against feudalism as an instrument of struggle against feuds. constraint, arbitrariness of absolutism and spiritual oppression of the Catholic. churches; in that period, L. was the bearer of ideals (faith in progress, in the triumph of reason, peace, freedom, equality), common to all anti-feuds. camps, the implementation of which, however, was least of all possible on the basis of a specific program of L. (constitutional monarchy, liberation from the feudal shackles of only large property). The spiritual fathers of L. were representatives of the moderate wing of the rationalist enlighteners (Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, the Physiocrats; the latter’s formula laissez-faire, laissez-passer - “do not interfere with action”, became one of the most popular slogans of L.), the creators of the bourgeoisie. classical political economy (A. Smith, D. Ricardo). At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L. in Zap. Europe stands out in a special socio-political. flow. Approximately from 1816, the term "L.", initially extremely vague, also became widespread. In France, during the Restoration period, B. Constant, Guizot and others for the first time gave L. the character of a more or less formalized political. and historical and philosophical doctrine. From the ideological heritage of the Enlightenment, they chose only those provisions that met the daily needs of the bourgeoisie as the ruling class: deep faith in the human. reason was replaced by admiration for the limited. bourgeois "common sense", the idea of ​​Nar. sovereignty gave way to the demand for "freedom of the individual"; recognizing ist. legitimacy of bourgeois revolutions, French liberals refused to recognize the legitimacy of the revolution. proletarian movement. In an atmosphere of deepening contradictions, and then aggravated in the 30s. 19th century (after the revolution of 1830 in France and the parliamentary reforms of 1832 in England) of the antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the working class of the bourgeois-liber. reforms carried out everywhere through the appropriation of liber. bourgeoisie results of the struggle of the working masses and compromises with the monarchist-clerical reaction, are increasingly becoming anti-flight. character; L. slogans are increasingly becoming a means of disguising the capitalist. operation. European revolutions of 1848-49 remained unfinished in the mean. degrees as a result of the betrayal of the liber. bourgeoisie. But they contributed to clearing the ground for the development of capitalism, and it was the bourgeoisie who reaped their fruits; 50-60s 19th century became the climax. period in the development of L. L. reaches its greatest flowering in the classical. country prom. capitalism - England, where its ideologists from the very beginning developed Ch. arr. economic aspects of L. In the form of the so-called. utilitarianism - the doctrine developed by I. Bentham and a group of "philosophical radicals" (Bowring, Place, James and J. S. Mill), the prosperous middle classes received, along with a carefully thought-out program of the bourgeois. reforms designed to create ideal conditions for free enterprise, the ethical "justification" is unlimited. pursuit of profit - up to usury. In the 40s. 19th century Manchester manufacturers, MPs Cobden and Bright, in the course of the struggle against the Corn Laws, gave L. a classic. form of free trade. After the abolition of the Corn Laws, in the conditions of world trade. British monopoly and the decline of Chartism L. has become the dominant form of bourgeois ideology. Liber. the party led by Palmerston and Gladstone gained predominance in the political. life in England. L. subordinates to his ideological and political. influence means. part of the petty bourgeoisie and skilled workers united in trade unions. Political the dominance of the liberals led to increased social contrasts. With all this, compared with the feud. arbitrariness and constraint, the victory of free enterprise, the approval of the bourgeoisie. law enforcement have historically progressed. deed, met the needs of development produces. forces, contributed to the numerical and spiritual growth of the working class, opened up certain legal opportunities for its organization, for the spread of socialist. ideology and its connection with the labor movement. The later this country embarked on the path of bourgeois. transformation, the more developed the proletariat was in it by that time, the faster the cowardice and counter-revolutionary nature of the liberals were revealed. the bourgeoisie, its tendency to compromise with the reaction (for example, in Germany, Italy and a number of other countries). Having strengthened the bourgeois parliamentarism and free competition, L. has historically exhausted itself as the dominant (or most influential) bourgeois. socio-political flow. His entire worldview came into clear conflict with the real picture of the development of capitalism. society, because under imperialism "... some basic properties of capitalism began to turn into their opposite ..." (V. I. Lenin, Soch., vol. 22, p. 252). L. in the East arose in the 2nd half. 19 - beg. 20th century (China, Japan, India, Turkey) and from the very beginning, due to the connection of the local bourgeoisie with landownership, its progressive features were extremely limited; the demands of the liberals concerned Ch. arr. ext. modernization of the state apparatus, the creation of modern. army, navy, communications. In the last third of 19 - beg. 20th century the old, "classic" L. of the period of industrial capitalism is falling into decay, the adaptation of L. to new conditions begins. L. becomes primarily a means of distracting the masses from the revolution. struggle with the help of negligible. concessions to workers. Such is the activity of Lloyd George in England, Giolitti in Italy, and W. Wilson in the USA. Experienced Lebanese