Basic philosophical ideas and works of Socrates, Plato and Xenophon. Philosophy of Socrates: brief and clear

Socrates was born in 469 BC. e. in a village on the slopes of Mount Lycabettus, from where at that time it was possible to reach Athens on foot in 25 minutes. His father was a sculptor, and his mother was a midwife. At first, young Socrates worked as an apprentice to his father; some researchers believe that Socrates created the sculpture “The Three Graces”, which decorated the Acropolis. He was then sent to study with Anaxagoras. Socrates continued his studies with the philosopher Archelaus, who, according to Diogenes Laertius, the author of biographies of famous philosophers, who lived in the 3rd century. BC e., “loved him in the worst sense of the word.” In ancient Greece, as indeed now in the eastern Mediterranean, homosexuality was considered a completely normal manifestation of sexual activity. This continued until Christianity imposed restrictions on this custom, establishing heterosexual contact as the norm of sexual life. Therefore, Anaxagoras, who taught that the Sun is a luminous star, had to flee from Athens to save his life. But Archelaus remained free, freely indulging in the pleasure of mental communication with his students, which sometimes, however, went quite far. Together with Archelaus, Socrates studied mathematics, astronomy and the teachings of ancient philosophers. By that time, philosophy had been developing for a little over a century.

Socrates soon came to the conclusion that thinking about the nature of the world would not bring any benefit to humanity. Surprisingly, Socrates can paradoxically be considered an opponent of science. In this he was probably influenced by one of the greatest pre-Socratic philosophers - Parmenides of Elea. Socrates, in his youth, allegedly met the aging Parmenides and “learned a lot from him.” Parmenides resolved the dispute between those who believed that the world consists of a single substance and those who, like Anaxagoras, believed that the world consists of many different substances. Parmenides won in this incredible dispute: he simply did not pay any attention to him. According to Parmenides, the world we know is just an illusion of the eye. Our reasoning about what the world consists of has no meaning, because it itself does not exist. The only reality is the eternal Divinity - infinite, unchanging, indivisible. For this Deity there is neither past nor future: it includes the entire universe and everything that can happen in it. “All in one” was the principle of Parmenides.

Socrates' attitude to philosophy was, of course, psychological in the original sense of the word (in Greek, "psychology" means "the study of the mind"). However, Socrates was not a scientist. Here the influence of Parmenides was felt, who considered reality to be nothing more than an optical illusion. This idea had a negative impact on Socrates and his successor Plato. Throughout their lives, several discoveries were made in mathematics, but only because it was considered timeless and abstract, and therefore associated with the divine essence. Fortunately, their follower Aristotle had a different attitude towards the world. He was in many ways the founder of science and brought philosophy back to reality. However, the unscientific - in fact, anti-scientific - approach developed by Socrates had a detrimental effect on philosophy, and it could not get rid of this influence for many centuries. Largely due to the fact that Socrates took the position of an opponent of science, the few great scientific minds of Ancient Greece chose to create outside the framework of philosophy. So Archimedes (in physics), Hippocrates (in medicine) and to some extent Euclid (in geometry) worked in isolation from philosophy, and therefore from any tradition of the development of knowledge and argumentation.

“It is impossible for a person,” said Socrates, “to be wise in everything. Therefore, whatever he knows, he is wise in that.”

But this human wisdom, according to Socrates, is worth little compared to divine wisdom. And ordinary, unenlightened opinion means very little in this regard.

Socrates began to initiate his philosophical teachings in the Agora - the market square of ancient Athens. These numerous ruins can still be seen below the Acropolis. In Athens at that time one could see a man who spent days wandering around the city and entering into conversation with everyone who came across him along the way. He could be found in the market square, in the workshop of a gunsmith, carpenter, shoemaker, in gymnasiums and palaestra (places for gymnastics) - in a word, almost everywhere where it was possible to communicate with people and have conversations. At the same time, this person avoided public speaking in the people's assembly, court and other government institutions. It was none other than the Athenian Socrates, son of Sophroniscus.

Alcibiades said about Socrates: “When I listen to Socrates, my heart beats much stronger than that of the raging Corybantes, and tears flow from my eyes from his speeches; the same thing, as I see, happens to many others. Listening to Pericles and others excellent speakers, I found that they spoke well, but I did not experience anything like that, my soul did not come into confusion, indignant at my slave life... And this Marsyas often brought me into such a state that it seemed to me that I could no longer live like this how I live."

At the age of 50, Socrates married Xanthippe. Stories about the combative and cocky Xanthippe are known from the past, but we must not forget that life with Socrates was not all smooth sailing. Imagine that you live with a person who walks the streets all day long and conducts philosophical discussions, without trying to earn a penny. After drinking with his friends, he appears whenever he pleases (and, again, without money), and he, like all other philosophers, is ridiculed by his neighbors. It is believed that Xanthippe was the only one who could control the dispute with Socrates. However, as is often the case in such relationships, there is evidence from one person that Socrates and Xanthippe were very close. She had 3 sons from him, but none of them learned anything outstanding from their father. Xanthippe, despite her constant dissatisfaction with her husband’s behavior, perfectly understood what an extraordinary person her husband was. She did not hesitate to remain close to Socrates when need was on his heels, and suffered deeply after his death. It is reliably known that Socrates was executed in 399 BC. e. at the age of 70 years.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

1. Socrates.Bibliography

philosophical Socrates Plato Xenophon

Socrates was born in 469 BC. e. The son of the Athenian stonecutter Sophroniscus and the midwife Fenareta. His first philosophical sayings came during the era of Pericles, i.e. at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Sometimes the interlocutors reluctantly answered him, and sometimes they entered into polemics with great willingness. Having received an answer to his first question, he asked the next one, then this situation was repeated and so on until the interlocutor began to contradict himself! Driven to despair, his opponent asked Socrates - “but he himself knows the answer to his questions” - no, he answered, that’s why he asked! “I know that I know nothing” is one of the most famous sayings of Socrates. What does it mean? Being very strict with yourself, underestimating yourself, or something else. After many centuries, it is generally accepted that this phrase represents the need for a deeper knowledge of oneself!

Socrates considered his most important calling to be “the education of man,” the meaning of which he saw in discussions and conversations, and not in the systematic presentation of some field of knowledge. He never considered himself “wise” (sophos), but considered himself a philosopher “loving wisdom” (philosophia). The title of sage, in his opinion, befits a god. If a person smugly believes that he knows ready-made answers to everything, then such a person is lost to philosophy, there is no need for him to rack his brains in search of the most correct concepts, there is no need to move further in search of new solutions to this or that problem. As a result, the sage turns out to be a “parrot” who has memorized several phrases and throws them into the crowd.

He believed that the main task of philosophy was the rational justification of the religious and moral worldview, while knowledge of nature and natural philosophy was considered unnecessary and godless. Socrates is the fundamental enemy of the study of nature. He considered the work of the human mind in this direction to be godlessness. He believed that the world is the creation of a great and omnipotent “deity.” Divination, not scientific research, is needed to obtain the gods' instructions regarding their will. He followed the instructions of the Delphic oracle and advised his students to do the same. He made sacrifices to the gods and diligently performed all religious rituals.

It turns out that Socrates solves the main question of philosophy as an idealist: nature is something not worthy of the philosopher’s attention; the most important thing for him is the spirit of consciousness. Doubt served as a prerequisite for Socrates to turn to his own self, to the subjective spirit, for which the further path led to the objective spirit - to the divine mind. The idealistic ethics of Socrates develops into theology. He opposes the determinism of ancient Greek materialists and outlines the foundations of a teleological worldview, and here the starting point for him is the subject, for he believes that everything in the world has as its goal the benefit of man.

Socrates' teleology appears in an extremely primitive form. The human senses, according to this teaching, have as their purpose the accomplishment of certain tasks. Purpose: eyes - to see, ears - to listen, nose - to smell, etc. Likewise, the gods send the light necessary for people to see, the night is intended by the gods for the rest of people, the light of the moon and stars is intended to help determine time. The gods make sure that the earth produces food for humans, for which an appropriate schedule of seasons has been introduced; Moreover, the movement of the sun occurs at such a distance from the earth that people do not suffer from excessive heat or excessive cold, etc.

Socrates did not put his philosophical teaching into written form, but disseminated it through oral conversation. Not limiting himself to a leadership role within his philosophical and political circle. Walking around Athens in squares, in public meeting places, on the streets, he had “conversations.” He talked about his religious and moral problems, what, in his opinion, moral standards consist of, and promoted his ethical idealism. The development of idealistic morality constitutes the main core of Socrates' philosophical interests and activities. In Conversations and Discussions, Socrates paid attention to knowledge of the essence of virtue. How can a person exist if he does not know what virtue is? In this case, knowledge of the essence of virtue, knowledge of what is “moral” is for him a prerequisite for moral life and the achievement of virtue. For Socrates, morality merges with knowledge. Morality is the knowledge of what is good and beautiful and at the same time useful for a person, which helps him achieve bliss and happiness in life. A moral person must know what virtue is. Morality and knowledge from this point of view coincide; in order to be virtuous, it is necessary to know virtue as such, as a “universal” that serves as the basis of all particular virtues.

