Adygs - an ethnic community that currently includes the Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians and Shapsugs. The number of the Adyghe population of the Russian Federation is 559.7 thousand people. Adygs live, moreover, in many countries of the world, mainly in the Near and Middle East, where they are usually called Circassians. Here the Adyghe peoples are compactly settled and also include Abkhazians, Abaza, Ossetians and other people from the North Caucasus. The total number of Circassians is over 1 million people. They are all Sunni Muslims by religion. Languages ​​- Adyghe and Kabardino-Circassian. According to other classifications, one Adyghe language is distinguished, including the Western Adyghe dialect group (Adyghe language with dialects) and the East Adyghe group (dialects of the Kabardino-Circassian language).

Kabardians (self-designation Adyge; 386.1 thousand people) live in Kabardino-Balkaria (363.5 thousand people), as well as in the Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories and North Ossetia. The total number within the former USSR is about 391 thousand people. The Kabardian language is divided into dialects: Big Kabarda (its Baksan dialect formed the basis of the literary Kabardino-Circassian language), Mozdok, Besleney and Kuban (the dialect of Kabardians living in Adygea); the Little Kabardian dialect is also distinguished as part of the Bolshaya Kabarda dialect. The Kabardians are Sunni Muslims, but the Mozdok group of people are mostly Orthodox Christians.

Adyghes (self-name Adyge; 122.9 thousand people) live in Adygea (95.4 thousand), as well as in neighboring areas Krasnodar Territory(20.8 thousand people). Some of the Adyghes live in Turkey and other countries of the Middle East. Until the beginning of the 20th century. There were the following sub-ethnic groups: Abadzekhs, Besleneevs, Bzhedugs, Zhaneevs, Yegerukhays, Makhegs, Makhoshevs, Natukhays, Temirgoevs, Khatukaevs, Shapsugs, Khakuchis. The Western Adyghe dialect group includes four dialects: Timirgoev (which is the basis of the Adyghe literary language), Abadzekh, Bzhedug and, the most peculiar, Shapsug.

Circassians (self-name Adyghe; 50.8 thousand people)

People) live in 17 villages of Karachay-Cherkessia (40.2 thousand people), as well as in the countries of South-West Asia and North Africa, where they moved in the second half of the 19th century. The Circassians have a common literary language with the Kabardians.

Shapsugs are currently distinguished as an independent people. In 1992, a decision was made to create the Shapsugsky national region. The current number of Shapsugs is about 10 thousand people. They live in the Tuapse and Lazarevsky regions of the Krasnodar Territory and in small groups in Adygea.

Abkhazians (self-name Apsua; 7.3 thousand people) - indigenous people Abkhazia (93.3 thousand people). They also live in Turkey, Syria, Jordan and in some countries of Western Europe, the USA. The dialects of the Abkhazian language are Abzhui and Bzyb. Abkhaz believers are Orthodox Christians and Sunni Muslims.

Abazins (self-name Abaza; 33 thousand people) settled in Karachay-Cherkessia (27.5 thousand). They also live in Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon (about 10 thousand people). The total number is about 44 thousand people. The language, closely related to Abkhaz, has two dialects (corresponding to two sub-ethnic groups): Tapant (underlies the literary language) and Ashkhar. The Tapant dialect occupies a special place in the Abkhaz-Abaza linguistic community, while the Ashkhar dialect is close to the Abkhaz language. The Kabardino-Circassian language is also widespread.

Some researchers talk about a single Abkhaz-Abaza language and its dialects. An intermediate position between the Adyghe and Abkhaz-Abaza languages ​​is now occupied by the almost dead Ubykh language. Only a few people remember him - the descendants of the Ubykh mahajirs living in Western Turkey. The Ubykhs who remained today are completely assimilated either by the Abkhazians or the Adyghe-Shapsugs.

22. Peoples of the Northwestern Caucasus.

After that, we will transfer to the west, to the Black Sea coast, from where we will make our way to the central part of the Greater Caucasus. There are three groups in this area. Caucasian peoples: Abkhaz-Adygs, Karachay-Balkars And Ossetians. We will get acquainted with their life and way of life in this part of the review.

The following publications served as sources of textual information:

- "Peoples of Russia. Ethnographic essays", (publication of the journal "Nature and People"), 1879-1880;
- J.-J. Elise Reclus. "Russia European and Asian", v.2, 1884;
- E.Markov, "Essays on the Caucasus", (published by the Association of M.O. Wolf), 1887;
- N. Dubrovin, "Essay on the Caucasus and its peoples". St. Petersburg, 1871;
- Collection of materials for the description of localities and tribes of the Caucasus, No. 14, 1892;
- "Ethnographic Review" ed. N.A. Yanchuk, No. 1-2, 1899.

The review uses photographs of contemporaries and illustrations from books and magazines of the 19th century.

Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples - Abkhazians, Abaza, Adyghes (Circassians, Kabardians) and now defunct Ubykhs - have much in common in their way of life and culture, speak related languages ​​and are genetically close.

The complexion of the Abkhazian is swarthy, medium height. the hair is black and tangled, the whole figure is bony and lean; most men shave their heads. The inhabitants of Sukhum and its environs have a pale yellowish complexion. There are few beautiful women in Abkhazia, and in general they grow old very quickly. They do not have grace, delicacy, tenderness and freedom. From the hard work that a woman performs at home, she became coarse, and the constantly hanging over her husband’s power, who has the right of life and death over his wife, made something timid, indecisive appear in all her movements and actions. In the old days, the Turks took out Abkhaz women in large numbers, and they took best types. The Abkhaz is left with mediocrity, which grows old very quickly. Like the Circassians, the Abkhazians squeeze the breasts of young girls with a special corset. Women in Abkhazia, as elsewhere, are much cleaner and neater than men. Performing all the field and black work, and doing all the household chores, the Abkhaz women are dressed in a clean cotton dress, we will cover it with ours, suitable for European clothes, and white bedspreads. "Peoples of Russia"

The beauty of men in Abkhazia prevails over the beauty of women, while among the Abaza the opposite is true. There women and girls are beautiful in full of meaning this word; they are tall and slender to the point of charm. Here among the women there are many faces of remarkable beauty. The Abaza generally did not have the habit of hiding their women, but in Abkhazia, landlords and princes, adhering to the Mohammedan custom, hide their wives from prying eyes and even show the doctor the hand of their sick wife only through a hole cut in the screen. The wives of ordinary peasants are shown quite freely, and young girls are not hidden at all. "Peoples of Russia"

Villages, in the European sense, are not found in Abkhazia. The population does not concentrate in friendly, crowded dwellings, but, on the contrary, each saklya, with its unpretentious services and small gardens, stands completely apart and has no connection with others. The village, despite the fact that Abkhazians live in small groups, from five to ten families, is scattered over hills and slopes for a considerable distance, and therefore the area takes the form of a huge and magnificent park, in the middle of which huts for watchmen seem to be arranged. The road rarely goes past dwellings, and it happens that a traveler, being in the middle of a village, does not see a single building. Houses in Abkhazia are like a poorly arranged basket in which the branches of trees are so badly intertwined with each other that they form many holes into which one can stick a fist. Weaving a square or round cage, depending on taste, from brushwood, covering it from above with reeds, corn leaves or, finally, ferns, the Abkhaz believes that he has built himself a house, better than which there is nothing to wish for. In front of the door he makes a small canopy; inside, near one of the walls, there is a hearth with the same wicker chimney, and the saklya is ready. In it, he somehow spends the winter, lying near the hearth on a felt or cloak, and he does not want and does not look for a better place. The construction of such a sakli costs one cow. "Peoples of Russia"

Unfortunately, it was not possible to find a complete image of the Abkhazian dwelling of the 19th century. But on last photo the wall of the Abkhazian house is visible, which fully corresponds to the above description.