leaders (in England, France, and a number of other countries) directed the preparations for World War I and the military. offices, post-war. redistribution of the world, anti-Sov. intervention, suppression of the revolution. movements, introducing into all this, as V. I. Lenin noted, the methods of social demagogy and maneuvering developed over decades. Thus, the role of one of the original tools of the ruling imperialist movement, which had become fixed for L. in the conditions of the general crisis of capitalism, was revealed. bourgeoisie. Certain aspects of the practice of L. in the social question, especially in the part of it relating to the working class, were perceived by right-wing socialists. As the political influence of the working class L. gradually descends from the East. scenes, its functions are transferred to reformism. After the 1st World War and Vel. Oct. socialist. revolution, which opened a new era in the history of mankind, the crisis of L. sharply aggravated and deepened. L. began to experience a painful reassessment of values ​​(first of all, a crisis of faith in the salvation and infallibility of bourgeois individualism from the point of view of the interests of the bourgeoisie itself). Based on L. various concepts of the "third way" of the development of society arose, allegedly providing a combination of the interests of the individual and society, "freedom" and "order" on the basis of private property. So, in the period between the 1st and 2nd World Wars, attempts based on Keynes's theory to combine the "regulation" of the economy with social legislation (pensions, benefits for the unemployed, etc.) became widespread; these attempts were presented bourgeois. propaganda as a way to avoid both fascism and communism. Although the anti-communism of the liberals, as a rule, led either to capitulation to fascism, or to a policy of appeasement, which was tragic. consequences, liberal. the concepts of the period between the 1st and 2nd world wars are sometimes regarded by the monopolies as "too leftist", "pro-communist". Along with Keynesianism, after the 2nd World War, neoliberalism became widespread in the FRG, England, France, the USA, and Italy. Its center is in Germany (Eiken, Ryustov and others). Neo-liberals oppose "excessive" state intervention in the economy, arguing that with enough room for competition, a "social market economy" is formed, which supposedly provides general prosperity. Lit .: Lenin V.I., Liberalism and Democracy, Soch., 4th ed., Vol. 17; his, Two Utopias, ibid., vol. 18; his, On the Liberal and Marxist Concept of the Class Struggle, ibid., vol. 19; Was ist liberal?, Mönch., 1910; Ruggiere G. de, Storia del liberalismo europeo, Mil., 1962; Samuel H., Liberalism, L., 1960 (Russian translation - Samuel G., Liberalism, M., 1906); Saunders J., The age of revolution. The rise and decline of liberalism in Europe since 1815, N. Y., 1949; The liberal tradition from Fox to Keynes, L., 1956. I. N. Nemanov. Smolensk. Liberalism in Russia is bourgeois in its objective content, ideological, and then political. course, the social base of which was made up of landlords, moving to the capitalist. methods of management, the middle bourgeoisie, the nobility and the bourgeoisie. intelligentsia. The origin of the first rudimentary ideas of noble L. refers to the 60s. 18th century - early 19th century In the 40s. 19th century began the process of registration L. as a special ideological and political. currents and dissociation of it from the democratic. trends. Development of capitalism, class. the interests of the growing bourgeoisie inevitably gave rise to L. and his opposition to autocracy and serfdom. The progressiveness of L. was determined by the objective conditions of the necessity of the bourgeois. transformation of societies. and Mrs. building Russia. Since the era of the first revolution. situation and the fall of serfdom in 1861 until Feb. revolution of 1917 there was a struggle between the two East. tendencies - liberal and democratic - on the fundamental question of the type of bourgeois. development of Russia. L., expressing the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, acted as the bearer of the reformist tendency and the landowner-bourgeois. evolution of the Prussian type. Democracy, representing the interests of the peasantry, fought for the revolution. the destruction of all feud.-serf. institutions and vestiges. Political the program and reformist tactics of L., reflecting the striving of the bourgeoisie to eliminate class privileges, the constitution. the transformation of absolutism, the establishment of the legal system, the advancement to power, at the same time testified to its political. flabbiness, a tendency to compromise with the forces of the feud. reaction, fear of revolution. L., keeping the main. features of its ideology, programs and tactics, evolved depending on two factors: the strength of the revolutionary. movements, degrees bourgeois. the evolution of absolutism and the character of governments. policy, acquiring a definition. features on each ist. stage. Main The trend in the evolution of Lithuania was a steadily diminishing, historically and class-limited progressiveness and an invariably growing anti-people and counter-revolutionary spirit. The nodal points of the evolution of L. became revolutionary. situation at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s. 19th century, first Russian. revolution 1905-07, Feb. revolution of 1917 and the victory of Oct. revolution of 1917. The period of decomposition and crisis of the feudal-serf. building (2nd half of the 18th century - mid-19th century), the first, noble period (1825-61) will free. movement was the time of the birth and formation of L. Ideas of progress. enlightenment, criticism of serfdom and autocracy, projects to limit absolutism in the 2nd half. 18th century (S. E. Desnitsky, A. Ya. Polenov, N. I. Novikov, F. V. Krechetov and others) expressed