The task of finding the “universal” was to be facilitated by his special philosophical method. The “Socratic” method - its task of discovering “truth” through conversation, argument, polemic, was the source of idealistic “dialectics”. “In ancient times, dialectics was understood as the art of achieving truth by revealing contradictions in the opponent’s judgment and overcoming these contradictions. In ancient times, some philosophers believed that revealing contradictions in thinking and the clash of opposing opinions was the best means of discovering truth.” If Heraclitus' teachings about the struggle of opposites, as the driving force of the development of nature, focused his attention mainly on objective dialectics, Socrates, relying on the Eleatic school (Zeno) and the sophists (Protagoras), for the first time clearly raised the question of subjective dialectics, the dialectical way of thinking. The main components of the “Socratic” method: “irony” and “maieutics” - in form, “induction” and “definition” - in content.

The “Socratic” method is, first of all, a method of consistently and systematically asking questions, with the goal of leading the interlocutor to contradict himself, to admit his own ignorance. Which is Socratic “irony”. But he does not set as his task only the “ironic” disclosure of contradictions in the interlocutor’s statements, but also the overcoming of these contradictions in order to achieve the “truth”. The continuation and addition of “irony” was “maieutics” - the “midwifery art” of Socrates (an allusion to his mother’s profession). He said that he seemed to be helping his listeners to be born again, to recognize the “universal” as the basis of true morality. Socrates meant by this that he was helping his listeners. The main task of the “Socratic” method is to find the “universal” in morality, to establish a universal moral basis for individual, particular virtues. This problem must be solved with the help of a kind of “induction” and “definition”. “Induction” and “determination” in Socrates’ dialectic complement each other.

1. “induction” is the search for commonalities in particular virtues through their analysis and comparison.

2. “definition” is the establishment of genera and species, their relationship.

Next, Socrates moves on to the question of the difference between voluntary and involuntary actions, continuing his “induction” and achieving a new, even more precise “definition” of justice and injustice. The definition of unjust actions according to Socrates is those actions that are committed against friends with the intention of harming them.

Truth and morality for Socrates are coinciding concepts. “Socrates did not make a distinction between wisdom and morality: he recognized a person as both intelligent and moral if a person, understanding what is beautiful and good, is guided by this in his actions and, on the contrary, knowing what is morally ugly, avoids it ... Just actions and, in general, all actions based on virtue are beautiful and good. Therefore, people who know what such actions consist of will not want to commit any other action instead of this one, and people who do not know cannot commit them and, even if they try to commit them, fall into error. Thus, only the wise perform beautiful and good deeds, but the unwise cannot, and even if they try to do so, they fall into error. And since just and in general all beautiful and good actions are based on virtue, it follows from this that justice and every other virtue is wisdom.”

True justice, according to Socrates, is the knowledge of what is good and beautiful, at the same time useful to a person, contributes to his bliss, happiness in life.

Virtue, that is, the knowledge of what is good, can only be achieved by “noble people.” “Farmers and other workers are very far from knowing themselves... After all, they know only what belongs to the body and serves it... And therefore, if self-knowledge is the law of reason, none of these people can be wise from the knowledge of his calling.” How rigidly Socrates separated one class from another is the nature of his religious and ethical teaching. Virtue, like knowledge, according to his teaching, is the privilege of the noble (“non-working”). Socrates, a native of the people, was an implacable enemy of the Athenian masses. He adored the aristocracy; his doctrine of the inviolability, eternity and immutability of moral norms expresses the ideology of this particular class. Socrates' preaching of virtue had a political purpose. He himself says that he cares to prepare as many people as possible who are capable of taking up political activity. At the same time, he conducted the political education of the Athenian citizen in such a direction as to prepare for the restoration of the political dominance of the aristocracy and to return to the “behests of the fathers.”

Socrates considers the main virtues to be:

1. restraint - how to tame passions

2. courage - how to overcome danger

3. justice - how to observe divine and human laws.

A person acquires all this through knowledge and self-knowledge. Socrates talks about courage, prudence, justice, and modesty.

Socrates also outlined a classification of state forms, based on the main provisions of his ethical and political teaching.

The government forms mentioned by him are: monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, plutocracy and democracy.

He considers only the aristocracy to be correct and moral, which he characterizes as the power of a small number of educated and moral people.

Monarchy, from the point of view of Socrates, differs from tyranny in that it is based on legal rights, and not on a violent seizure of power, and therefore has a moral significance that tyranny does not have.

Socrates disseminated his views mainly through conversations and discussions. They also formed the philosophical method of Socrates. His goal was to achieve truth by discovering contradictions in the opponent's statements. With the help of correctly selected questions, the opponent’s weak points were revealed. The purpose of his philosophical teachings is to help people.

The tendency to constantly discover contradictions in statements, collide them and thus arrive at new (more reliable) knowledge becomes a source of conceptual (subjective) dialectics. That is why the Socratic method was adopted and developed by the most consistent idealist philosophy of antiquity, Plato. Socrates is the first of the three great philosophers of the classical period. The most outstanding student, follower and, in a certain sense, “systematizer” of his views was Plato. It was he who raised the legacy of Socrates and told us about it.

2. Plato.Bibliography

Plato (427 - 347 BC) - the son of an Athenian citizen. In terms of his social status, he came from the Athenian slave-owning aristocracy. And of course, he was his own man in the Socratic circle. In his youth, he was a student of the circle of a supporter of the teachings of Heraclitus - Cratylus, where he became acquainted with the principles of objective dialectics; he was also influenced by Cratylus's tendency towards absolute relativism. At the age of 20, he was preparing to participate in a competition as the author of a tragedy and by chance, in front of the Dionysius Theater, he heard a discussion in which Socrates participated. She captivated him so much that he burned his poems and became a student of Socrates. This was around the time when the Athenian fleet won its last significant victory in the Peloponnesian War.

Plato shared with the entire circle his disgust for Athenian democracy. After the conviction and death of Socrates, during the period when the democrats returned to power, Plato goes to one of Socrates' senior students - Euclid - in Megara. However, he soon returns to the city again and takes an active part in her social life. After returning to Athens, he made his first trip to Southern Italy and Sicily. He is trying to realize his ideas and took part in political life on the side of the local aristocracy, then headed by Dion, the son-in-law of Dionysius the Elder.

In Athens, Plato worked intensively in the field of philosophy. During his travels, he became acquainted with Pythagorean philosophy, which later influenced him. Diogenes Laertius believes that Plato's teachings are a synthesis of the teachings of Heraclitus, Pythagoras and Socrates. During the same period, Plato, in a garden dedicated to the demigod Academ, founded his own philosophical school - the Academy, which became the center of ancient idealism.

During the reign of the tyrant Dionysius the Younger in Syracuse, Plato again tries to join the political struggle. And this time his desire to put his thoughts into practice does not find the expected understanding. Depressed by political failures, he returns to Athens where he dies at the age of 80.

His work has approximately three periods.

The first begins after the death of Socrates. He creates the first dialogues and treatise “Apology of Socrates”. The form of all the dialogues of this period is similar; they always feature Socrates, who speaks with one of the prominent Athenian or other citizens. The second period coincides with the first trip to Italy. He departs from Socratic “ethical idealism” itself and lays the foundations of objective idealism. During this period, the influence of the philosophy of Heraclitus and the Pythagorean approach to the world somewhat increased in Plato’s thinking. In the second half of this period, which can roughly be limited to the first and second journeys to Syracuse, Plato gives a solid positive presentation of his system. During this period, Plato paid much attention to questions of the method of cognition of ideas. He uses the term “dialectic” to define it and equates this method to the friction of wood on wood, which ultimately leads to the creation of a spark of knowledge. The beginning of the third period is considered to be the dialogue “Parmenides”. He overestimates his previous understanding of the idea, rationalizes it, giving it a general character. Understanding of an idea acquires a certain rigidity (frozenness). In it, the dialectic of ideas is determined by the conflict of being and non-being, which occurs right in the realm of ideas. Thus, movement and development are introduced into the realm of ideas. The dialectic of ideas was intended to support Plato's idealistic monism, which constituted the pinnacle of his rationalism. In subsequent works, the influence of Pythagorean philosophy increasingly manifests itself, strengthening his mysticism and irrationalism.

He solves the main question of philosophy unambiguously - idealistically. The material world that surrounds us and which we perceive with our senses is only a “shadow” and is produced from the world of ideas, i.e. the material world is secondary. All phenomena and objects of the material world are transitory, arise, perish and change (and therefore cannot be truly existing), ideas are unchanging, motionless and eternal. For these properties, Plato recognizes them as genuine, real being and elevates them to the rank of the only object of genuine true knowledge. Between the world of ideas, as a genuine, real being, and non-being (i.e., matter as such, matter in itself), according to Plato, there exists apparent being, derivative being (i.e., the world of truly real, sensually perceived phenomena and things), which separates true existence from non-existence. Real, real things are a combination of an a priori idea (true being) with passive, formless “receiving” matter (non-existence). The relationship between ideas (being) and real things (apparent being) is an important part of his philosophical teaching. Sensibly perceived objects are nothing more than a likeness, a shadow in which certain patterns - ideas are reflected. But he also makes a statement of the opposite nature. Ideas are present in things. This relationship of ideas and things opens up a certain possibility of movement towards irrationalism. He pays a lot of attention to the issue of “hierarchization of ideas.” This hierarchization represents a certain ordered system of objective idealism. The idea of beauty and goodness is one of the most important ideas for Plato. It not only surpasses all really existing goodness and beauty in that it is perfect, eternal and unchangeable (just like other ideas), but also stands above other ideas. Cognition, or achievement, of this idea is the pinnacle of real knowledge and evidence of completeness.

According to Plato, the soul is incorporeal, immortal, it does not arise simultaneously with the body, but exists forever. The body obeys her. It consists of three hierarchically ordered parts:

2. will and noble desires

3. attraction and sensuality.