A low partition divides the hut into two halves, which, depending on the wealth of the owner; assigned: one for men, the other for women, or a large one for people, a smaller one for livestock. On both sides, along the walls of the sakli, long wooden benches are placed, on one side there is a featherbed or felt - this is the furniture of the sakli. In the middle, on an earthen floor, a fire is laid out to warm the family. Above the fire is an iron chain with a hook to support the cauldron. The light of the fire, passing through the walls, is reflected at night on the trees in a reddish color and, mixing with myriads of fireflies sparkling in the ground, presents a rather fantastic picture from afar. In the corners there are chests, mostly red, bound with iron and containing all the family property; next to them stands a tub of sour milk, the native's favorite drink. Weapons hang on the holes in the walls: a gun in a case, a saber and a dagger; some rough lubok picture, depicting a trait with two horns and stupidly outstretched arms or something like that. "Peoples of Russia"

Before moving on from the Abkhazians and Abaza to their closest neighbors - the Adygs, let's pay attention to another ethnic group of the Abkhazian people - the Abkhazian blacks, who live mainly in the village of Adzyubzha (Adzvibzha) at the mouth of the Kodor River. How they got there, no one knows.

According to one version, the princes of Chachba in the 17th century bought and brought into Abkhazia several hundred black slaves to work on tangerine plantations. According to another, Peter I presented the Abkhazian princes with imported araps, who could not acclimatize in cold St. Petersburg, but in warm Abkhazia they completely took root. In the 19th century, all Abkhazian Negroes spoke only Abkhazian and considered themselves Abkhazians.

The name "Circassians" in the 19th century was often used to refer to all the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples. In fact, the painting by Grigory Gagarin depicts Abkhazian and Abaza princes loyal to the Russian throne, who made up a group of negotiators who, in May 1841, tried to reconcile the leaders of the Ubykhs with the Russian government. But the pacification of the Adyghe and Ubykh tribes continued until 1864, when the northwest of the Caucasus was finally conquered by Russian troops. After that, most of the Circassians (Circassians), all the Ubykhs, as well as about half of the Abkhazians and Abaza, who did not want to submit to Russia, left their places of residence and moved to the Ottoman Empire. Most of all, this affected the tribes living on the Black Sea coast.

But the program of colonization of the Black Sea coast by the Russian population, in fact, failed. In the late 1860s, it was decided to settle in these places, in addition to Russians, Armenians and Greeks - refugees from Turkey, and also to return the Adygs who had moved to the Kuban.

Adygs in the 19th century were collectively referred to as Circassians, the sub-ethnos of the Adygs - Kabardians - was also sometimes called Circassians. Now the Circassians are called, depending on the place of residence, Circassians, Adyghes or Kabardians. The Shapsugs, who live mainly in the Sochi-Tuapse region, are now considered as an independent people, in fact, being also the Adyghe sub-ethnos.

The patriarchal simplicity of morals, physical beauty, elegance, undoubtedly made the Circassians the first among the rest of the Caucasians, and all other highlanders were often named after them. Unfortunately, they lived only in war, and many etymologists explain the very word "Circassian" in the sense of "robber", "bandit", "highway robber". They are mostly handsome, slender, with a thin waist and broad shoulders; the face is oval, clean, with shining eyes and bordered with thick black, sometimes chestnut or blond hair. Their habit of standing upright and leaning back is attributed to mothers who tie babies flat to a plank. In men and women, obesity or any other physical defect is considered a disgrace; those who have one are refrained from attending public festivals and popular assemblies. Knowing that beauty is an integral part of their race, Circassians rarely marry women of other blood. Their peculiar elegant costume, which they wear with such dexterity, has become the national costume of all highlanders in general, as well as Russian Cossacks; even peace-loving Jews still dress in a Circassian coat, decorated with cartridges, however, completely useless for them.

Following an ancient custom, a young man kidnaps by force the girl he wants to marry. A young Circassian woman knows in advance that she will have to leave her parental home, yield to feigned or real power, or be sold to foreign lands; but the strength of the custom is such that the deprivation of the fatherland and the harem life usually does not frighten her in the least. Girls are sure that they will become legitimate spouses of various nobles in foreign lands due to their beauty, graceful manners and poetic language. While other women of the East were nothing more than slaves, the Circassians remained free people, and this made them even more attractive. "Russia European and Asian"

The beauty of Circassian women has not found rivals for a long time. The regular features of the face, the slender frame, small arms and legs, the gait and all the movements showed something proud and noble. Everyone who could only see Circassian women testifies that among them there are such beauties, at the sight of which one involuntarily stops, struck with amazement. “About Circassian women,” says an eyewitness, “one can say that they are generally good, have wonderful abilities, are extremely passionate, but at the same time they have extraordinary willpower.” Of course, the concept of the beauty of women is relative; it cannot be said that all Circassian women, without exception, were beautiful, but, in any case, they serve as the best representatives of the most beautiful Caucasian tribe. But the custom of putting a corset on a girl from an early age and not taking it off before marriage makes the beauty’s breasts not develop, therefore, the woman’s beauty loses a lot. Upon the marriage of the girl, the young husband rips open the cord of the corset with a dagger, but he does this with particular care so as not to capture the body and the morocco. It is said that after removing the corset, a young married woman's breasts grow in two weeks. Among the Abadzekhs and among some Shapsug families, the girls do not wear corsets; that is why their women are more beautiful and coquettish. "Peoples of Russia"

As for the boys, they were most often brought up not by their parents themselves, but by "atalyks" or educators, who were chosen from people who had physical and moral virtues: courage, politeness. eloquence, the ability to handle weapons with a horse. Parents did not trust their tenderness and, fearing to spoil their own children, gave them another father, instructing him to make them good riders, fighters and hunters, to teach them to express themselves in simple, eloquent and poetic language. When the upbringing of a young man was considered completed, he again entered into his family, without ceasing, however, to treat the atalyk as his true father. "Russia European and Asian"

The Circassian's house consists of several rooms with low doors and small windows without glass, very rarely covered with a bubble. Closed tightly with shutters, the windows serve more to observe what is happening in the courtyard than to illuminate the rooms: the main light comes through doors that are wide open in summer and winter. At night, the doors are locked and boarded up from the inside with wooden wedges, which is why a general knock rises in the villages every evening. Near one of the walls of the room there is a semicircular or quadrangular recess in the ground for a fire, above which hangs a tall trumpet made of wattle covered with clay. The floor is earthen, but so well killed that it does not give dust. Shelves are attached around the stove, and sometimes a whole cupboard is hung, on the shelves of which housewares and utensils, and weapons and clothes are hung on nails. If the owner is a wealthy person, then a column of plates, uncovered and laid out in the most prominent place on the shelf, testifies to his prosperity. Wide, low beds, covered with felt and carpets, and small round tables placed in different places in the room, make up all the furniture of the native. "Peoples of Russia"

Kabardians, or as they call themselves "kabertay", inhabit almost the entire southern slope of the central Caucasus, between Elbrus and Kazbek. They are ethnologically very close relatives of the Circassians or Adige. Beautiful, slender and proud, like an adige, loving war and struggle like them, they hardly get used to the peaceful habits of agricultural life. The Kabardians have retained some of their nomadic life: they are much more busy raising horses and sheep than arable farming. Their lands, meadows and forests are still in communal ownership. Everyone has the right to a strip of land as long as he cultivates it himself, otherwise the land goes back to the Kabardian community. Among them, more than among all other Caucasian tribes, bold theft is considered valor - provided, however, that it be done outside of one's own village and one's tribe, and that the thief remains not caught, otherwise he becomes the subject of universal jokes and ridicule. "Russia European and Asian"

Most mountaineers of the Caucasus are famous for their temper, but the Circassians in particular. In 1867, in one of the villages of the Kabardian District, two people quarreled over a place at a watering place; the result of the quarrel was one killed and three people seriously injured. In one section, a murder was committed during a dispute over a ram. In another, one jokingly called the other a policeman and was wounded for this. In the same place, one old man, noticing that an 8-year-old boy, driving past the bulls, let them poison his hay, began to scold him and hit him with a twig. The latter drew a dagger and killed the old man. Hundreds of similar examples of impatience, resentment and bloody revenge can be cited. In general, the most unpretentious and innocent dispute, at least about a chicken, a ram, the dignity of a horse, the beauty of girls, etc. it was absolutely enough for the furious old men and youth to take up daggers and pistols, the constant companions of everyone. Entire dumps arose, into which, with spears in their hands, serfs also entered for the honor and dignity of their masters. Until now, the Kabardians have kept in their memory the legend of one monstrous dump for the most empty reason. One poor man begged a sieve from his neighbor for a short time to sow flour and lost it. The owner of the sieve was in a complaint, quarreled, and the result of the fight that took place on this occasion was the killing of up to 500 souls of both sexes. All of them are buried in one place, and their grave is called "kuzanaka", that is, a sieve grave. Collection of materials for the description of localities and tribes of the Caucasus, vol. XIV

Karachay-Balkarians, unlike the Abkhaz-Adygs, speak the language of the Turkic family. In pre-revolutionary literature, they, like other Turkic-speaking peoples, were often called "Tatars". In a number of publications of the 19th century, both Karachays and Balkars were simply called Karachays, the ethnonym "Balkarians" was rare. Karachays and Balkars cannot even be considered sub-ethnic groups of one people - they represent a single ethnic group, divided territorially. The Karachay-Balkarians made peace with the Russian crown earlier than the Circassians, so the mass migrations of the 1860s did not affect them. True, after 80 years this cup has not passed them, but that's a completely different story ...