the urgent tasks of the bourgeois. transformation of Russia. In the era of Decembrism, liber. and democratic. trends evolved as shades loosened. movement in general revolutionary. channel. In ist. genesis L. and bourgeois. Democracy Age of Enlightenment 18th century and Decembrism constitutes, therefore, prehistory. In the 30-40s. 19th century, when the definition is formed. maturity of social relations capitalist. type, and the task of eliminating serfdom and bourgeois. transformations become radical and practical. question of the whole Russian societies. life, the demarcation of L. and democracy is planned. The emerging L. found its expression in the views of the so-called. Westerners (K. D. Kavelin, V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, P. V. Annenkov and others) and, in a peculiar form, some Slavophiles. It still existed within the framework of the general antifeod. camp, opposing the reactionary-serf. ideology. However, already at that time, the first differences between the liberals and the democrats were outlined and gradually intensified. Aggravation of the socio-political. antagonisms in the conditions of revolution. situation at the turn of the 50s and 60s. 19th century led to political polarization. forces, to the design of L., his ideology, program and tactics. In societies. the rise of this period determined. liber played a role. motion. In handwritten literature, projects, journalism (magazine Otechestvennye zapiski, Rus. vestnik, Atheney) ideologists L. (Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, I. K. Babst, A. M. Unkovsky etc.) put forward a program of reforms carried out by the government, while maintaining landownership and the monarchy (the liberation of peasants with land for ransom, the abolition of estate privileges, glasnost, the creation of representative institutions). The process of L.'s separation from democracy was reflected in the liberals' break with Kolokol and Sovremennik; fight against L. revolution. camps headed by N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov. Reforms of the 60-70s 19th century, fear of people. revolution, hostility to the revolution. democrats (approval of the arrests in 1862 of Chernyshevsky, H. A. Serno-Solov'evich, and others), the explosion of chauvinism in connection with the Polish will liberate. The uprising of 1863–64 determined the turn of Latvia towards reaction, which made it possible for tsarism to weaken the anti-government. camp and beat off the revolution. onslaught. 2nd revolutionary situation in con. 70 - early 80s 19th century became a new stage in the development of L., to-ry, as before, remained within the framework of legal opposition to the autocracy, capable only of constitutions. "impulses" and a fruitless targeted campaign (see the Zemstvo movement). In the addresses of zemstvos and mountains. institutions, in speeches liber. presses ("Golos", "Molva", "Order", "Zemstvo", "Bulletin of Europe", etc.) put forward half-hearted measures both in the field of agrarian relations (resettlement of peasants, reduction of redemption payments, transformation of the tax system, etc.), and in the issue of state. system (the reform of the State Council, the involvement of representatives from the zemstvos in law-consultative activities), which did not affect the foundations of autocracy. The program and tactics of L. created favorable conditions for maneuvering the pr-va, facilitating, ultimately, in the beginning. 80s the victory of the reaction. On the second, bourgeois-democratic. stage will free. L.'s movements finally took shape and took shape in a definition. camp, which took the position of monarchic. center in the political grouping. forces. At this time, and the further, the stronger, the reactionary nature of L. "... was manifested in comparison with the revolutionary element of bourgeois democracy. .." (Lenin V.I., Soch., vol. 10, p. 431), his inability for independent progressive historical action. With the entry of Russia into the era of imperialism, the strengthening of the economic power of the bourgeoisie and the movement, with the transformation of the working class into a center of attraction for democratic forces and the formation of the Social-Democrats, the process of activation of Leningrad, the gradual political and organizational consolidation of its groupings, and the intensification of the struggle for influence over the peasantry take place. , from the 40s of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, did not create its own org-tions, although it had the material means and personnel for this. and the peasantry, the formation of political orgs of Leningrad began. on social and political problems.In 1901 and 1902, congresses of teley, in 1902 Zemstvo in alliance with the bourgeoisie. intellectuals founded a journal in Stuttgart. "Liberation" ed. Struve. In the summer and autumn of 1903, the Union of Liberation and the Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists were created. The program documents of L. carried out the idea of ​​"representation of the people" within the framework of the constitutional monarchy. building and increasing peasant allotments while maintaining landownership. L., fearing the growing people's revolution, sought to win hegemony in the liberation movement, demagogically acting as the bearer of national interests, and tried to switch the development of events to a reformist path. The first Russian The revolution of 1905-07 marked a turning point in the evolution of L. It "...remarkably quickly exposed liberalism and showed in practice its counter-revolutionary nature" (ibid., vol. 13, p. 100). L. in the conditions of the upward development of the revolution from Jan. until Dec. 1905 and the growing disorganization of the pr-va showed a sign. political activity, tried to maneuver between tsarism and revolution. people, to transfer development to the constitution. a way to bargain for reforms beneficial to the