Souls in which reason predominates, supported by will and noble aspirations, will advance furthest in the process of recollection. “The soul that has seen the most falls into the fruit of a future admirer of wisdom and beauty or a person devoted to the muses and love; the second behind her is the fruit of a king who observes the laws, a warlike man who knows how to rule; the third - into the fruit of a statesman, owner, breadwinner; the fourth - into the fruit of a person who diligently engages in exercises or healing of the body; the fifth in order will lead the life of a soothsayer or a person involved in the sacraments; the sixth will begin to advance in poetry or some other area of imitation; the seventh is to be a craftsman or farmer; the eighth will be a sophist or demagogue, the ninth a tyrant.”

Creation of the world. “Who wished that everything would be good and that nothing would be bad if possible, God took care of all visible things that were not at rest, but in discordant and disorderly movement; he brought them out of disorder into order, believing that the second was certainly better than the first. It is impossible now and it was impossible from ancient times for the one who is the highest good to produce something that would not be the most beautiful; Meanwhile, reflection showed him that of all things that are by their nature visible, not a single creation devoid of intelligence can be more beautiful than one that is endowed with intelligence, if we compare both as a whole; and the mind cannot dwell in anything other than the soul. Guided by this reasoning, he arranged the mind in the soul, and the soul in the body, and thus built the Universe, intending to create a creation that was most beautiful and best in nature. So, according to plausible reasoning, it should be recognized that our cosmos is a living being, endowed with soul and mind, and it was truly born with the help of divine providence.”

The most significant for us was Plato’s work on the political system. According to his theory, the state arises because a person as an individual cannot ensure the satisfaction of his basic needs.

Several of Plato’s works are devoted to socio-political issues:

1. treatise "State"

2. dialogues “Laws”, “Politician”.

They are written in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and other philosophers. In them he talks about the model of an “ideal”, best state. A model is not a description of any existing structure or system. On the contrary, a model of a state that has never existed anywhere, but which must arise, that is, Plato talks about the idea of a state, creates a project, a utopia. What did he understand by an “ideal” state, and what did he classify as a negative type of state? The main reason for the deterioration of society, and at the same time the state system, is the “dominance of selfish interests” that determine the actions and behavior of people. In accordance with this main drawback, Plato divides all existing states into four varieties in order of increasing, increasing “selfish interests” in their structure.

1. Timocracy - the power of ambitious people, according to Plato, still retained the features of a “perfect” system. In a state of this type, rulers and warriors were free from agricultural and handicraft work. Much attention is paid to sports exercises, but the desire for enrichment is already noticeable, and “with the participation of wives” the Spartan lifestyle turns into a luxurious one, which determines the transition to oligarchy.

2. Oligarchy. In an oligarchic state there is already a clear division between the rich (ruling class) and the poor, which make possible a completely carefree life for the ruling class. The development of oligarchy, according to Plato's theory, leads to its degeneration into democracy.

3. Democracy. The democratic system further strengthens the disunity between the poor and rich classes of society, uprisings, bloodshed, and struggles for power arise, which can lead to the emergence of the worst state system - tyranny. Tyranny. According to Plato, if a certain action is done too strongly, it leads to the opposite result. So it is here: an excess of freedom in a democracy leads to the emergence of a state that has no freedom at all, living at the whim of one person - a tyrant. Plato contrasts negative forms of state power with his vision of an “ideal” social order. The author pays great attention to determining the place of the ruling class in the state. In his opinion, the rulers of an “ideal” state should be exclusively philosophers in order for prudence and reason to rule in the state. It is philosophers who determine the well-being and justice of Plato’s state, because they are characterized by “... truthfulness, a decisive rejection of any lie, hatred of it and love of truth.” Plato believes that any innovation in an ideal state will inevitably worsen it (the “ideal” cannot be improved). It is obvious that it is philosophers who will protect the “ideal” system and laws from all kinds of innovations, because they possess “... all the qualities of rulers and guardians of an ideal state.” That is why the activities of philosophers determine the existence of an “ideal” state and its immutability. Essentially, philosophers protect other people from vice, which is any innovation in Plato’s state. It is equally important that thanks to philosophers, the government and the entire life of the “ideal” state will be built according to the laws of reason and wisdom, there will be no place for impulses of the soul and feelings.

The fundamental law is that each member of society is obliged to perform only that work for which he is suitable. The author divides all residents of the “ideal” state into three classes: the lower class unites people who produce things necessary for the state or contribute to this; it includes a variety of people associated with crafts, agriculture, market transactions, money, trade and resale - these are farmers, artisans, and merchants. Within this lower class there is also a clear division of labor: a blacksmith cannot engage in trade, and a merchant cannot become a farmer at his own whim.

The second and third classes - the classes of warrior-guardians and rulers-philosophers - are determined not by professional, but by moral criteria. Plato places the moral qualities of these people much higher than the moral qualities of the first class.

From all this we can conclude that Plato creates a totalitarian system of dividing people into categories, which is slightly mitigated by the possibility of moving from class to class (this is achieved through long-term education and self-improvement). This transition is carried out under the leadership of the rulers. It is characteristic that even if among the rulers a person appears who is more suitable for the lower class, then he must be “demoted.” Thus, Plato believes that for the well-being of the state, each person should engage in the work for which he is best suited. If a person does not mind his own business, but within his own class, then this is not yet disastrous for the “ideal” state. When a person undeservedly goes from being a shoemaker, first class) becomes a warrior (second class), or a warrior undeservedly becomes a ruler (third class), then this threatens the collapse of the entire state, therefore such a “leap” is considered the “highest crime” against the system, because for the good of the entire state as a whole, a person should do only the work for which he is best suited.

He also believes that three of the four basic virtues correspond to the three main classes:

1. Wisdom is the virtue of rulers and philosophers

2. Bravery is a virtue of warriors

3. Moderation - the people.

The fourth justice does not apply to individual classes, but is “above the class,” a kind of “sovereign” virtue.

The prototype of power in Plato is a shepherd tending a flock. If we resort to this comparison, then in an “ideal” state, shepherds are rulers, warriors are guard dogs. To keep a flock of sheep in order, shepherds and dogs must be united in their actions, which is what the author strives for.

From the position of his ideal state, Plato classifies existing state forms into two large groups:

1.Acceptable government forms

2. Regressive - decadent.

The first place in the group of acceptable state forms is his “ideal” state. He considered timocracy to be a decadent, descending state form. The main subject of irritation. Plato's concept is democracy, in which he sees the power of the crowd, the ignoble demos, and tyranny, which in ancient Greece starting from the 6th century. BC e. represented a dictatorship directed against the aristocracy.

3. Xenophon. Bibliography

Xenophon is best known as an ancient Greek writer and historian. Unlike other great writers of antiquity, Xenophon was assessed completely differently in different historical periods.

The ancients judged Xenophon very highly: together with Herodotus and Thucydides, he was ranked among the great historians, together with Plato and Antisthenes - among the greatest philosophers of the Socratic movement, his language was considered an example of Attic prose and was compared in its sweetness to honey (the writer himself therefore deserved nicknamed "Attic bee") Meanwhile, as the scope of historical research expanded, it became clear that one, largely formal comparison of Xenophon with other outstanding classical writers was not yet enough for a correct assessment of his work. It is necessary to take into account the richness of the forms in which the development of social thought took place in Ancient Greece, and the prospects for this development. This was a unique nature, which naturally combined the qualities of an observer and a practical worker. A learned tactician and military officer, economist and owner, this man chose as his main subject for his literary studies that which most embodied the synthesis of theory and practice - political journalism. As a writer and thinker, Xenophon was always distinguished by an increased interest in current political problems, realism and flexibility in assessing the current situation, and perspicacity in judgments about the future.

Among the Greek writers of the classical era, it is difficult to find another whose work would be determined to such an extent by personal and public political motives as that of Xenophon. This man lived a long life (430-355 BC) and throughout this long journey he tirelessly and actively took part in the stormy political struggle that was then going on. In his native Athens during the Peloponnesian War, and in the army of mercenaries, in Asia Minor, when the war between Sparta and Persia began, and in Balkan Greece, everywhere this energetic Athenian found himself in the thick of events, among those who, so to speak, directly made history. Possessing a sensitive and impressionable nature, he reacted vividly to all the vicissitudes of the historical drama that was playing out at that time, easily assimilated new ideas, developed with their help his own ideal projects and tirelessly, in different ways, tried to achieve their implementation, real or at least illusory. In general, if it is true that the key to understanding a writer’s work must be sought in his biography, then we have just such a case.

Xenophon came to the conclusion that the best form of government is one headed by an ideal leader (not the Constitution, but the charismatic personality of the ruler should lead the state to prosperity). Based on the experience of managing people, knowledge of Persian customs and government institutions, knowledge of Spartan political institutions, as well as under the influence of the philosophical and ethical teachings of Socrates, Xenophon is trying to create a new political regime that has no analogues. To what extent he succeeded, we can judge from two of his works: most fully and thoroughly from the Cyropaedia, and to a lesser extent from Hiero. The problem of dating the dialogue "Hieron" has not yet been resolved. Therefore, depending on how each researcher resolves this problem for himself, he determines the sequence of writing the Cyropaedia and Hiero. Both in "Kyropedia" and in "Giron" the main characters are real historical figures. But in both works, Xenophon uses historical facts to formulate his own ideas, that is, the plot of the Cyropaedia, and the plot of Hiero is mostly fiction.