The main occupation of the Karachays is cattle breeding, mainly sheep breeding. On average, a Karachay yard has from 50 to 100 horses, several hundred sheep, and two or three dozen heads of cattle; there are rich people, owners of two, three thousand horses and 20 thousand sheep, but they are a rare exception. Agriculture for the Karachai is only a help: there is very little land suitable for plowing in its cramped valleys. Climatic conditions allow sowing only barley and oats. The population does not have enough of their own bread, and they have to buy it from neighboring villages. The conditions of cattle breeding force the Karachai to live far from the villages almost all year round: in the summer, from June to October, he grazes his cattle on high mountain pastures, in the gorges of the main ridge, where he climbs as soon as the snow melts. In winter, it descends into low-lying valleys, protected from the winds as much as possible. All year round livestock graze on pasture, and therefore a snowy winter, depriving livestock of food, can cause significant damage to the pastoralist. At winter quarters, Karachays build kosh, primitive residential buildings, in which part of the family always lives. Long-term cattle breeding, being completely alone on the kosh did not contribute to the development of militant inclinations in the Karachais. This may be the most peaceful tribe among the Caucasian highlanders.

Until now, the life of a Karachay takes place in rather primitive conditions. The Karachay saklya is a squat frame made of thick oak logs, the ends of which are not cut off and sometimes stick out one and a half to two arshins. In severe winters, a Karachay sometimes cuts them off, as much as he needs for fuel. The earthen roof is covered with tall grass, which goats often feed on. In general, not chasing elegance in buildings, the Karachay prefers the useful to the pleasant. Lately the rich have been acquiring "Russian-style" houses, as the natives say. They are built by Russian carpenters from the Tambov and Penza provinces for huge sums of money. Ethnographic review, 1899, books 40-41

Karachays do not know any crafts, except for the preparation of cloaks. They have to overpay for luxury items both to the Kumyks, gold and silver craftsmen, who decorate their daggers and belts with gilding, and to the Mountain Jews, who keep petty shops in every village. Even livestock products: ayran, butter and cheese are prepared ineptly and extremely uncleanly by the Karachays. Dairy products do not go on sale, not satisfying the taste of more demanding customers, and are used exclusively by the natives. They say that on koshs often, for lack of utensils, cows are milked directly on the ground. Despite the poor hygienic conditions of life, especially on summer kosh, where the meat of slaughtered cattle dried in the sun, decomposing, poisons the air to such an extent that the kosh has to go around a mile away, the Karachais are distinguished by remarkable health and longevity. Hundred-year-olds among them are not uncommon, there are both 110 and 120 years old. Ethnographic review, 1899, books 40-41

Islam has not yet penetrated deep enough into the consciousness of the masses and has not managed to develop religious fanatics out of the Karachays. This is proved by a careless attitude to some of the prescriptions of religion, for example, non-observance of the 5 daily prayers, which are obligatory for every true believer, as well as the relative freedom of women. They never cover their faces (even married ones), and girls are not deprived of the company of male youth. It often happens that guys from the neighboring quarters of the aul come to visit, and then, with the participation of the girls, an impromptu ball is arranged before the hut with dancing to the harmonica; here for the first time tender feelings arise and marriages are foreordained. Karachays in most cases adhere to monogamy; cases where a man has two wives are relatively rare. Previously, strict exogamy was observed among Karachays, and cases of marriages between representatives of the same clan always aroused the indignation of the relatives. At present, this custom is no longer observed with such strictness. Ethnographic review, 1899, books 40-41

The usual age of marriage is currently 22-23 for men and 18 for girls. In the past, it often happened that two good friends betrothed their young children in childhood in order to intermarry. In the past, another way of concluding marriages was also in use: the groom handed his knife to the brother of the girl he wanted to have a wife, and if he accepted it, then the marriage was considered settled, and it was already considered dishonorable to refuse it. At present, marriages are performed by free agreement of those entering into it and their parents, or by taking away or kidnapping the bride by the groom. The latter method is used if the bride's parents do not agree to the marriage or force the girl to marry a young man she does not like, or, finally, if they demand too much kalym, which the groom is not able to pay. Ethnographic review, 1899, books 40-41

Residents of the Central Caucasus - Ossetians, who live on both sides of the Caucasus Range, have their ancestors of the ancient Iranian-speaking Alans, who, in turn, descended from the Scythian-Sarmatians. Ossetians do not have a single self-name: they call themselves either Irons or Digors. The Ossetians joined Russia in 1774. Representatives of this people participated in many wars in Russia as part of the Terek Cossack army.

The Ossetians call themselves Irons, that is, descended from the Ira; but who was Ir - the people cannot explain this. In the old days, according to the people, many different kinds of people moved to the Ossetians: Georgians and highlanders who fled from the persecution of the Persians to the northern slope of the mountains. All Ossetians are people devoted to our government and very diligent executors of its orders. This diligence and diligence does not extend, however, to their domestic life. No one thinks about tomorrow less than an Ossetian, and he spends the current day in idleness and laziness, sitting at home by a smoking fire, with a pipe in his mouth, or sleeping, or wandering around the mountains, not wanting to acquire anything and leaving his unpretentious household in the care of his wife . All Ossetians are very greedy for money, which, however, they try to acquire not for consumption, not for improving their life, but for keeping locked up. Rich and poor alike walk almost naked in rags. General poverty reigns among the Ossetians. When asked about the cause of these disasters, the Ossetians sagely replies that they are poor because of the poor harvest of bread, most of which goes to the preparation of araki (a kind of vodka), without which they cannot live. Ossetians say that they are idle due to lack of arable land. This is true, but it is also true that sometimes large clearings are visible near the village, which could be cultivated, but remain uncultivated due to carelessness.

The Kabardians, on the one hand, and the Georgians, on the other, kept the Ossetians locked up for centuries in their gloomy sky-high auls, not letting them into the plain either for trade or for relations with other tribes. Involuntarily, the old multi-storey tower of the castle became a whole world for the Ossetians, which only he got used to love, for which alone he was ready to die with a weapon in his hand. Own courtyard, surrounded by walls and towers, preserving the ancient ancestral gods both in the stone of the hearth and in the pillar supporting the roof, and in every household detail of the house, obligatory from the century, and the native village - Ossetian affections did not extend beyond these limits. Auls seldom communicated with each other across abysses and snowy cliffs, and if they collided, it was almost always at enmity, to resolve some dispute over a forest or pasture with weapons or to fulfill the sacred laws of bloody revenge. The Digorian was shy of the Alagir, the Alagir - of the Tagaur or the Kurtatin. Each clan lived an isolated and closed life, full of mistrust and fear of everything around it. Such a life of eternal loneliness and hostility developed in the Ossetian highlander the mighty power of self-help and the skill of struggle. "Essays of the Caucasus"

On the steepness of high cliffs, in harsh ravines, gorges and hollows, Ossetian auls are molded, mostly vast and crowded. Picturesque dwellings are scattered without any order between groves and trees, under the shade of which the inhabitants cool themselves in hot weather. However, Ossetians generally use this time very little. In cold weather, Ossetian auls become islands, separated from the whole world, and the population crowds in their homes. Ossetian dwellings are not the same and not monotonous. In woodless places, houses and other outbuildings are made of flagstone without clay, and in gorges abounding in forests, they are built of wood. Each stone house has the appearance of a castle with two or three floors, with high towers and a flat earthen roof. Such a house, surrounded by a stone fence and having a high tower, is called a galuana. Often the house of an Ossetian is built into the mountain with one of its facades, so that the back wall and part of the side walls are formed by the earthen or rocky wall of the mountain. and the ceiling of the lower storey, in which livestock is chiefly kept, serves as the floor for the second, which communicates with the courtyard by means of an external staircase leading to the platform formed by the lower protruding storey. The Ossetians themselves live on the second floor, and the upper one, if there is one, is partly intended for receiving guests, and partly serves instead of a pantry. The main building has two doors each: one in the middle, and the other on the side, leading to the courtyard; small rectangular openings without frames replace the windows. Most of wooden houses or the sackel is built in the form of sheds and often consists of wattle, smeared on both sides with clay, with a plank roof resting on two pillars and replacing the ceiling. The interior of such a dwelling consists of two rooms with an earthen floor. A rich owner has a semicircular stove leaning against the outer wall of the sakli, also made of wattle covered with clay, and the poor owner has a hearth, laid out in the middle of the sakli between two large stones. "Essay on the Caucasus and the peoples inhabiting it"