bourgeoisie. Such is the meaning of the appeal to the people of the July (1905) zemstvo-city congress, the decision of Sept. congress, L.'s tactics in relation to the Bulygin Duma, by October. strike of 1905. After the manifesto of 17 Oct. In 1905, the top bourgeoisie united in the "Union of October 17", and the "Union of Liberation" and the "Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists" created the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) - the main. party L. Counterrevolutionary. character L. openly manifested itself in relation to Dec. armed uprising of 1905. Revolutionary. L. opposed the methods of struggle parliamentary, peaceful methods of "organic" work in the Duma. In the interrevolutionary period L. played an important role in the third June system as Ch. opposition parties, to-heaven propaganda of the constitutions. illusions and reforms, his loyal parl. tactics facilitated the carrying out of the Stolypin Bonapartist agrarian. and Duma politics. L. acted as an active force in the political. and ideological. reactions, which found expression in Sat. "Milestones" (1909). L. was not able to fight for the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution, but the incompleteness of the capitalist. evolution kept the base for its oppositions. speeches against the feudal lords, absolutism. On the eve and during World War I, L. preached the ideas of the bourgeoisie. nationalism and pan-Slavism, ideologically substantiating the imperialist. Russian interests. bourgeoisie, participated in the mobilization of all forces for the needs of the imperialist. war. The defeat of the royal troops, households. devastation, the growth of the revolution. movements, the disorganization of the pr-va, unable to wage war to victory, the strengthening of the influence of the court camarilla forced L. to take the path of opposition to the autocracy and take the initiative to create in August. 1915 in the 4th Duma, the so-called. "progressive bloc". Victory Feb. The revolution of 1917 marked the beginning of the last stage in the history of L. Lieber. parties seized power and became governments. parties striving for the autocracy of the bourgeoisie, for the continuation of the war, for the defeat of the Soviets and the Bolshevik Party. The Kadet Party united around itself all the forces of the bourgeois-landlord-general counter-revolution, which was especially clearly manifested in the Kornilov revolt (see Kornilovshchina). Oct. the revolution led L. to the ideological and political. collapse. The bourgeoisie, including means. part liber. intelligentsia, responded with sabotage and counter-revolution. performances on the establishment of the Soviet. authorities. During the years of civil war L., united with other forces of the counter-revolution, with the help of the intervention of the international. imperialism, tried to destroy the Sov. power. Many Lebanese figures (Struve, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, and others) took an active part in the White Guard. pr-wah, and after civil. wars became the ideologists and organizers of the anti-Sovs. struggle in exile. Liberal-bourgeois. party open participation in the armament. fight against the Soviets. authorities placed themselves outside the framework of owls. legality and owls. democracy. A peculiar manifestation of the ideology of L. in the conditions of the first years of the NEP was the so-called. the Smenovekhov movement, which strove for the restoration of capitalism "from within" the owls. building, based on its internal. rebirth. L. throughout its history was not in the program-tactical. relation to a single and homogeneous movement. In its line with ser. 19th century to early 20th century there were various currents that reflected the interests of certain sections of the bourgeoisie. Since 1905, the process of desks began. design of various directions of L. Some desks. groupings that arose in 1905 (the party legal order, progressive economic Party, etc.), did not last long, and the Lebanese factions were soon distributed among the Octobrists, Progressives, and Cadets. The histories of these parties, primarily the Cadet one, constitute in their totality the history of the Rus. L. in the period 1905-17, With all interparty. and intrapart. disagreements (criticism by Milyukov of the authors of "Vekhi" for self-disclosure dangerous for L., Maklakov's accusation of flirting with democracy and a discussion between them on tactical questions, etc.), all parties and movements of L. were united by fear of the revolutionary. victory of the people, the desire for a compromise with the absolutist-feudal. reaction, active participation in the struggle against democratic. and socialist. revolution. If there is a specific features of these same beings. features were characteristic of L. in nat. district The scope and maturity of L. were determined by the level of socio-political. development of national district. In con. 19 - beg. 20th century in Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus, and a number of other districts, liberal-nationalist sects took shape. parties and groupings of the local bourgeoisie (the National Democratic Party in Poland, the Ukrainian Democratic Party, the Belorussian community, Jadidism in Central Asia, the Musavatists in Transcaucasia, etc.). They were in opposition to tsarism and sought to achieve self-government and equal rights with the Russian. bourgeoisie. Under the conditions of imperialism and the expansion of nat.