Conclusion

Students and teacher they laid the foundation. Philosophers from all countries have turned to their works and are now turning to them. They had many students and followers. And having become acquainted with their works. You are faced with the question: What kind of Platonov should the Russian land give birth to? First of all, people who can:

1. think

2. think,

3. make the right decisions!

And also such that more than one newly appeared “Socrates” could not lead you to a contradiction. You can largely disagree with their vision of the world, the political system, the law of society, morality and soul. But one cannot but agree that in history there have been many examples of such states, not in everything, but in many ways they are similar to what Socrates and Plato described. To agree or not is a secondary question. You can accept something, but be a fierce opponent in something. But it is simply necessary to take a closer look at their wisdom. One must be a person who “LOVES WISDOM” (PHILOSOPHY).

List of used literature

1. Florensky P. A. The personality of Socrates and the face of Socrates // Questions of philosophy. - M., 2003. - No. 8. - P. 123-131

2. Trigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and psychology, (Moscow) Year: 2003

3. Gaidenko P.P. The problem of the one and the many and its solution by Plato - 2004

4. Xenophon. Socratic works: [translation from ancient Greek] / Xenophon; [intro. Art. and note. S. Sobolevsky]. - M.: World of Books: Literature, 2007. - 367 p. -- (Great thinkers).

5. Ebert Theodor. Socrates as a Pythagorean and anamnesis in Plato’s dialogue “Phaedo” / Theodor Ebert; [transl. with him. A. A. Rossius]. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Publishing House. University, 2005. -- 158, p.

6. Vodolazov G. G. Our contemporary Socrates // Social sciences and modernity. - M., 2005. - No. 5. - P.109-117; No. 6. -- P.128-134.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Childhood and youth

According to various sources, the philosopher was born in 470-469 BC in Athens, Greece, in the family of the sculptor Sophroniscus and the midwife Fenareta. The future great thinker had an older brother, Patroclus, who inherited his father’s property, but Socrates was not left in poverty.

This can be judged by the fact that the philosopher went to the war with Sparta in the uniform of a heavily armed warrior, and only wealthy citizens could pay for it. From this it follows that Socrates’ father was a wealthy city dweller and made good money using a chisel and other tools.

Socrates participated in hostilities three times, demonstrating courage and bravery on the battlefield. The courage of the philosopher and warrior was especially evident on the day when he saved his military leader, Alcibiades, from death.

The Thinker was born on the 6th of Fargelion, on an “unclean” day, which predetermined his fate. According to ancient Greek laws, Socrates became the guardian of the foundations of Athenian society and state, and free of charge. Subsequently, the philosopher performed his public duties with due zeal, but without fanaticism, and paid with his life for his convictions, honesty and perseverance.

In his youth, Socrates studied with Damon and Conon, Zeno, Anaxagoras and Archelaus, and communicated with the great minds and masters of the time. He did not leave a single book, not a single written testimony of wisdom and philosophy. Information about this person, life history, biography, philosophy and ideas are known to descendants only from the memories of his students, contemporaries and followers. One of them was the great one.

Philosophy

During his lifetime, the philosopher did not write down his thoughts, preferring to go to the truth using oral speech. Socrates believed that when written down, words kill memory and lose meaning. Socrates' philosophy is built on the concepts of ethics, goodness and virtue, to which he included knowledge, courage, and honesty.

Moreover, knowledge, according to Socrates, is virtue. Without realizing the essence of concepts, a person cannot do good, be brave or fair. Only knowledge makes it possible to be virtuous, since this happens consciously.

The interpretations of the concept of evil derived by Socrates, or rather, the mentions of them in the works of Plato and Xenophon, students of the great philosopher, are contradictory. According to Plato, Socrates had a negative attitude towards evil as such, even the evil that a person causes to his enemies. Xenophon takes the opposite view on this issue, relaying Socrates' words about necessary evils during conflicts, carried out for the sake of protection.

Opposite interpretations of statements are explained by the nature of teaching characteristic of the Socratic school. The philosopher preferred to communicate with his students in the form of dialogues, rightly believing that this is how truth is born. Therefore, it is logical to assume that the warrior Socrates talked with the commander Xenophon about war and discussed evil using the example of military conflicts with the enemy on the battlefield.

Plato was a peaceful citizen of Athens, and Socrates and Plato talked about ethical standards within society, and they were talking about their own fellow citizens, close people and whether it was permissible to commit evil towards them.

Dialogues are not the only difference in Socratic philosophy. The striking features of the comprehension of ethical and human values professed by the philosopher include:

dialectical, conversational form of searching for truth;
definition of concepts by induction, from the particular to the general;
finding answers to questions using maieutics.

The Socratic method of searching for truth consisted in the fact that the philosopher asked his interlocutor leading questions with a certain subtext, so that the answerer was lost and eventually came to unexpected conclusions. The thinker was also famous for his tricky questions “by contradiction,” forcing his opponent to contradict himself.

The teacher himself did not claim to be an all-knowing teacher. The phrase attributed to him is associated with this feature of Socrates’ teaching:

“I only know that I don’t know anything, but others don’t know that either.”

The philosopher asked, pushing the interlocutor to new thoughts and formulations. From general subjects he moved on to defining specific concepts: what is courage, love, kindness?

The Socratic method was defined by Aristotle, who was destined to be born a generation after Socrates and become a student of Plato. According to Aristotle, the main Socratic paradox states: “Human virtue is a state of mind.”

People came to Socrates, who led an ascetic lifestyle, for knowledge and in search of truth. He did not teach oratory and other crafts, but taught to be virtuous towards loved ones: family, relatives, friends, servants and slaves.

The philosopher did not take money from his students, but his ill-wishers still classified him as a sophist. The latter were also keen on discussing ethical standards and human spirituality, but did not hesitate to earn hard cash with their lectures.

Socrates gave many reasons for discontent from the point of view of the society of Ancient Greece and the citizens of Athens. For that time, it was considered the norm for grown-up children to learn from their parents, and there were no schools as such. The youth were inspired by the glory of this man and flocked to the famous philosopher. The older generation was dissatisfied with this state of affairs, hence the fatal accusation for Socrates of “corrupting the youth.”

It seemed to people that the philosopher was undermining the very foundations of society, turning young people against their own parents, corrupting fragile minds with harmful thoughts, newfangled teachings, sinful intentions contrary to the Greek gods.

Another moment that became fatal for Socrates and led to the death of the thinker is associated with the accusation of impiety and worship of other gods instead of those recognized by the Athenians. Socrates believed that it is difficult to judge a person by his actions, because evil is created out of ignorance. At the same time, in the soul of every person there is a place for good, and every soul has a patron demon. The voice of this inner demon, which today we would call a guardian angel, periodically whispered to Socrates what to do in a difficult situation.

The demon came to the aid of the philosopher in the most desperate circumstances and always helped out, so Socrates considered it unacceptable to disobey him. This demon was mistaken for a new deity, whom the thinker allegedly worshiped.

Personal life

Until the age of 37, the life of the philosopher was not distinguished by high-profile events. After this, the peaceful and apolitical Socrates participated in hostilities three times, and showed himself to be a brave and courageous warrior. In one battle, he had the opportunity to save the life of his student, commander Alcibiades, by driving away heavily armed Spartans with one club.

This feat was later also blamed on Socrates, since Alcibiades, having come to power in Athens, established a dictatorship instead of the democracy beloved by the Greeks. Socrates never managed to distance himself from politics and social life and indulge in philosophy and asceticism. He defended those unjustly convicted, and then, to the best of his ability, opposed the methods of rule of the dictators who came to power.

In old age, the philosopher married Xanthippe, who had three sons with him. According to rumors, Socrates' wife did not appreciate her husband's great mind and had a quarrelsome disposition. It’s not surprising: the father of three children did not participate at all in the life of the family, did not earn money, and did not help his relatives. The thinker himself was content with little: he lived on the street, walked in torn clothes and was known as an eccentric sophist, as Aristophanes presented him in his comedies.

Trial and execution

We know about the death of the great philosopher from the works of his students. The trial process and the last minutes of the thinker were described in detail by Plato in his Apology of Socrates and Xenophon in his Defense of Socrates on Trial. The Athenians accused Socrates of not recognizing the gods and corrupting youth. The philosopher refused a lawyer and made a speech in his own defense, denying the charges. He did not offer a fine as an alternative to punishment, although according to the laws of democratic Athens this was possible.

Socrates did not accept the help of friends who offered him escape or kidnapping from prison, but preferred to face his own fate. He believed that death would find him wherever his friends took him, since it was so destined. The philosopher considered other options for punishment to be an admission of his own guilt and could not come to terms with it. Socrates chose to be executed by taking poison.

Quotes and aphorisms

It is impossible to live better than by spending your life striving to become more perfect.
Wealth and nobility do not bring any dignity.
There is only one good - knowledge and only one evil - ignorance.
Without friendship, no communication between people has value.
It is better to die courageously than to live in shame.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution of higher professional education

"Brotherly State University"

Faculty of Economics and Management

Department of Philosophy and Sociology

Essay

on the topic “Teachings of Socrates”

Completed by: T.V. Goncharova

Checked by: St. teacher N.N. Volkova

Bratsk 2010

INTRODUCTION

The philosopher and his time: one against all In the month of Fargelion

"All I know is that I don't know anything"

Starting a family

"Know yourself"

Fateful meeting

Dialogues of Socrates

Philosophy as understood by Socrates

Features of Socrates' philosophy

Teachings of Socrates

Trial by Socrates

Posthumous legends

After Socrates

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

In this essay, I would like to set myself the goal of learning in detail and studying the teachings of Socrates, the great ancient sage. He has an outstanding place in the history of moral philosophy and ethics, logic, dialectics, political and legal teachings. The influence he had on the progress of human knowledge is felt to this day. He entered the spiritual culture of humanity forever. All Greek philosophy was born from his worldview.