The meeting of the owners of the aul (nikhas) replaced the entire state structure, courts and laws. Everyone unquestioningly submitted to the verdict of nihas and the immovable customs of antiquity, which were supported even by exile, even by the death penalty. Within the walls of the house there was one, exactly the same simple, peremptory, centuries-honored power - the will of the father. The father is the head of the house, this is the living law of the Ossetian family; even an adult son does not dare to speak to him first, does not dare to sit down in his presence, does not dare to eat in his presence. The father enters the room - and everyone rises to their feet: the wife, sons, household members, everything falls silent and waits for what the owner will say, what the owner orders to do. Seniority is generally held in high esteem by Ossetians. The younger brother obeys the elder in everything, serves him, does not sit down with him. Colonels, honored officers from Ossetians - get up from their seats and give it up when an old man, even a simple shepherd, enters the house. The father of the family dines separately from the family; he is served by junior members. For him, in the house there is certainly a special wooden chair, mostly decorated with carvings, sometimes of deep antiquity. Ossetians do not sit with their legs crossed, like other highlanders of the Caucasus, but sit down, in our opinion, on benches and chairs. But this honorary family chair serves only for the father, passing from generation to generation, as an attribute of parental authority. "Essays of the Caucasus"

All the worries and all the work at home are on the woman. It is difficult to find a more industrious and helpful housewife like an Ossetian. The desert life of the mountains, the absence of any commercial and industrial life, any communication with the cities, involuntarily forced her to find in herself, inside her galuan, the satisfaction of all the needs of the family. The Ossetian herself spins the wool of her sheep and weaves beautiful soft fabrics from it for the Circassian or her husband's hood; the Ossetian woman sews for him boots from goat or buffalo skin, a hat from domestic sheepskin, prepares elegant braids and braids for finishing his dress and weapons. In a word, the Ossetian is dressed from head to toe by his wife. Needless to say, he is fed, watered and washed by her. She prepares his favorite vodka (raka) and barley beer for him, she treats him to delicious cheesecakes and pies, she cultivates his fields, brings firewood from the forest on her back, takes grain to the mill. "Essays of the Caucasus"

No matter how late the head of the house returns, the faithful wife must wait for him without undressing, take off his wet cloak or dusty boots, feed, warm and put her stern master to bed, who is ashamed even to say a kind word to her. Of course, these customs of the past had already yielded greatly to the pressure of Russian law and the influences of new ideas; they are preserved in the wilderness of inaccessible gorges, but are already almost forgotten in the villages of the plane or in the auls of the valleys through which the roads pass. The formidable patriarchy of paternal power is disappearing little by little from the Ossetian family, along with the former chastity, the former honesty of the word, and even partly the former hospitality. The Ossetian in the vicinity of Vladikavkaz is not only not famous for her chastity now, but has become a proverb for her lightness of morals. The Ossetian, who had already rubbed himself near the city bazaar and judicial slanderers, became a notorious rogue. Therefore, it is impossible to study the character of a real Ossetian from these mutilated products of the civilization of high roads. To do this, you need to go deep into the upper valleys of the mountains, to the foothills of the snowy Caucasian titans. Strongest of all, nevertheless, the customs of hospitality and respect for paternal authority survived. "Essays of the Caucasus"

Christianity is spread mainly among the common people; Mohammedanism is adhered to by the elders and the upper class in general, since it allows polygamy, but everyone, not having a clear idea of ​​\u200b\u200breligion, tends to the side of the one that presents them with more patronage, fewer demands and more benefits. Men have little adherence to religion, and women even less so. All this leads to the fact that Ossetians are distinguished by religious tolerance towards each other, or, better, by complete indifference to religion. All tribes equally believe in God, from whom all good and bad come; believe in his power, in the existence of heaven and hell. According to their concept, in the future life, all those people who distinguished themselves in this world by a good life will live in their families and unite in soul and body; they will live forever in paradise, and, just like in this world, they will enjoy polygamy, good food and festivities in luxurious gardens ... "Essay on the Caucasus and the peoples inhabiting it"

This concludes our acquaintance with the peoples of the North Caucasus. Further, crossing the Greater Caucasus Range, we will find ourselves in Transcaucasia, a region no less rich and diverse in ethnographic terms.

Adyghe-Abkhazian (Ashui) group of languages.
Abkhazian subgroup: Abkhazians (Apsua), Abaza.
Ubykh subgroup: Ubykhs (apeh).
Kasog subgroup: Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians.

Safronov V.A. "Indo-European ancestral homelands".
The Maikop culture was formed in the regions of Middle and Upper Mesopotamia and brought to the North Caucasus by people from the regions of Harran, who were in the sphere of influence of the state of the Western Semites - Ebla (23-20 BC). The impetus for the mobility of the population of Tel Huaira was its destruction by Sargon and the stable orientation of the interests of the dynasties of Akkad to the west. The migration was one-time and rapid: there are only faint traces of movement in Transcaucasia. In the North Caucasus, the carriers of the Semitic (Maikop) culture advanced from the sea to the massif of the mountains of Dagestan. They went to the steppes of the Ciscaucasia and the Black Sea, reaching the Dnieper region (Mikhailovka, Sokolovka-Shaposhnikova), came into contact with Indo-European cultures - Kemi-Oba, Nizhny Mikhailovskaya, the ancient Iranian-speaking population of the Volga region (ancient Pit culture), Indo-Aryans of the Kuban region (Kuban-Dnieper culture), proto-Hittite tribes (dolmen culture of Novosvobodnaya) of the Eastern Black Sea region. Traces of the presence of Semitic-speaking tribes in the North Caucasus are confirmed by 12 isoglosses of cultural vocabulary identified by Militarev and Starostin between Semitic (mainly West Semitic) and East Caucasian languages. The archaeological equivalents of the community speaking these (North Caucasian) languages ​​can be considered the eastern group of the Kuro-Arak culture, common both in Transcaucasia and in the eastern part of the North Caucasus.

The existence of a single Adyghe-Abkhazian (Ashui - named after the Ashui archaeological culture) proto-language dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. The most ancient archaeological realities of the Ashui civilization were the Maikop and Colchis cultures. There is an influence of dolmen culture. Written monuments Ashui language cover the period from the middle of the III millennium BC. up to 4-5 centuries. AD The Ashui tribes, according to numerous data, included the Taurus (Crimea), Meots and Tans (Don), Sinds, Dardaria, Toreats, Arekhs (Kuban). The ancient Greeks called the population of the Kuban, the Black Sea coast and the north of Asia Minor - geniokhs. “By the sea lies the Asian part of the Bosporan kingdom and Sindik, and behind it live the Achaeans, ridges, geniokhs, kerkets and macropogons (long-bearded). Above them lie the gorges of phteirophages (shededs). Behind the Heniochs is Colchis…” (Strabo).

Anthropology (see page "Anthropological types of the Pontic branch"):
1 Abkhazians, Abaza - the Colchian type of the Pontic branch.
2 Adyghes and Circassians - the northwestern type of the Pontic branch
3 Western Circassians - the southwestern type of the Pontic branch.
4 Kabardians - Pyatigorsk mix of the Pontic branch.

Characteristics of languages:
A characteristic feature of the Adyghe-Abkhaz languages ​​is a huge number of consonant sounds: in the Ubykh language - 82, in the Bzyb dialect of the Abkhaz language - 67, in Adyghe - 55, in Kabardian - 48. There are very few vowels: in the Abkhaz language - two, in Abaza - two in a stressed and one in an unstressed syllable, in Ubykh - three. And in total in the North Caucasian languages ​​(Ashui and Nakh-Dagestan) there are a total of 299 different sounds. Ashui languages ​​have about 400 common roots. Phonetic correspondences are very few. Grammar and vocabulary are quite different.
Ashui languages ​​(including Hattian), like most Sino-Caucasian languages, are ergative-agglutinative.