-liberate. the struggle of the peoples of the bourgeois-nationalist. L. is losing progress. traits. His dual policy was reduced to attempts to obtain concessions from tsarism and with the help of nationalist. demagoguery to distract the workers from the socio-political. struggle, split their alliance with the Rus. the proletariat. After Oct. liberal-nationalist revolution. parties are included in the common front of the counter-revolution and are actively fighting against the Soviets. authorities. In the ideology, program, tactics and organization of L. in Russia, his main ones were manifested. traits and features: a relatively late separation from democracy and a quick turn to counter-revolution, that is. specific gravity noble element, activity within the framework of the legal opposition and the later formation of parties. groupings, fear of revolution, a tendency to compromise with the forces of the feud. reactions. These features of L. had their origins in the weakness and non-revolutionary nature of the Russian. bourgeoisie, in regards. strength and survivability of the remnants of the feud. antiquity. They intensified with the growth of the class. struggle, with the performance of the proletariat, which pushed back L. and became the hegemon of all democratic. forces. Revolutionary. democracy exposed L. and his conciliatory policy. This line is in the span. free. the movement was continued and enriched by the Bolshevik Party. V. I. Lenin gave scientific. analysis ist. evolution of L., its ideology, programs and tactics, revealing the commonality of the most essential features of L. different periods. Assessment of L., his social and political. role was one of the most important points of disagreement between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Lenin's doctrine of the hegemony of the proletariat in the bourgeoisie. revolution and the struggle of Bolshevism for its implementation undermined the influence of L. and his opportunist. allies in the labor movement - the Mensheviks. The struggle of the Bolsheviks against Lithuania was a necessary condition for the revolution. and democratic. education of the working masses, preparing them for the struggle under the arms. proletariat for a new, democratic and socialist. Russia. L. tried ist. concepts to substantiate their program and tactics. Liber. historiography (Milyukov, Struve, P. G. Vinogradov, and others), based on the reactionary-idealistic. theory, portrayed political. the history of Russia as the history of the consistent development of the reformist activity of the autocracy and the growing progressiveness of Leningrad, while ignoring the decisive role of the class. struggle. Leninist Criticism of Liber. historiography played a big role in exposing the ideology of L. Oct. The revolution of 1917 meant not only the collapse of the ideology, program and tactics of Lithuania, but also revealed the complete failure of its historical and political. doctrines. Lit .: Lenin V.I., Persecutors of the Zemstvo and Annibals of Liberalism, Soch., 4th ed., Vol. 5; his, Two Tactics of Social Democracy in Democratic. revolutions, ibid., vol. 9; his same, Experience in the classification of Russian. political parties, ibid., vol. 11; his, Concerning the Jubilee, ibid., vol. 17; his own, the "Peasant Reform" and the proletarian-cross. revolution, ibid.; his own, In memory of Herzen, ibid., vol. 18; his own, Politich. parties in Russia, ibid.; his, On the liberal and Marxist concept of class. struggle, ibid., v. 19. See also Reference volume, part 1, p. 307-11. Belokonsky I., Zemstvo and constitution, M., 1910; Bogucharsky V., From the history of political. wrestling in the 70s. and 80s. 19th century Party "People's Will", its origin, fate and death, M., 1912; Veselovsky B., History of the Zemstvo for forty years, vol. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1911; Glinsky B: The struggle for the constitution. 1612-1862, St. Petersburg, 1908; Jordan N., Konstituts. movement of the 60s, St. Petersburg, 1906; his, Zemsky liberalism, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1906; Karyshev N. Zemsky solicitations. 1865-1884, Moscow. 1900; Kornilov A., Society. movement under Alexander II, M., 1909; his own, history course Russia XIX in., 2nd ed., part 3, M., 1918; Lemke M., Essays will release. movements of the "sixties", St. Petersburg, 1908; Martov Yu., Society. and mental currents in Russia, 1870-1905, L.-M., 1924; Plekhanov G., Unsuccessful history of the party "Narodnaya Volya", Works, vol. 24; Svatikov S., Society. movement in Russia, Rostov n / D., 1905; Yakushkin V., State. power and state projects. reforms in Russia, St. Petersburg, 1906. Berlin, P., Rus. bourgeoisie in old and new times, M., 1922; Druzhinin N., Decembrist Nikita Muravyov, M., 1933; his own, Mosk. nobility and reform in 1861, "IAN USSR. A series of history and philosophy", 1948, vol. 5, K "1; Nechkina M. V., Movement of the Decembrists, vol. 1-2, M., 1955; Rosenthal V. N., Ideological centers of the liberal movement in Russia on the eve of the revolutionary situation, in: Revolutionary situation in Russia in 1859-1861, M., 1963; Sladkevich N., Opposition movement of the nobility in the years of the revolutionary situation, there same, M., 1962; Usakina T., Herzen's article "Very dangerous!!!" and the controversy around "accusatory literature" in journalism 1857-1861, M., 1960; Fedosov I., Revolutionary movement in Russia during second quarter of the 19th century, M., 1958; Kheifets M., The second revolutionary situation in Russia, M., 1963; Zaionchkovsky P., Abolition of serfdom in Russia, M., 1954; Kozmin V., From the history of Russian The newspaper "Obshchee delo", in the book: Ist. Sb., vol. 3, L., 1934; Levin Sh., Social movement in Russia in the 60-70s of the XIX century, M ., 1958; Essays on the history of historical science in the USSR, vol. 1, M., 1955, ch. 8; vol. 2, M., 1960, ch. 2-3; vol. 3, M., 1963, ch. .1, 4, 5; Pokrovsky and M. H., Essays on the history of the revolution. movements in Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries, 2nd ed., M., 1927; Chermensky E., Bourgeoisie and tsarism in the revolution of 1905-1907, M.-L., 1939; his, Feb. bourgeois-democratic. revolution of 1917 in Russia, M., 1959. See also lit. to the articles "Legal Marxism", "Zemskoye Movement", "Constitutional-Democratic Party "Progressive Bloc"" and others. MI Kheifets. Moscow.