I chose this topic because I think it is the most relevant and interesting for writing an essay on philosophy. The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that the personality of Socrates has not yet been fully studied as well as his philosophy, so this abstract may be suitable for further research on this issue.

The philosophy of Socrates was between the objectivism of pre-Socratics and the subjectivism of sophistry. The human soul (consciousness) is subject to its own laws, which are by no means arbitrary, as the sophists wanted to prove; self-knowledge has an internal criterion of truth: if knowledge and goodness are identical, then by knowing ourselves, we should become better. Socrates understood the famous Delphic maxim “Know thyself” as a call to moral self-improvement and in this he saw true religious piety.

Socrates has been interested and fascinated at all times. From century to century, the audience of his interlocutors changed, but did not decrease. And today it is undoubtedly more crowded than ever before. Socrates is a household name as his revolutionary ideas continue to influence the minds and hearts of millions of people. At the same time, the biography of the philosopher, which, without a doubt, was eventful, has been studied very little and is based on legends, assumptions and testimonies of third parties. Socrates did not leave any written works, but for all subsequent generations he became the embodiment of wisdom, so interest in the personality of this man does not wane.

At the center of Socrates' thought is the theme of man, the problems of life, death, good and evil, virtues and vices, law and duty, freedom and responsibility, the individual and society. Socrates proceeded from the fact that happiness is achieved through self-improvement, and not through the accumulation of material wealth. Socrates' conversations are an instructive and authoritative example of how one can navigate more often than not these ever-relevant issues. Turning to Socrates at all times was an attempt to understand oneself and one’s time. And we, with all the uniqueness of our era and the novelty of our tasks, are no exception.

The goal set for me requires solving the following tasks:

v pay attention to biographical facts from the life of the philosopher;

v consider some features of the philosophy of Socrates, his political ideas and the path to philosophy

To write this essay, we mainly used textbooks, books, as well as dictionaries and reference books.

The philosopher and his time: one against all in the month of Fargelion

Socrates was born in the famous Fargelia - in the month of Fargelion (May - June according to the modern calendar), in the year of Archon Apsephion, in the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad (469 BC) in the family of the stonecutter Sophroniscus and the midwife Fenareta.

Phargelia was the celebration of the birth of Apollo and Artemis. Birth on such a day was considered a symbolic and famous event, and the newborn naturally fell under the protection of the luminous Apollo, highly revered in Athens, the god of muses, art, and harmony.

And the life of Socrates, according to the ideas of that time, not only began, but also passed under the “sign of Apollo” that determined his fate. The inscription on the Delphic Temple of Apollo - “Know thyself” - predetermined that deep and persistent interest in philosophy, the pursuit of which Socrates regarded as service to the Delphic god. The oracle of Apollo at Delphi recognized Socrates as the wisest of the Greeks. The name of Apollo was also associated with the postponement of the execution of Socrates for a whole month.

Residents of Greece, when they had problems - business, domestic, heartfelt - turned to the Delphic oracle for advice. People went to the temple of the god Apollo, wrote down their question on paper and gave it to the priest. The priest recounted the contents of the Pythia’s note, and she gave the sufferer an answer on behalf of God.

One day, the philosopher’s friend Chaerephon visited the oracle at Delphi to find out the answer to the question: “Who is wiser than Socrates?” He had to wait until the Pythia forwarded the unusual message to God. Finally the priestess said: “There is no wiser man in the world than Socrates.” The shocked Chaerephon rushed to Socrates, but after listening to his friend, he did not become proud, but thought about what Apollo really meant. “I don’t have too much knowledge,” he reflected, “but it is not in the rules of the gods to tell a lie…. To understand the meaning of Apollo's words, I must find out if there is a person who is smarter than me. Once I find it, I can challenge the prediction.”

And then Socrates began to propose a variety of questions to politicians. Artists, musicians, writers, famous people and scientists to test the depth of their knowledge. As a result, he realized one thing; “They all really have a lot of knowledge. However, considering themselves sages, they cannot comprehend the essence of things. It turns out that I really am wiser than them.”

In the information that has reached us about Socrates, however, in a number of cases it is supplemented with fiction. They are sometimes anecdotal, semi-legendary in nature.

Socrates attracted attention in absolutely everything: appearance and lifestyle, activities and teachings. Unlike the paid teachers of wisdom (sophists), who sported luxurious clothes, he was always dressed modestly and often walked barefoot. According to the ideas of the Greeks, who so highly valued physical beauty and were confident in their beauty, Socrates was ugly: short, squat, with a sagging belly, a short neck, a large bald head and a huge bulging forehead. Even his dignified gait could not soften the impression of his ugly appearance.

The Hellenic type of beauty is characterized by regular facial features, a straight nose, and large expressive eyes. Socrates had a flattened and upturned nose with wide nostrils, thick sensual lips, and a puffy face. Socrates's eyes were bulging, and, in his usual manner, he looked slightly from under his brows. In a word, Socrates’ appearance contradicted all the Greek ideas about beauty, it was, as it were, a mockery of these ideas, a caricature of them. However, this man, although so unattractive in appearance, had enormous charm.

According to the handsome Alcibiades, Socrates looks like a strongman or satyr - a hairy lustful demon, half-man, half-goat, whom sculptors most often depict with a pipe or flute in his hands, making this figure hollow inside. If you open this silenoid case, you will find amazingly beautiful golden statues of gods inside. So is Socrates. Outwardly, he is sculpted strong, a real satyr Marsyas. The mythological Marsyas shocked and captivated by playing the flute. Socrates amazed and captivated his listeners when he began to speak and reveal his soul.

There is little reliable information about the childhood and generally the first half of Socrates’ life, when he had not yet gained widespread popularity among the Athenians. But some things are known.

Socrates was the second child in the family. Before her marriage to Sophroniscus, Phenareta was already married and gave birth to a son, Patroclus, the elder brother of Socrates. One of the biographical legends reports that Sophroniscus, according to the then accepted custom, in connection with the birth of Socrates, turned to the oracle with a question about the nature of the treatment of his son in his upbringing. The meaning of the divine instruction was something like this: “Let the son do what he pleases; his father should not force him to do anything or hold him back from anything. The father should only pray to Zeus and the Muses for a good outcome, leaving his son free to express his inclinations and inclinations. His son does not need any other worries, since he already has within himself a leader for the rest of his life who is better than a thousand teachers and educators.” By internal leader, this meant the daimonium (demon) of Socrates - his genius, internal oracle, voice that warned against bad deeds. Already at the end of his life, appearing before the court, Socrates spoke about his demon like this: “Something divine or miraculous happens to me... It started for me in childhood: some kind of voice arises, which every time deviates me from what I am, intend to do, but never persuades me to do anything. It is this voice that forbids me to engage in government affairs.”

"All I know is that I don't know anything"

Having uttered these words, the great sage wanted to say that there are many things in the world that can be seen, but cannot be understood and explained, even with all the knowledge accumulated by humanity. People usually think that they know something, but in fact their knowledge is negligible. Socrates concluded that only the gods are truly wise, and he himself. Knowing about his ignorance, he knows more than everyone else, but the strength of a person is that, realizing how small and conditional his knowledge is, he still strives for wisdom.

He felt only contempt for existing philosophical schools and subsequently said that his views were nurtured by life itself. He considered these philosophers to be no better than madmen who themselves do not know what they are trying to achieve. The catchphrase “I only know that I know nothing” means not so much a strict attitude toward oneself, underestimation of oneself, or the need for deeper self-knowledge, but rather the need for first-priority knowledge of what Truth, Beauty, and Virtue are. Socrates did not find an answer to this question from the schools of his time and therefore decided that knowledge of nature or metaphysics could not improve the lives of people who did not understand religious and moral problems, which in his opinion contained moral norms.

Get married no matter what. If you get a good wife, you will become an exception; if you get a bad wife, you will become a philosopher.

Starting a family

How could Socrates live without work for twenty years, studying “his own ignorance”? some scholars believe that he learned the craft of stonemason and sculptor from his father and practiced this work for a long time before becoming a “pure” thinker. Another version says that Socrates managed to inherit an inheritance from his father that allowed him to lead a more or less basic existence. According to the third assumption, Socrates was helped by his friends and students. Regardless of which of these opinions is true, one thing is clear: Socrates lived in constant need.

Socrates married late, at fifty. His wife Xanthippe was no more than twenty. Such a huge age difference between spouses was common at that time. Socrates and Xanthippe had three sons. At the time of the death of seventy-year-old Socrates, his eldest son was about eighteen years old.

Xanthippe came from a wealthy family, as her name suggests. "Xanthippe" means "yellow horse", and the word "Hippos" ("horse") is typical of the names of aristocrats of the time. Besides. Their eldest son, Lamproclus, was named after Xanthippe's father, a tradition that was only observed if the newborn had a wealthy, noble grandfather. The portrait of Xanthippe in Plato’s dialogue “Phaedo” and her portrait given by Xenophon in “Memoirs of Socrates” paint an image of a faithful and devoted wife. True, in Xenophon’s Symposium, Socrates says that it is not easy for him to live with such a wife, and Aelian calls her a grumpy, jealous vixen. The name "Xanthippe" has become a household name - this is what they call a grumpy, annoying wife.