Abkhazians (Apsua):
The Abkhazian ethnos was formed by the 8th century. AD The ethno-base was made up of the ancient Ashui tribes of the Abeshla (Apsils), Kasks (Kashks), Abazgs, and Sanigs. From the ethnonym "Kashk" came the name "Kasog": Kask - Kashk - Kashag (Kartvelian transcription) - Kasog. The ethnonym "Abeshla" precedes "Apsua": Abeshla - Absile (Latin) - Apsilai (Greek) - Apshua - Apsua.
Where “aps” (abesh) is “soul”, and “-ua” is the plural ending.
The consolidation of the Ashui peoples is associated with the adoption in the 6th c. AD Christianity, which replaced the local pagan cults, including the cult of human sacrifice.
In the 6th c. on the territory of modern Abkhazia formed such formations as Abazgia, Apsilia, Misiminia and Sanigia. The word "Abkhaz" represents the Georgian transcription of the ethnonym "Abazg".
Abkhazians are divided into 7 territories. ethnic groups: asadzua, bzyb (bzyp), gudaut (gudout), dal, tsabal, abzhua, samurzakan (“sa-” is a possessive case from “sara” – “I”; Murzakan is the name of one of the rulers), pshuvs.
The Abkhazian language is subdivided into two dialects: Kodori (it includes dialects - Abzhui, Samurzakan, Gum<гудоут>) and bzybsky. The basis of the literary language is the Abzhui dialect.
Characteristic surname endings: -ba (Chanba, Ardzinba), -aa (Ashkharaa).
The ending “-ba” is a modified Abkhazian word “ipa” – “his son”. For example, Agrba originally sounded like Agyrua-ipa - “son of a megrel”. The female forms of Abkhaz surnames are pronounced differently from the male ones. Husband. Tar-ipa - female. Tar-pha. According to the new rules “-ipa” and
“-pha” are replaced by “-ba”. In the case of Abkhazian Megrelian surnames, the endings “-ipa” and “-pkha” are replaced and added to the whole surname. For example, husband. Berulava-ipa - female. Berulava-pha. But this surname in Abkhazian is pronounced as Byrulaa.
Megrelian surnames began to spread widely among the Abkhaz in the 17th-19th centuries. At first, Samurzakan (Gal region of Abkhazia) was assimilated by Megrelians. Such "Mingrelian" surnames began to appear, such as Eshbaya (from Abkh. Eshba), Kilbaya (from Kilba), Emukhvari (from Aimkhaa, Emkhaa), Dzyapshiskua (from Dzyapsh-ipa), Marshaniya (from Amarshan), Tarbaya (from Tarba) , Zukhbay (from Zukhba), Shakirbay (from Shakryl), etc.
Actually Mingrelian surnames appeared among the Abkhazians with the entry into Russia. When Megrelian priests began to arrive, they copied the flock, giving them convenient surnames. Most of the owners of Megrelian surnames among the Abkhazians remember their old Abkhazian surnames. So, for example, Abkhazians with the surname Dzidzaria have the original surname Lazhv-ipa. Translated from the Abkhaz, it means "children of the male" and is rarely used. “-ua” in the Abkhaz language is a plural suffix, so surnames with this ending are often considered etymologically Abkhaz.
Professor T. Mibchuani has about 450 family units, of which:
a) Georgianized, including Megrelized surnames (of which half have Abkhazian roots) make up 80%
b) purely Abkhaz and North Caucasian surnames - 13%
c) other origin - 7%
Purely Abkhaz surnames: on “-ba” (ethnic Abkhazians), on “-aa” (Abkhazian Mingrelians), Smyr, Bguets, Bartsits, Inal-Ipa, Kove, Kiut, Lakerbay, Mantoy (Abkh. Jews), Pateypa, Simsim , Tapants, Tarkil, Shakryl, Shugen, Chukbar, Khashig, Enik, Adzhindzhal and others.
Number - 115 thousand people in Abkhazia (Apsny - "Country of the soul"), according to other sources 64 thousand.
The majority of believers are Orthodox.

Ubykhs (apeh, pehu, asadzua, ubbukh, bruhi):
An intermediate ethnic group between the Adyghes and the Abkhazians, who considered the Ubykhs to be their ethnic group. Lived in the Sochi area. Since the 17th century they have been known as Wayapiha (on behalf of two tribes - Guaya<роды Керзедж, Куйцук, Хатираме, Бирдж, Черч>and pehu). In the 19th century, Turkish sources call them suachaliler (residents of Sochi). In the upper reaches of the Sochi and Khosta rivers, there was an area of ​​​​residence of the local ethnic group of the Ubykhs - Sadash. The Ubykh lands were divided into Sashe-i-Khamysh (Sochi), Ubykh-i-Vordane, which broke up into Vordane, Psakho, Subeshkh (+ Berzeki), Khize. As a result of the Russian-Caucasian war, they were in in full force expelled to the Ottoman Empire in 1861-64, where they dissolved in the local population, and some died - this was one of the results of the committed Tsarist Russia genocide. In 1992, the last speaker of the spoken Ubykh language, Tefvik Yesench, died in Turkey. They spoke a relic Adyghe-Abkhazian language, intermediate between the Abkhazian subgroup and the Adyghe. Religion was a mix of Christianity, Islam and paganism.

Abaza (Abaza):
They came from the ethnic community of the Abazgs, first mentioned in the 2nd century. Then the Abazgs inhabited the northern part of modern Abkhazia, from Sukhum to the Bzyb River; in 3-5 centuries. The Abazgs, forced out by the Mingrelians, moved north, to the Psou River and further, pushing back and assimilating another Adyghe-Abkhazian ethnic group, the Sanigs. From the 8th c. Abazgs politically dominate the formed Abkhazian kingdom (8-10th centuries), which is why the entire territory of this state, including modern Abkhazia and Western Georgia (Samegrelo, i.e. Megrelia, distorted - Mingrelia), is called Abazgia in written sources from different countries of that time (Even in the 12th century in Russian sources, Georgia is sometimes called Obezia, i.e. Abazgia). During the period of the collapse of united Georgia (1466), a new movement of the Abazgs began to the north and northeast, to the lands devastated by Tamerlane's campaign in the North Caucasus (1395). Settling in new places, the Abazgs come into close contact with the Adyghe tribes, related to the Abazgs in language. In the course of ethno-historical development, part of the Abazgs became one of the main ethnic components in the ethnogenesis of the Abkhaz people (direct descendants of the Abazgs are the Abkhaz of the Gudauta region of Abkhazia, who speak the Bzyb dialect of the Abkhaz language), the other part became part of some Adyghe ethnic groups (the group of the so-called. "Abadze": Bzhedugs, Natukhaevtsy, Shapsugs and especially Abadzekhs (16-17 centuries), the third - formed an independent ethnic group of Abazins.
In the 19th century, part of the Abaza moved to the plain, and part was expelled by the tsarist government to the Middle East.
There are sub-ethnic groups (the so-called Bezshags: Abazakty, Apsua, Cubans-Elburgans, Kuvinians and Psyzh-Krasnovostoktsy), speaking dialects: Ashkharua (Kuvinian and Apsu dialects) and Tapanta (Cuban-Elburgan and Krasnovostok dialects). The Kubino-Elburgan dialect is the basis of the literary language. Ashkharua dialects are close to the Abkhaz language.
The separation of the Abkhaz and Abaza languages ​​occurred in the 8th-9th centuries. AD
At present, there are about 45 thousand people - in Karachay-Cherkessia and in the Middle East. Sunnis.