In 2012, the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (VTsIOM) conducted a survey in which Russians were asked to explain who a liberal is. More than half of the participants in this test (more precisely, 56%) found it difficult to disclose this term. It is unlikely that this situation has changed dramatically in a few years, and therefore let's look at what principles liberalism professes and what this socio-political and philosophical movement actually consists of.

Who is a liberal?

In the most in general terms we can say that a person who is an adherent of this trend welcomes and approves the idea of ​​limited intervention of state bodies in the basis of this system is based on a private enterprise economy, which, in turn, is organized on market principles.

Answering the question of who a liberal is, many experts argue that this is someone who considers political, personal and economic freedom the highest priority in the life of the state and society. For supporters of this ideology, freedom and the rights of every person are a kind of legal basis on which, in their opinion, the economic and social order should be built. Now let's look at who a liberal democrat is. This is a person who, while defending freedom, is an opponent of authoritarianism. According to Western political scientists, this is the ideal that many developed countries are striving for. However, about this term one can speak not only from the point of view of politics. In its original meaning, this word was used to refer to all freethinkers and freethinkers. Sometimes they included those who in society were prone to excessive condescension.

Modern liberals

As an independent worldview, the considered ideological movement arose at the end of the 17th century. The basis for its development was the works of such famous authors as J. Locke, A. Smith and J. Mill. At that time, it was believed that the freedom of enterprise and the non-interference of the state in private life would inevitably lead to the prosperity and improvement of the well-being of society. However, as it turned out later, the classical model of liberalism did not justify itself. Free, uncontrolled competition led to the emergence of monopolies that drove up prices. Interest groups of lobbyists appeared in politics. All this made legal equality impossible and significantly narrowed the opportunities for everyone who wanted to do business. In the 80-90s. In the 19th century, the ideas of liberalism began to experience a serious crisis. As a result of long theoretical searches at the beginning of the 20th century, a new concept was developed, called neoliberalism or social liberalism. Its supporters advocate the protection of the individual from negative consequences and abuses in the market system. In classical liberalism, the state was something like a "night watchman." Modern liberals have recognized that this was a mistake and have incorporated into their program such ideas as:

Russian liberals

In the political discussions of the modern Russian Federation, this trend causes a lot of controversy. For some, liberals are conformists who play along with the West, while for others they are a panacea that can save the country from the undivided power of the state. This disparity is to a large extent due to the fact that several varieties of this ideology operate simultaneously on the territory of Russia. The most notable of these are liberal fundamentalism (represented by Alexei Venediktov, editor-in-chief of the Ekho Moskva station), neoliberalism (represented by social liberalism (Yabloko party) and legal liberalism (Republican Party and PARNAS party).

Liberalism is an ideology that puts human freedom at the forefront of the development of society. State, society, groups, classes are secondary. The task of their existence is only to provide a person with free development. Liberalism proceeds from the fact that, firstly, man is a rational being, and secondly, in the very nature of man lies the desire for happiness, success, comfort, joy. Realizing these aspirations, a person will not do evil, because, as a reasonable person, he understands that it will return to him. This means that, leading his life along the path of reason, a person will strive to improve it not at the expense of other people, but by all other available means. Only he shouldn't interfere with that. And then, building his own destiny on the principles of reason, conscience, a person will achieve harmony of the whole society.

“Every person, if he does not violate the laws of justice, is free to pursue his own interests as he wishes, and to compete in his activities and the use of capital with other people or estates”(Adam Smith "Wealth of Nations").

The idea of ​​liberalism is built on the Old Testament commandment: "Do not do to another what you do not pity yourself"

History of liberalism

Liberalism was born in Western Europe in the era of bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries in the Netherlands and England. The principles of liberalism were put forward in the work "Two treatises on government" by the British teacher and philosopher John Locke, in continental Europe his ideas were supported and developed by such thinkers as Charles Louis Montesquieu, Jean-Baptiste Say, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, figures of the American and Great French Revolution.

The essence of liberalism

• economic freedom
• Freedom of conscience
• Political freedoms
• Human right to life
• For private property
• For the defense of the state
• Equality of all before the law

"Liberals ... represent the interests of the bourgeoisie, which needs progress and some sort of orderly legal system, respect for the rule of law, the constitution, ensuring some political freedom"(V. I. Lenin)

Crisis of liberalism

- Liberalism, as a system of relationships between people and states, like communism, can only exist on a global scale. It is impossible to build a liberal (as well as socialist) society in one single country. For liberalism is a social system of peaceful, respectable citizens who, without coercion, are aware of their rights and obligations to the state and society. But peaceful, respectable citizens always lose in a clash with aggressive and unscrupulous. Therefore, they should either try to build a universal liberal world by all means (which the US is trying to do today) or abandon most of their liberal views in order to preserve their own little world intact. Both are no longer liberalism.
- The crisis of the principles of liberalism also lies in the fact that people, by their nature, cannot stop in time, at reasonable boundaries. And the freedom of the individual, this alpha and omega of liberal ideology, turns into human permissiveness.

Liberalism in Russia

Liberal ideas came to Russia with the writings of French philosophers and enlighteners of the late eighteenth century. But the authorities, frightened by the Great French Revolution, began an active struggle against them, which continued until the February Revolution of 1917. The ideas of liberalism were main theme disagreements between Westerners and Slavophiles, the conflict between which, now calming down, now intensifying, continued for more than a century and a half, until the end of the twentieth century. The Westerners were guided by the liberal ideas of the West and called them to Russia, the Slavophiles rejected liberal principles, arguing that Russia has a special, separate, historical road that is not similar to the path of European countries. In the 90s of the twentieth century, it seemed that the Westernizers had gained the upper hand, but with the entry of mankind into the information age, when the life of Western democracies ceased to be a secret, a source of myths and an object for Russians to follow, the Slavophiles took revenge. So now liberal ideas in Russia are clearly not in trend and are unlikely to regain their positions in the near future.

LIBERAL

LIBERAL

(lat. liberalis, from liber - civilly free). Free thinker, standing for a free form of government.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910 .

LIBERAL

lat. liberalis, from liber, civilly free. Free-thinking, standing for a free image of government.

Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. - Mikhelson A.D., 1865 .

LIBERAL

free, free-thinking, consonant with liberalism.

A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .

Liberal

1) related to liberalism, characteristic of it;

2) showing liberalism 3.

New dictionary of foreign words.- by EdwART,, 2009 .

Liberal

pertaining to a liberal, liberalism, peculiar to them.

Big Dictionary foreign words.- Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 .

Liberal

oh, oh, flax, flax ( fr. liberal lat. liberalis free).
1. full f. Related to liberalism. Liberal Party.
2. manifesting liberalism. L. knowledge assessment approach.
liberality- the same as liberalism.

Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words L. P. Krysina.- M: Russian language, 1998 .

Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what "LIBERAL" is in other dictionaries:

Cm … Synonym dictionary

liberal- oh, oh. liberal, eadj. 1. Rel. to liberal and liberalism (political current), expressing liberalism. BAS 1. The main .. parties in France are: Royalists Constitutional, Ministerial, Liberal, opponents of the hereditary line, ... ... Historical dictionary gallicisms of the Russian language

LIBERAL, liberal, liberal; liberal, liberal, liberal 1. adj. towards liberalism; imbued with liberalism. liberal speeches. liberal reforms. Liberal talk. 2. only full. The name of some political organizations and ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

LIBERAL, oh, oh; flax, flax. 1. full Pertaining to liberalism (in 1 value). Liberal Party. L. worker. 2. Manifesting liberalism (in 2 values). L. approach to what n. | noun liberalism, and, wives. (to 2 values). Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

liberal- terribly liberal ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms

liberal- oh, oh; flax, flax 1) full. f. Pertaining to liberalism. Liberal Party. liberal newspaper. 2) Showing liberalism. Liberal approach to knowledge assessment. 3) outdated. Infused with liberalism. The secretary was liberal, even radical ... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

I adj. 1. ratio with noun. liberalism I, liberalization associated with them 2. Liberalizing. II adj. 1. Showing excessive tolerance, harmful indulgence, connivance. 2. Characteristic of liberalism [liberalism II 2.], ... ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

Liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, liberal, ... ... Forms of words

Conservative intolerant reactionary routine… Antonym Dictionary

Books

• liberal conservatism. History and Modernity, . The book contains a comprehensive analysis of the processes of the genesis, formation and evolution of Russian liberal conservatism as a system of ideas and politics, organization and tactics; his…
• Liberal redistribution of the agrosphere in Russia. Book 3. Market domestication of the Russian peasant, V. I. Staroverov, A. N. Zakharov. In a series of books under the general title Liberal redistribution of the agrosphere of Russia, the social, economic and political contradictions of modern times generated by the voluntarism of perestroika are highlighted.

Further improvement of social relations, expansion of other social groups during the period of active metamorphoses and the formation of modern European states. Liberals are people who advocate in all its manifestations, the only restriction for the unlimited development of the individual, according to liberals, are laws that should limit and harmonize the interests of all social groups in society. The main ideas of liberal ideology appeared in the 19th century, liberalism received its further development in practical and theoretical terms, and became basic principle for a number of politicians.

The liberals of the 19th century considered individual freedom to be the most important value and a sign of the progressiveness of society, but at the same time, the liberal ideology recognized only the person who was responsible for his actions as truly free. Liberals are supporters of a lifestyle that provides a comfortable and safe existence from external coercion. The indisputable factor of the liberal ideology is private property, as well as the presence of a civil society, whose members have the right to independently solve problems without excessive state interference in certain ones. and judicial, each of which acts purely within its competence. Liberals are people with a worldview free man who is responsible for his own choice, well-being, and also appreciates and understands the blessings given to him from birth.

In the economic sphere, the views of liberals can be characterized by the concept of market relations unlimited by the state. The main condition for successful economic development, in their opinion, is competition, which itself will identify the most effective participants in the national, and then the global market, without government intervention. He was only required to guarantee the protection of entrepreneurs from the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy and bureaucracy. Each person builds his own well-being - such is the slogan of the liberals of the 19th century. Rapid industrial development increased the number of employees, and in order to maintain influence, liberalism was revised.

Liberals of the 20th century - neo-liberals - rejected the position of state non-intervention in the market. In their opinion, it should carry out reforms that contribute to the social protection of the poorest sections of society. This was done in order to prevent the indignation of the masses and revolutionary outbursts, to achieve the elimination of class enmity and to build a society of general welfare. Thus, liberals are a political force whose main idea is the values ​​of the rule of law and individualism.