"Know yourself"

According to the legend cited by Aristotle, Socrates visited Delphi in his youth. He was excited and captivated by the inscription “Know yourself.” This saying served as an impetus for philosophizing and predetermined the main direction of his philosophical search for truth. Socrates took this saying as a call to knowledge in general, to clarify the meaning, origin and boundaries of human knowledge in relation to divine wisdom. Thus, the discussion was not about particulars, but about the principle of a person’s knowledge of his place in the world.

Socrates' insight into the essence of human problems required new, true ways of knowledge. Socrates' philosophical interest in the problems of man and human knowledge marked a turn from the previous natural philosophy to moral philosophy. Man and his place in the world became the central problem of Socrates' ethics and the main theme of all his conversations. In this regard, Cicero aptly noted that Socrates brought philosophy down from heaven to earth.

During Socrates' youth, philosophy in Athens was an imported product. The Athenians were strong in politics, art, crafts, trade, military and maritime affairs, but not in philosophy. There were no philosophical schools, movements, or even just notable philosophers. Actually, the first Athenian philosopher was Archelaus - a successful link for the legend between Socrates and the previous natural philosophers, and through them the “seven wise men.”

Once, even after receiving a kick, Socrates endured it, and when someone was surprised, he replied: “If a donkey kicked me, would I sue him?

Fateful meeting

The date of Socrates' acquaintance with his teacher Archelaus remains a matter of dispute for historians. However, what is certain is that Socrates was about 20 years old when he showed interest in studying natural philosophy.

Young Socrates experienced an insatiable thirst for knowledge. He really wanted to gain wisdom in order to understand the reasons why all things arise, and then gradually change and decay (die). Fascinated by the solution to this question, Socrates devoted himself entirely to science. However, he doubted that natural philosophy was capable of giving the only correct and comprehensive answers to all the questions that faced him.

When these doubts grew into confidence, Socrates spent some time in thought, and soon realized that fate had given him a chance to again test the possibility of finding the truth. This happened at a public reading of a book by Anaxagoras, a philosopher from Asia Minor who moved to Athens around 461 BC.

Anaxagoras's theory of Nous, who "governs all things", initially impressed Socrates, but over time he realized that some aspects of this philosophical conclusion were far from perfect. Anaxagoras believed that cold fog and warm ether formed the seeds of life, which sprouted and mixed with air and light. He convinced many natural philosophers of this, but Socrates could not agree with this theory of the origin of things. Its weakness, as he believed, lay in the fact that Anaxagoras did not clarify the mechanism for controlling all things. As a result, Socrates began to lose respect for his teacher and vowed to himself to continue searching for an answer to the question that worried him, but no longer in natural philosophy. Switching from the study of natural sciences to the study of logos (world mind), he directed his efforts to the study of humanity.

Socrates began by analyzing the interactions between people. Coming to the mountain, he tried to attract the attention of passers-by, urging them to enter into a philosophical conversation with him. His remarkable appearance and unusual behavior did not go unnoticed. The conclusion of the physiognomist Zopirus has been preserved, who called Socrates “a grouch and a hot-tempered man”: “He (Socrates) is limited in knowledge and inclined to satisfy his passions.”

People who knew Socrates were amused when they heard Zopyrus's remark - only a person who completely did not understand the character of Socrates could say this. Socrates himself, who decided that they were laughing at him, answered without any malice: “Yes, that’s exactly what I am. However, with the help of logos I can control my feelings.”

Dialogues of Socrates

Socrates tried to explain to the Athenians that even if they think they are wise, in reality they are not. He decided to talk with people in the form of dialogues - this method of communication is now known as the Socratic method.

At first glance, Socrates' questions seemed simple. He could ask, for example: “What is beauty?” or “What is courage, wisdom, and virtue?”, and he was usually answered: “This is what it is.” For example, someone might say that courage is the fortitude of the soul. Then Socrates said that most often steadfastness is a good quality, but can it be called such if we are talking about a person who persists in his ignorance? The interlocutor agreed, and then Socrates concluded that courage is not fortitude of the soul, therefore this answer is incorrect.

At the beginning, the dialogue of Socrates’ interlocutor, as a rule, easily gave answers, but the philosopher’s further questions forced him to refute his own conclusions. Socrates deliberately drove his interlocutor into a dead end. In this way he tried to explain what the gods meant when they said that man does not have wisdom.

Of course, all this turned people against Socrates. After all, the result of such a conversation was tantamount to the statement: “You are devoid of wisdom.” They began to avoid him, and many began to hate him. He was beaten several times and often mocked. But Socrates continued to patiently explain to the Athenians: “I only know that I know nothing,” and over time, ardent supporters of the unbending seeker of truth appeared, considering him their teacher.

socrates philosophy moral political

Philosophy as understood by Socrates

Socrates himself did not write even a line of philosophical works. He spent all his free time in conversations with visiting sophists and local citizens, politicians and ordinary people, friends and strangers on topics that had become traditional for sophistic practice: what is good and what is evil, what is beautiful and what is ugly, what is virtue and what is vice, you can how to learn to be good and how knowledge is acquired. We know about these conversations mainly thanks to two authors - Xenophon and Plato. In addition to their works, there are also: fragments and evidence of the content of the “Socratic dialogues” of other Socratics - Aeschines, Phaedo, Antisthenes, Euclid, Aristippus; a parodic portrayal of Socrates in Aristophanes' comedy "The Clouds" (staged in 423 BC) and a number of remarks about Socrates by Aristotle, born a generation after his execution. The problem of the reliability of the depiction of Socrates' personality in the surviving works is the key issue of all studies about him.

In those days when the book was a handwritten rarity, the advantages of speech over writing, its unprecedented expressiveness and the possibility of reacting to the audience were obvious to everyone. Information about 35 philosophical works of Plato has reached our time (the authorship of 11 of which is considered doubtful). Most of them were presented in the form of dialogue. Dialogue gave the author the opportunity to at least somewhat approach live speech. And since Socrates’ style was based on working with his interlocutor, it was difficult to reflect it in writing. He believed that knowledge obtained by a person in a ready-made form is less valuable for him and therefore not as durable as the product of his own thinking. And the teacher’s task is to help his listeners independently give birth to knowledge, which in a sense is already contained in their heads, like a child in the womb. Socrates called this technique “maeutics” - “midwifery” (an allusion to his mother’s profession). Actually, the “Socratic” method is sequentially and systematically asked questions aimed at leading the interlocutor to contradict himself, to admit his own ignorance and the subsequent formation of a consistent answer, following the path indicated by Socrates’ questions

Socrates also proceeds from his conviction about the possibility of rational understanding and comprehension of life in all its manifestations, in all, even the dark and mystical, sides and subtle movements of the human soul and intellect. Socrates is convinced that in all the diversity of life experiences there is something unifying, a certain common meaning that can be expressed by a single idea, concept.

Socrates promoted his ethical idealism. The development of idealistic morality constitutes the main core of Socrates' philosophical interests and activities. In conversations and discussions, Socrates paid attention to knowledge of the essence of virtue. How can a person exist if he does not know what virtue is? In this case, knowledge of the essence of virtue, knowledge of what is “moral” is for him a prerequisite for moral life and the achievement of virtue. Socrates identifies morality with knowledge. Morality is the knowledge of what is good and beautiful and at the same time useful for a person, which helps him achieve bliss and happiness in life. A moral person must know what virtue is. Morality and knowledge from this point of view coincide. In order to be virtuous, it is necessary to know virtue as such, as a “universal” that serves as the basis of all particular virtues.

Modern man, surrounded on all sides by the benefits obtained precisely through the study of nature, finds it difficult to understand the enemy of the study of nature (“space”). But for Socrates and his contemporaries it was the other way around. Socrates served as the best example of what a person can achieve if he follows his teaching - knowledge of the human spirit. It is enough to recall the lifestyle of Socrates, the moral and political conflicts in his fate, his wisdom, military valor and courage, and the tragic ending. The glory that Socrates received during his lifetime easily survived entire eras and, without fading, has reached the present day through the thickness of two and a half millennia.

Until the end of his life, Socrates placed wisdom immeasurably above wealth. In winter and summer, on difficult military campaigns, he walked in a poor chiton, barefoot. Confidence in the correctness of his path, in his own virtue, gave him the strength to live with his wife Xanthippe, who immortalized her name with unparalleled quarrelsomeness, never to follow the lead of both the crowd and the tyrants, even if this threatened his life, as happened at the trial. In such cases, Socrates was not faced with a dilemma, there was no painful choice. Remaining absolutely calm, Socrates acted as his worldview, his “demon,” ordered.

Socrates's lifestyle, the moral and political conflicts in his life, the popular style of philosophizing, military valor and courage, the tragic ending - surrounded his name with an attractive aura of legend. The fame that Socrates received during his lifetime easily survived entire eras and, without fading, has reached the present day through the thickness of two and a half millennia.

Features of Socrates' philosophy

Based on various evidence, of which preference is usually given to the Apology of Socrates and the early dialogues of Plato, at least three features of Socratic philosophy are usually pointed out:

) its conversational (“dialectical”) character.