Adyghe peoples.
This term refers to the carriers of the so-called. languages ​​of the Kasog (Adyghe) subgroup of the Ashui (Adyghe-Abkhazian) group, namely: Adygs, Circassians and Kabardians. The self-name of these peoples (“Adyge”) comes from the ancient Adyghe form “a-dyge” - “the people of the sun”. According to another version - from "adzehe" ("troops" or "people of the troops"). At the turn of the a.d. The ancient Adyghe tribes occupied territories along the Black Sea coast up to Sochi, where the Ubykhs lived. In the 5th c. AD the state of Sindica was formed, in the 6th century. AD - Zikh, Abazg and Kasog unions. From the 13th century the Turkic word Circassian is used. In the XI century. part of the Adyghe tribes began to move east. By the XIII-XIV centuries. can be attributed to the isolation of the Kabardian tribes. The Circassian dynasty of al-Mamlak al-Zahir Barquq al-Cherkessi ruled in Egypt and Syria from 1382 to 1517.
In the 17-18 centuries, they consisted of several clans: Abadzekh, Shapsug, Nadkuadzh, Kabertei, Besleney, Mokhosh, Kemguy-Temirgoy, Khatukai, Bzhedug (Cherchenei, Khamysh), Janei. The Chebsin and Khegayk clans merged with the Natukhaevs, Khetuk (Adale) moved to the Taman Peninsula and mingled with the Nogays.
The Cimmerians (a people who lived in the Black Sea region, probably of mixed Ashui-Indo-European origin) and Achaeans (Aryan tribes who came from the Black Sea region) also participated in the formation of the Adyghe peoples.
In total, there are 5 million speakers of Adyghe languages ​​in the world: in Turkey (130 thousand), Jordan (44 thousand), Syria (25 thousand), Iraq (19 thousand), Israel, USA, the Netherlands (Holland), Sweden. Until recently, they lived in Kosovo-Metohija (Yugoslavia).

> Adygs (Kiahi):

Direct descendants of the Ashui peoples who lived in the Kuban and the Western Caucasus from antiquity.
They speak the Adyghe language, which breaks up into several dialects spoken by sub-ethnic groups: Abadzekhs, Besleneevs, Eger-Ukaevs, Adamievs, Mamkhegs, Makhoshes, Zhaneevs, Natukhaevs, Temirgoevs-Chemguys (literary dialect) and Khatukaevs (Khakuchins). Western Circassians stand out in particular: Shapsugs and Bzhedugs (Khamysheevs and Cherchenevs), who are even singled out as a separate ethnic group. The Black Sea and Kuban Shapsugs are genetically different. In the 16-18 centuries they were divided into "aristocratic tribes" (Zhaneev, Bzhedug, Khatukaev) and "democratic tribes" (Shapsugs, Abadzekhs, Natukhais).
As a result of Russia's colonial war of conquest in the Caucasus, which went down in world history under the name of the Russian-Caucasian War, the vast majority of the surviving Adyghes (at least 2 million people) and all Ubykhs (about 100 thousand) were expelled to the Ottoman Empire. Only 5% remained in the Caucasus.
Abadzekhs - before the Caucasian War, there were 250 thousand people. They lived on the northern slope of the Caucasus. Divided into mountain and plain. Noble families stood out: Beshok, Inemok, Janchat, Anchok, Daur, Neshok. Currently, there are 150 thousand in the village of Khakurino-Khabl and others.
Aguchips is the generalized name of the five clans-zethyarogu (single-swearers), which were distributed between the Shapsugs and the Natukhaevs.
- Shapsugs (Koble, Skhapete, Sooth-Goago): "Shapsy" - milk river, "Shestopsy" - storehouse. Noble families: Abat, Nemere, Sheretluk, Kadruk, Jaste, Ulagay, Ekutech, Tkhagus. Dialects: Kuban and Black Sea<от Джубги до Туапсе>(including Khakuchi). Hakuchi lived in remote areas. The Shapsug dialect is characterized by: hissing, 88 sounds<67 – лит. норма>. Islam was adopted in the 18th century. At present, there are 5 auls in Adygea and 14 in the Tuapse and Lazarevsky regions. 15 thousand people In the 30s. 20th century there was a Tuapse district.
- Natukhaevtsy (Natho - gray-eyed, Netaho): Before the Caucasian War, there were about 200 thousand. They lived from Dzhubga to Anapa. In the 19th century, the Guaya, Khegaki, Khatukaev, and Zhaneev tribes joined them. The exact number of Natukhaev births is unknown (from 44 to 64). Nobles: Syupako, Megu, Zan, Kaz, Chah, Eryku, Grandfathers. The longest preserved Christianity. In present Time - the village of Natukhay and several villages in the Krasnodar Territory and Adygea.
Number: 124 thousand people. carriers of these Adyghe dialects live in the Republic of Adygea, in the Lazarevsky, Tuapse and Novokubansky regions of the Krasnodar Territory. Abadzekhs (16 thousand people) live in the village of Khakurino-Khabl. Shapsugs (10 thousand people) live in the Dzhubga-Sochi region.
Religion: From the 10th century AD Christianity dominated in the Western Caucasus, which in the 18th century. replaced by the Sunni branch of Islam.
Sub-ethnic groups of Abadzekhs, Shapsugs and Natukhaevs make up to 2/3 of the total number of Circassians.

> Circassians and Kabardians:

The ancestors of the Kabardians - part of the Kasog tribes - in the 14th century. moved to the area Pyatigorye (Besh-Tau), where they pushed the Alan-Ossetians. Initially, the Kabardians belonged to the Pontic racial type, but later, as a result of centuries of mixing with the Vainakhs (Mystaks) and Alans, they formed a mixed Kabardian (Pyatigorsk) anthropotype. The ethnos owes its name to Prince Kerbertey.
Distinguished Big Kabarda (Keberday), consisting of several genera - Dzhinbot, Mesost, Khatoshkhok, Kaytok; Small Kabarda (Glekhstan, Dzhylekhsteney) - the genus Giloskhan; Middle Kabarda - the genus Tatlostan. In Russia they were divided into Kabarty and Pyatigorsk Circassians.
Population - 400 thousand people. in Kabardino-Balkaria and North Ossetia.
Most of them are Sunnis, Mozdok Kabardians are Orthodox.
The Circassian ethnos arose as a result of the mixing of the Besleney Kasogs (the ancestor of the teip - Beslan) with their kindred Kabardians in the 18th century. AD "Circassian" - the literary name of the Caucasian peoples in the 18th century. This word, according to the most common versions, comes from the Turkic “Cher-Kesmek” (“cutting the road”) or from the name of the Kerket tribe.
A significant part of the Kabardians in the XIX century. moved to Turkey.
The number of Circassians is 52 thousand people in Karachay-Cherkessia.
They speak dialects of the Kabardino-Circassian (or simply Circassian / Kabardian) language:
Kabardian dialect
- Baksan literary dialect of Bolshaya Kabarda (performing the functions state language CBD)
- Malkin dialect of Great Kabarda
- Little Kabardian dialect
Mozdok dialect
Circassian dialect (acting as the state language of the KChR)
Besleney dialect
Kuban dialect

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Anthropological types of the Pontic branch (review).
It developed in Asia Minor or in the northwestern Caucasus in the 4th-3rd millennium BC as a result of a mixture of the Western Asian brachycephalic and Mediterranean dolichocephalic tribes. Described in 1932 by the scientist Bunak. There are Colchian, northwestern, southwestern and Pyatigorsk, Lower Danubian, Byzantine clusters and types. The southwestern type of the Pontic branch is similar to the Caspian type of the Indo-Iranian. There is a very high percentage of distribution of blood group II, in particular, a rare A2 phenotype (5% of group II carriers). A similar high % of the A2 group is found in Caucasians and Lapponoids.

Northwestern/Kuban ("main") type:
<Адыги – кроме западных, черкесы>
- Tall (> 170 cm).

- Hair is coarse and straight. Black color. Often there are light brown hair.
- Mesokephaly (cranial index - 80-81), often there are subbrachycephals.
- Eye colors: black (50%), brown and gray (50%).
- The palpebral fissure is narrow. The location of the eyes is horizontal or “Anterior Asian”. Eyebrows straight, often fused.
- The hairline is normally developed. Mustache and beard are sparse.
- The face is narrow, long. Facial features are angular. The cheekbones are visible in profile. The forehead is high.
- Nose: long, narrow, straight, not protruding. The tip is located horizontally, sometimes raised. Often the nose and forehead form one line.
- Thick lips.
- The chin is high, not protruding.
- The back of the head is convex.

Southwestern type (differences from the northwestern):
<Западные адыги – шапсуги и бжедуги>
- Height is average (164-165 cm).
- Hair is mostly black.
- The eyes are often black (light shades are almost never found).
- The face is wide.

Pyatigorsk mix (differences from the northwestern):
<Кабардинцы, часть ингушей и осетин>
- The face is wide.
- The nose is sometimes aquiline. The tip is horizontal.

Colchis type (differences from the northwestern):
<Абхазы, абазины, мегрелы, лечхумцы, лазы, гурийцы, имеретинцы, имерхевцы>
- Height: manholes (166-167 cm), others (164-165 cm).
- Wide nose with a flat back (sometimes concave).
- Wide face.
- There are blond hair and gray eyes, mainly among Abkhazians and Abaza.
- Developed hairline.
- The back of the head is flat.

CAUCASIAN TYPE
The type was formed in the III millennium BC. on the basis of the proto-Anterior Asian in the high mountainous conditions of the Caucasus Range. Found only in the Caucasus. Described by scientists Natishvili and Abdushelishvili in 1954. Some scholars believe that the Caucasian type developed on the basis of the ancient Cro-Magnon population of the mountainous Caucasus and the Hurrito-Urartians of the Western Asian type who came here. In many respects, the Caucasians are close to the Pontians. A parallel form are representatives of the ultra-Dinaric type (Balkan borrebis) living in Montenegro, Albania and Crete. They, however, are distinguished by a lower skull and darker coloration. In Russian anthropology (Alekseev, Alekseeva), the Caucasian type is identified with the Dinaric, which is fundamentally wrong.
There are central, southern and Dagestan clusters. The percentage of carriers of the II blood group (A2) is high.

Central cluster:
<Карачаевцы, балкарцы, осетины, ингуши, чеченцы, бацбийцы, аваро-андо-цезские народы, часть горских евреев>
- Tall (> 170 cm)
- Build normal bone, torso long.
- Hair is coarse, straight, black (often light red-chestnut and blond)
- The eyes are brown and grey.
- The palpebral fissure is narrow. The location of the eyes is horizontal. Eyebrows are straight.
- Developed hairline.
- The face is wide (14.6-14.8 cm), low. Facial features are angular. The cheekbones are wide, but inconspicuous. The forehead is low.
- Brachycephaly (cranial index - 84-85)
- The nose is long, wide (the bridge of the nose is narrow, the nose gradually widens towards the tip). The profile is straight and, more rarely, convex. The tip is located horizontally or bent down.
- Thick lips.
- The chin is low, sharp, protruding. Narrow jaw.
- The back of the head is convex.
- High ears with long lobes.

Southern cluster (differences from the central one):
<Сваны, хевсуры, мохевцы, тушинцы, пшавы, мтиулы, гудамакарцы, рачинцы, южные осетины>
- Average height.
- The nose is long and wide. Profile with a hump in the upper third. The tip is horizontal.

Dagestan cluster (differences from the central one):
<Лезгинские, даргинские, лакские народы, хиналугцы, часть карабахцев>
- Medium and low growth.
- Black hair (blond is almost never found)
- Mesokephaly (cranial index - 78-79)
- Characterized by black eyes.
- The hairline is poorly developed.

CASPIAN TYPE
It was formed on the basis of the Pamiro-Fergana (undersized brachycephaly), Indo-Iranian and Balkan-Caucasian branches (Anterior Asian type) of the Caucasoid race. Described by Bunak in 1947. The least correlated type. Fixed values ​​include: height, eye color, hair color, skull structure. The bridge of the nose is most often straight, but when mixed with Armenoids (Assyrians, Armenians, Jews), a convex shape appears. For the peoples of the Caspian type, the most characteristic is the third blood group. There are western (see below) and eastern (Turkmen) clusters.
<Азербайджанцы, кумыки, персы, иракские арабы (восток страны), кувейтские арабы, персы, таты-мусульмане и другие западно-иранские народы (кроме – курдов, луров и бахтиаров), ингилойцы>
- Growth is low and medium (< 164–166 см).

- Black and dark brown hair (93%)
- Mesokephaly and subbrachycephaly (cranial index - 77-80).
- The eyes are usually black (80%). There are dull green, Western Asian type.
- The palpebral fissure is normal, the eyes are located horizontally, in 30% of cases the incision is “Mongoloid”. The distance between the eyes is large.
- Arched eyebrows.
- The face is round, medium and narrow, high. Cheekbones do not protrude.
- The chin is low, not protruding. The lower jaw is wide.
- Large distance between nose and upper lip.
- The nose is short, broad and protruding. The back is straight. The tip is horizontal or raised.
- Thick lips.
- The back of the head is convex.
- The hairline is normally developed.
- Ears with long lobes.

CENTRAL ASIAN TYPE
The original carriers of this type were the ancient Nostrati (read "Macro-families"), who lived from Palestine (proto-Kartvels-Refaim) to Mesopotamia and the Zagros Range in Iran (ancient Semites) and Alarodies (Sino-Caucasians). The type formed the basis of the types of the Indo-Iranian branch (mixing with the Veddoids of the Australoid race in Iran and India), including the Semitic-Arabian (mixing of Armenoids with the Dravidians and Mediterraneans in Arabia). Described in 1911 by von Luschan. In many respects, the Anterior Asians are close to the Caucasians and Dinarians (Balkans), but differ in their small stature, the shape of the nose and the plane of the back of the head. Other names for this type: Armenoid, Alarodian, Syrian-Zagros, Semitic, Pontic-Zagros, Hittite, Assyrioid, Tauride. Deniker called this type Assyrioid and believed that it was characterized by a straight, narrow nose. The frequency of occurrence of a straight back of the nose has no geographic reference, this is due to the frequent miscegenation of Armenians and Jews with other peoples (mainly, if representatives of another people profess Judaism or Gregorianism, because often religious affiliation to a mono-ethnic religion is identified with ethnic). There are albinos, usually within the framework of the central cluster - Western Asian features plus blond hair and eyes. Some of alternative titles Anterior Asian types are used to designate related types, for example, the Assyrioid type, common among the Kurds and Assyrians, is less brachycephalic and has a straight narrow nose. The Semitic-Arabian type is often referred to as Semitic.
For the peoples of the Near Asian type, the second blood type is characteristic.

Central Asian cluster:
<Армяне, турки (центр и восток страны), турки-месхетинцы, евреи Израиля, сирийско-палестинские арабы (Палестина, Сирия, Ливан, Иордания), некоторые западно-иранские народы (луры, бахтиары, талыши, курды-мусульмане), джавахи, месхи>
- Growth is low.
- Thick-boned build.
- Hair is black, coarse, curly.
- The palpebral fissure is wide, the location of the eyes is “Anterior Asian” - the outer corner of the eyes is lower than the inner one.
- Eye colors: most often black, but there are also exotic colors (dark blue, matte green, black with turquoise).
- Brachycephaly (pointer - 86-88)
- The face is oval, wide (up to 143 mm), low. Eyebrows arched. Cheekbones do not protrude.
- The beard is small, not protruding. The jaw is wide.
- The nose is long, protruding, wide. Profile: convex, hump - in the middle third of the back. The tip is bent down. Visible nasal septum.
- Thick lips. The top protrudes above the bottom.
- Strongly developed hairline (overlapping of hair on the forehead, fused eyebrows, hair on the back).
- A flat nape is a distinctive element of the Anterior Asian type.
- The ears are small, often without lobes.

Iberian-Caucasian cluster (differences from the central one):
<Кахетинцы, картлийцы, ферейданцы>
- Average height
- Straight, long, wide nose.
- Wide face.
- Light brown and black hair.
- Brown and gray eyes.
- Horizontal position of the eyes.

Alexis Schneider (c) 2003-2005
www.randevu-zip.narod.ru
www.randevu.nm.ru
[email protected]

Typology of languages
The typology of a language is determined by its morphology, i.e. the system of declension and conjugation of words, the structure of the word, the presence of suffixes, prefixes and endings, and syntax, i.e. sentence building system.

&覐 Based on the morphological aspect, several types are distinguished.

Root languages:
- isolating, which are characterized by the complete absence of inflection and the presence of grammatical significance of the order of words, represented only by roots. Non-opposition of service words and proper names, non-distinguishing of parts of speech.
- basic isolating ones differ from isolating ones in a more developed verbal morphology.

Agglutinative languages:
They are characterized by a developed system of using suffixes, prefixes added to the invariable stem of the word, which are used to express the number, case, gender, etc. The inclusion of auxiliary particles (up to 12) in the composition of the word is the so-called. phenomena of polysyntheticism and incorporation. Clear separation of parts of speech. Not using endings.