The dialogism of the teachings of Socrates, sociable by nature, had the following justification: Socrates argued that he himself “knows nothing” and in order to become wise he asks others. He called his interview method maieutics (“midwifery art”), meaning that he only helps the “birth” of knowledge, but is not its source: since not the question, but the answer is a positive statement, then the one who answered the question was considered “knowledgeable.” interlocutor questions. Socrates' usual methods of conducting dialogue: refutation through leading to a contradiction and irony - feigned ignorance, avoidance of direct answers. According to Plato’s “Apology,” in fact, Socrates, speaking the “pure truth” about his ignorance, wanted to point out the insignificance of all human knowledge in comparison with divine wisdom, for only God knows everything.

) Definition of concepts by induction.

During his maieutic conversations, Socrates usually resorted to the method of “guidance”: starting with the most familiar and everyday examples, he tried to lead his interlocutor to the definition of the concept under discussion, that is, to answer the question: “what is?” He suggested moving from beautiful things to discussing what beauty is, from courageous actions to what courage is, etc. As a rule, the topics of his conversations related to ethical issues.

) Ethical rationalism, expressed by the formula “virtue is knowledge.”

Socrates' constant thought is that correct behavior and true knowledge cannot be separated from each other: it is impossible to act courageously or piously without knowing what courage or piety is. An action only has moral meaning when a person commits it consciously and out of inner conviction, but if he behaves well because, for example, “everyone does it” - then if “everyone” begins to behave badly, then there will be no reason to be virtuous. According to Socrates, not only the truly moral (good) is always conscious, but also the conscious is always good, and the unconscious is bad. If someone acts badly, it means that he does not yet know how to act (evil is always an error of judgment), and after his soul is cleansed of false prejudices, a natural love for good will appear in it, and good is self-evident .

Just as one cannot act well without knowing virtue, one cannot truly love without knowing what love is and what should be the true object of desire. The theme of love (eros) and friendship is the most well-attested theme of Socrates' reasoning; this theme was reflected in one way or another in the works of all the Socratics - Antisthenes, Aeschines, Phaedo, Xenophon and Euclid. In addition to the obviously present play on words derived from “ask” and “love,” the love theme was important as a psychological justification for the identity of truth and good: wanting to know better and at the same time being, of course, well-disposed towards a recognizable object can only be done by loving it; and love for a specific person, or more precisely, according to Socrates, for his soul, has the greatest meaning - to the extent that it is virtuous or strives for this.

Every soul has a good beginning, just as every soul has a patron demon. Socrates heard the voice of his “demon”, warning him or his friends (if they consulted with Socrates) to commit certain actions (it is remarkable that Socrates’ “demon” showed its prohibitive power only in cases of a mortal threat to life, in less important cases it was silent). Socrates considered his inner voice to be a kind of oracle, through which God communicates his will to him - accordingly, Socrates did not dare to disobey divine instructions. It was for this doctrine, suspicious from the point of view of the state religion, that at the end of his life he was accused of impiety.

Doubt (“I know that I know nothing”) should, according to the teachings of Socrates, lead to self-knowledge (“know thyself”). Only in such an individualistic way, he taught, can one come to an understanding of justice, right, law, piety, good and evil. Materialists, studying nature, came to deny the divine mind in the world, the sophists questioned and ridiculed all previous views - it is therefore necessary, according to Socrates, to turn to knowledge of oneself, the human spirit and in it to find the basis of religion and morality. Thus, Socrates solves the main philosophical question as an idealist: the primary thing for him is the spirit, consciousness, while nature is something secondary and even insignificant, not worthy of the philosopher’s attention. Doubt served as a prerequisite for Socrates to turn to his own self, to the subjective spirit, for which the further path led to the objective spirit - to the divine mind. The idealistic ethics of Socrates develops into theology. Developing his religious and moral teaching, Socrates, in contrast to materialists who call to “listen to nature,” referred to a special inner voice that supposedly instructed him on the most important issues - the famous “demon” of Socrates.

Socrates' teleology appears in an extremely primitive form. The human sense organs, according to this teaching, have as their purpose the accomplishment of certain tasks: the purpose of the eyes is to see, the ears are to listen, the nose is to smell, etc. Likewise, the gods send the light necessary for people to see, the night is intended by the gods for the rest of people, the light of the moon and stars is intended to help determine time. The gods make sure that the earth produces food for humans, for which an appropriate schedule of seasons has been introduced; Moreover, the movement of the sun occurs at such a distance from the earth that people do not suffer from excessive heat or excessive cold, etc.

The development of idealistic morality constitutes the main core of Socrates' philosophical interests and activities. Socrates attached particular importance to knowledge of the essence of virtue. A moral person must know what virtue is. Morality and knowledge from this point of view coincide; in order to be virtuous, it is necessary to know virtue as such, as a “universal” that serves as the basis of all particular virtues. The task of finding the “universal”, according to Socrates, should have been facilitated by his special philosophical method. The “Socratic” method, which had as its task the discovery of “truth” through conversation, argument, and polemics, was the source of idealistic “dialectics.” “In ancient times, dialectics was understood as the art of achieving truth by revealing contradictions in the opponent’s judgment and overcoming these contradictions. In ancient times, some philosophers believed that uncovering contradictions in thinking and the clash of opposing opinions was the best means of discovering truth.” The main components of the “Socratic” method: “irony” and “maieutics” - in form, “induction” and “determination” - in content. The “Socratic” method is, first of all, a method of consistently and systematically asking questions, with the goal of leading the interlocutor to contradict himself, to admit his own ignorance. This is the Socratic “irony”. However, Socrates set as his task not only the “ironic” disclosure of contradictions in the statements of his interlocutor, but also the overcoming of these contradictions in order to achieve “truth”. Therefore, the continuation and addition of “irony” was “maieutics” - the “midwifery art” of Socrates (an allusion to his mother’s profession). Socrates wanted to say by this that he was helping his listeners to be born to a new life, to the knowledge of the “universal” as the basis of true morality. The main task of the “Socratic” method is to find the “universal” in morality, to establish a universal moral basis for individual, particular virtues. This problem must be solved with the help of a kind of “induction” and “definition”.

“Induction” and “determination” in Socrates’ dialectic complement each other. If “induction” is the search for commonalities in particular virtues through their analysis and comparison, then “determination” is the establishment of genera and species, their relationships, “subordination.” Just actions and, in general, all actions based on virtue are beautiful and good. Therefore, people who know what such actions consist of will not want to commit any other action instead of this one, and people who do not know cannot perform them and, even if they try to do them, fall into error. Thus, only the wise perform beautiful and good deeds, but the unwise cannot, and even if they try to do so, they fall into error. And since just and in general all beautiful and good actions are based on virtue, it follows from this that justice and every other virtue is wisdom.

True justice, according to Socrates, is the knowledge of what is good and beautiful, at the same time useful to a person, contributes to his bliss, happiness in life.

Socrates considered the three main virtues to be:

Temperance (knowing how to control passions)

Bravery (knowing how to overcome dangers)

Justice (knowing how to observe divine and human laws).

Teachings of Socrates

In real moral relations, according to Socrates, there are limitations and contradictions in moral assessments. This is a consequence of people’s ignorance, their reluctance to know the essence. The essential thing in morality is the unchangeable and eternal virtues, the main of which is wisdom. It allows one to comprehend the purpose of life and constitutes activity in accordance with divine destiny. The source of good is God.

Socrates believed that the meaning of human life, the highest good, is in achieving happiness. Ethics should help a person to build a life in accordance with this goal. Happiness is the content of a prudent, virtuous being, i.e. only a moral person can be happy (or reasonable, which is essentially the same thing). Here, Socrates’ eudaimonistic attitude is corrected by the conviction of the intrinsic value of morality: morality is not subordinated to the natural desire for happiness, but, on the contrary, happiness depends on the morality (virtue) of a person. Accordingly, the task of ethics is specified “to help a person become moral. Socrates stands on the position of rationalism.

Knowledge is the basis of virtue (each specific virtue is a certain type of knowledge), ignorance is the source of immorality, i.e. truth and goodness coincide. That is, moral values only have regulatory significance when they are recognized by a person as true. Therefore, he pays such constant attention to moral education, which is inseparable from self-education, and the process of moral improvement lasts throughout adult life: “The one who lives best, I think, is the one who cares most about becoming the best possible, and the most pleasant of all.” - who is most aware that he is becoming better. Until now this has been my lot.”

Trial of Socrates

After the defeat of Athens in the long-term Peloponnesian War (during which Socrates took part in military battles three times), in 404-403 a cruel pro-Spartan “tyranny of the thirty” was established in the city, headed by Critias, a former listener of Socrates. Although Socrates did not cooperate in any way with the Spartan authorities during the tyranny, four years after the overthrow of the dictatorship, the Athenians brought Socrates to trial on charges of shaking the foundations of the state, thus trying to find the reason for the apparent decline of democratic power and the weakening of Athens after the brilliant and irreversible “age of Pericles.” . There were three accusers: the young poet Meletus, the owner of the tannery Anita and the orator Likon; the text of the guilty verdict is reported by Xenophon in “Memoirs of Socrates”: “Socrates is guilty of not recognizing the gods recognized by the state, but introducing other, new deities; guilty also of corrupting youth.” Socrates’ defense at trial became the reason for the writing of numerous “Apologies,” the most famous of which belongs to Plato. According to the court verdict, Socrates drank hemlock and died a few minutes later in full consciousness. After the execution of Socrates, a long history of intellectual experiences of this Athenian tragedy began, certain stages of which coincided with the history of the development of philosophy, first of all, this concerns the formation of Platonism.

Posthumous legends

After the death of Socrates, the so-called Socratic schools arose in large numbers, founded by his close students, the genre of Socratic dialogue appears, the character of which is invariably Socrates, and “memoirs” of Socrates. The students wanted to tell about the personality of Socrates to people who did not have the opportunity to know him during his lifetime, and to understand what significance his life could have for those who would never see him. All this literature was characterized by the typification of characters, their personal qualities and all the events that happened to them, so that as a result, the image of Socrates that we have before us, although historically unreliable, is extremely interesting as a unique historical and cultural myth, to which all new generations of philosophers have turned: “Socrates was the first to show that at any time and at any age, no matter what happens to us and no matter what we do, there is always a place for philosophy in life.”

After Socrates

Socrates was not able to give people “real knowledge” because, according to him, he himself knew nothing. At first he tried to make people understand that they also didn’t know anything. He then persuaded people to reflect on nature using the dialogical method. He compared the art of dialogue to the skill of a midwife. A midwife helps a pregnant woman give birth to a baby; The process by which a child comes into the world and becomes part of this world is painful and difficult. Socrates believed that his calling was to help a person discover the truth in his soul through dialogue with him. Truth exists within a person, just as a child exists within a body of matter. The Socratic method involves a series of questions that lead the interlocutor to realize the truth hidden within him. The midwife only helps the mother during childbirth - Socrates did the same, helping a person to discover the truth in himself. Taking this association to its logical conclusion, the philosopher emphasized that the mother herself gives birth to the child, just as Socrates’ interlocutor must himself come to the realization of the truth. That is why the Socratic method is sometimes called the “midwife” method. Socrates encouraged a person to “give birth” to independent answers to the questions that arise in his mind.

Socrates' student, Plato, developed this theory, which led him to consciousness, which led him to create the concept of "idea" to understand the nature of forms. “Idea” is the ideal and perfect form of matter. In the world of ideas, all things, knowledge, kindness and virtues exist in a perfect form. In The Republic, Plato introduces the metaphor of the cave. The people in it see only the shadows of events moving on the wall opposite the entrance, but not the events themselves. The world is a cave, says the philosopher. The sun is the source of light. Our World is a reflection of the world of ideas.

Aristotle, in turn, opposed Plato's "ideas". In contrast to Plato, who argued that the true nature of things exists only in the world of ideas, Aristotle proposed that the nature of things exists in the real world and can be seen and touched. In Aristotle's theory, the term "eidos" is often used, which means "the nature of existence", or, more simply, something that can be seen. For example, the house you are standing over is built of wood. You see only wood, but based on its configuration you conclude that this is a house. In this case, wood is "hyle" (material) and house (form and function), in which matter becomes "eidos". All things are composed of gile and eidos.

Thus, either developing the ideas of their predecessors or arguing with them, Greek philosophers began with the natural philosophy of Thales and came to the philosophy of Aristotle. For 250 years, philosophy has come a long way, gradually improving.

Conclusion

The purpose of this essay is to learn in detail and study the teachings of Socrates, the great ancient sage. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to consider some features of the philosophy of Socrates, consider some features of the philosophy of Socrates, etc.; analyze the educational material and draw conclusions.

Having studied this topic while working on the abstract, we can say that Socrates, the great ancient sage, stands at the origins of the rationalistic and educational traditions of European thought. He has an outstanding place in the history of moral philosophy and ethics, logic, dialectics, political and legal teachings. The influence he had on the progress of human knowledge is felt to this day. He entered the spiritual culture of humanity forever. Socrates made it clear to people that the volume of human knowledge of the world is unlimited. The teaching of Socrates signified the fact that a new man had appeared, morality had appeared, coming not from instinct, but from reason. Everything that is not from a person, everything that he has not broken through his soul, through his doubts - everything is unreliable. According to Socrates, not only the truly moral (good) is always conscious, but also the conscious is always good, and the unconscious is bad. If someone acts badly, it means that he does not yet know how to act (evil is always an error of judgment), and after his soul is cleansed of false prejudices, a natural love for good will appear in it, and good is self-evident .

What Socrates himself did not do, history did for him. She worked hard to catalog some of his statements as ethical, others as dialectical, some as idealistic, others as spontaneously materialistic, some as religious, others as heretical. He was recognized as “one of their own” by a variety of ideological movements, and he was accused of philosophical one-sidedness and one-sidedness, of which Socrates could not be guilty. The criteria by which we ideologically divide the philosopher of modern times into various schools and directions are not applicable to Socrates, and even more so to his predecessors.

History has also worked well to bring everything stillborn in Socrates' legacy to its extreme limits of fossilization, to canonized idols of mass consciousness, thereby shading the living and life-giving springs of Socrates' thought - his irony and dialectics. Socrates is a representative of an idealistic religious and moral worldview, openly hostile to materialism. For the first time, it was Socrates who consciously set himself the task of substantiating idealism and spoke out against the ancient materialistic worldview, natural science and atheism.

The image of Socrates is a vivid example of the fact that “invisible” human qualities - goodness, virtue, courage, honor - actually constitute the second, true nature of a person, they represent the material from which a person is built. And this material is much stronger than his bones, his muscles, his body as a whole. Socrates died a long time ago, but he is much more alive than many of our contemporaries, because what he did and said still lives today in our consciousness, in our understanding of ourselves, in our awareness of our place in the world. Today in the modern world, in this constant bustle, in this chaos, a person simply has no time to think about himself, about his actions. And most of us do what others do without even noticing it. Every person has thought more than once about the meaning of life, about their purpose, but not everyone took any action to answer this question. This is why we all need to pause a little and think... Who are we? Why are we on this earth? And it is here that the philosophy of Socrates finds its direct application. And this will continue for many centuries. The philosophy of Socrates is immortal.

Bibliography

1. Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2001: Computer textbook.

Gubin V.D. Philosophy: Elementary course: Textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2001. - 331 p.

Cassidy F. H. Socrates. - M.: Mysl, 1988. - 220 p.

Kokhanovsky V. P., Yakovlev V. P. History of philosophy. - M.: Phoenix, 1999. - 544 p.

Kuzishchin V.I. Dictionary of Antiquity. - M.: Progress, 1993. - 704 p.

Losev A. F., Taho-Godi A. A. Platon. - M.: Children's literature, 1977. - 224 p.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova.

Tolstykh V.I. Socrates and us. Different essays on the same topic. - M.: Politizdat, 1981. - 383 p. - (Personality, morality, education).

Fomichev N. A. In the name of truth and virtue. - M.: Young Guard, 1984. - 191 p.

Chudakova N.V., Gromov A.V. I explore the world: Children's encyclopedia: History. - M.: AST, Olympus, 1994. - 496 p.

V.S. Nersesyants "Socrates" USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Series "Scientific Biographies" Publishing house "Science" 1977.

.#"justify">. "100 people who changed the course of history" Weekly publication. Issue No. 48, 2008. RUSSIA Publisher and founder: De Agostini LLC

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Everyone has sunshine in them!
Socrates once said
a heart beats in everyone
and there is kindness in everyone

I'm a midwife
- I give birth to a Soul
the awakened one looks sweet
and smiles and remains silent

But the rulers of Athens
They are in a hurry to execute Socrates...

https://www.site/poetry/1130013

Socrates said: “Know yourself!”
And no matter how much Man learns from century to century,
But the philosopher's gaze is always
Directed to the starry world and to the soul of Man.

He was wise, and did not say out of modesty,
What he knows is that he knows nothing.
I doubt it...

https://www.site/poetry/1146686

Is he rich and does he have any other advantage that the crowd extols” (Plato, “Symposium”). They came to us in different ways Socrates his friends and students. Once, having talked with a young man he didn’t know, he asked: “Where should you go for flour and butter... that belonged?” By calling this recollection, we would perhaps use the correct word” (Plato, “Phaedo”). Help Socrates in recall consisted of another skill, very rare now - the ability to listen. Listening, hearing...

https://www.site/journal/141381

When important people in people's lives and in human society become the subject of active discussions. No matter what scientists say, Socrates left a cultural heritage that directly or indirectly teaches a person how to behave. GNOTHI SE AFTON: Know yourself Many... these words from the Greek are: “I know one thing, and that is that I know nothing.” I understand it like this: Socrates does not mean that he knows nothing, but that one cannot know anything with absolute certainty, although we can be sure...

https://www.site/journal/115037

The artistic design can see this; there is a hidden voice in them that constantly talks about the purpose for which it is work art was created. Sometimes the artist is not aware of his creation. He follows his imagination; he may act against his own... he may cause an action that he would not want for himself or for the person for whom it is work intended. Once I visited a temple. I could not call this temple beautiful; but he was wonderful...

https://www.site/religion/12475

A successful test launch of the Bulava ICBM was carried out

The command of Captain First Rank Oleg Tsybin successfully launched the newest ballistic missile "Bulava" from the White Sea at the Kura training ground in Kamchatka. Start produced from an underwater position as part of the state flight testing program for the complex. The trajectory parameters were worked out as normal. The warheads successfully arrived at the Kura training ground...

Women's portal Fleurot

Basic philosophical ideas and works of Socrates, Plato and Xenophon. Philosophy of Socrates: brief and clear

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar documents

Childhood and youth

Philosophy

Personal life

Trial and execution

Quotes and aphorisms

Tutoring

A successful test launch of the Bulava ICBM was carried out

Women's portal Fleurot

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar documents

Childhood and youth

Philosophy

Personal life

Trial and execution

Quotes and aphorisms

Tutoring

A successful test launch of the Bulava ICBM was carried out

RELATED ARTICLES