Inflectional languages:
Inflectional morphology is characteristic mainly for most Indo-European languages, namely, for many Slavic, Baltic, Albanian, Greek, Sanskrit, German and Icelandic (English and Scandinavian are of a mixed type, which has features of fundamentally isolating and agglutinative languages; Romanesque, Dutch, Armenian, Bulgarian, Macedonian and Indo-Iranian languages ​​are proflective). Characteristic is the developed use of endings (inflections) to express gender, number, case, a complex system of declension of verbs, alternation of vowels in the root. Strict distinction between parts of speech. Word order doesn't always matter.

Reflective (agglutinative-inflectional):
An intermediate link between agglutinative and inflectional languages. Nominal inflection is characterized by agglutination, while verbal inflection is characterized by inflection and alternation of vowels (ablaut).

&覐 Languages ​​are syntactically divided into the following types.

Neutral system:
Characterized by the poverty of morphology and the dependence of the meaning of the word on the tone and pitch of the voice (there are 11 different tones in the Miao-Yao languages). The same word can have up to two dozen meanings, depending on the context. Duplication of a word to express one or another additional meaning. Distinguishing parts of speech. As a rule, the root structure predominates in morphology. A class subtype is distinguished in which there is an agreement between the words in the sentence, depending on which class the main member of the sentence belongs to (male, female, animate, inanimate, etc.).

Ergative system:
At the level of vocabulary, there is a clear distinction between agentive (transformative, considered transitive - “eat”, “break”) and factitive (superficial action, considered intransitive - “sleep”, “kiss”) verbs. Agentive verbs do not require agreement through suffixes or prefixes, while factitive verbs do. Prepositions are rarely used. There is no passive (passive voice).
- for an ergative structure with a labile structure, the secondary significance of the subject is characteristic. Strict word order.
- An ergative structure with a stable structure is characterized by the paramount importance of the subject and free word order.

Nominative (accusative) system:
Emphasis on the explicit designation of the roles of the subject and predicate is characteristic. Distinguishing parts of speech. Developed system of declensions and cases. An addition can be the main member of a sentence. The presence and frequent use of the passive voice. Developed tense structure of the verb.
- the class subtype of the nominative system has many class indicators for all parts of speech, there is no declension, which is compensated by prefixes and suffixes of a possessive and attributive nature.
- East Asian (Korean-Japanese) subtype is characterized by poor phonetics, insignificance of tone, the development of semantic stress, the absence of adjectives expressed as a noun. Absence of conjugations in the verb.
- allocate t.zh. active subtype - the absence of cases, the dependence of the activity / passivity of the verb on the context.

Pronominative (ergative-nominative) structure:
Transitional type, characterized by features, both nominative and ergative.

Many languages ​​combine several types with the prevalence of one or the other.

Basque, Sumerian, Adyghe-Abkhazian, Hurrian-Huartian, Hattian, some Papuan and Australian, languages ​​of the Maya and some other Indian groups.

Avar, Dargin, Lak, Khinalug Nakh languages ​​Nominative Lezgin, Chukchi-Kamchatka, Eskimo-Aleut Laz and Burusha Neutral Chinese, Austro-Asiatic, Thai, Central African, except for Bantu, Mon-Khmer, Guinean languages, English, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian Austronesian, Tibeto-Burmese, Cordo-Burman, Cordo-Burman , some of the Papuan. nominative languages ​​Na-Dene, Elamite, Old Indo-European, Japanese, Bantu, Korean, Altaic, part of the Uralic languages ​​​​(Permian, Volga, Ob), Ket, Yukagir, Nivkh, Nilo-Saharan, Indian, Armenian, Indo-Iranian Kartvelian, Dravidian , part Afroasian (incl. Semitic), Uralic (Hungarian, Estonian, Finnish, Samoyedic), Romance, Dutch, Macedonian, Bulgarian, HebrewSlavic, some Central Germanic, Baltic, Celtic, Albanian, Greek, ancient Akkadian Alexis Schneider (c) 2003-2005

The Abkhaz represent the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples and are the indigenous population of Abkhazia. This nationality lives in diasporas and is characterized by a number of features that we will consider in our article.

Where do they live (territory)

Most Abkhazians live in the Republic of Abkhazia. In second place is Turkey, followed by Russia. There are Abkhaz diasporas in Syria, Georgia, Ukraine, the United States of America and other countries.

History

There are several versions that consider the origin of the people. One of them says that the Abkhazians previously lived in Northeast Africa, from there they have already begun resettlement towards the Caucasus. Another version claims the origin of the Abkhaz as a people of the North Caucasus, but it is refuted by many archaeologists who rely not only on excavations, but also on written sources. There is a third version, according to which the Abkhazians come from Asia Minor.
It is necessary to note the mixed concept, based on a number of archaeological finds. Following it, the Abkhazians appeared as a result of interaction between the inhabitants of the Caucasus and the peoples who came from Asia Minor, and the very formation of the Abkhazians began in the 32nd century AD.
Historians believe that Abkhazia flourished in the 8th century, when Leon II began to strengthen the position of his kingdom, using the temporary weakness of Byzantium. He was subject to Abasia, and he was going to take Colchis. This partly influenced the entry of the Abkhazian kingdom into a single Georgian one. Over time, Gruzinskoye disintegrates, and Abkhazia regains its independence. With the advent of the 17th century, the Turks came here, who occupy part of the territory. The Abkhaz were also affected by the Russian-Turkish and Caucasian wars. As a result of the latter, many were forced to leave their native lands and move to Turkey. The revolution of 1917 made Abkhazia a subject of a mountainous republic. The Soviet government made its subject out of Abkhazia by carrying out administrative reforms.

culture

An important cultural feature of the Abkhazians is music. She was always dedicated to hunting, the work of a farmer or a shepherd. At the wedding they perform ouredada, under which it is customary for the bride to enter the groom's house. In the event of the death of an honorary person, aow was performed. Each of the singers in the choir sings in their own way.

Traditions

Hospitality stands apart in Abkhazian traditions. Regardless of faith, everyone should receive a guest with cordiality. You can’t ask money from a guest, but you need to accept it no worse than in a hotel. The guest is entitled to a bed, food, care and refreshments. Sometimes Abkhazians are ready to lay a whole table if they consider their guest to be an honorary one. In the old days, entire houses were built for guests. Now guests are received in spacious rooms. The guest should sit down first, then the head of the family and all the others sit down at the table.

The Abkhaz adhere to the Apsuara code. It was compiled many centuries ago, and now has not lost its significance. The main points of the apsuar are alamys and auayura. It's about about conscience and humanity. Abkhazians believe that if a person forgot about his conscience, he died at the same moment. Apsuara encourages a person to be indulgent and noble, orders to get up whenever someone enters the room, which shows a greeting and respect for the incoming person.
Abkhazians respect shame as a feeling that helps them control themselves. Shame is necessary for a person so that he does not violate accepted norms. Abkhazians are taught shame from childhood, focusing on life, not religion. Norms cover every aspect, from vocabulary to gestures.
There is also a rather curious paradox: modesty is valued in Abkhazia, but many residents like to brag. Humility refers to the ability to turn a blind eye to imperfections, such as a poorly made chair or messy dishes in the house. It is tactless to point out to the owners of the dwelling that they are doing something wrong. If a person boasts of prosperity, he must certainly wish the same to everyone else. The manifestation of theatrical and excessive modesty, together with apologies and indications of one's own shortcomings, which are very exaggerated, are perceived with respect.
According to tradition, the guest who asks for a drink is given wine. Abkhazians believe that wine is the best drink. And the guest should be given the best. They can also give him some of the interior items if he likes it. It is not customary to shake hands during a greeting, although such a gesture is quite normal. Hospitality sometimes goes beyond the home. Even a foreigner can be asked by a passer-by about the rest and what he liked.
A special position is occupied by the tradition of the feast. The very decoration of the kitchen looks quite rich, because it is customary for Abkhazians to arrange celebrations and holidays in such a way as to create a vivid impression for all its participants. In the tradition of a feast, many points are taken into account: inviting guests, washing hands, exchanging gifts, disposing of guests, subjects for discussion, toasts. The celebration can be celebrated on a large scale, it is not surprising that the hospitable Abkhaz invite almost everyone to it.
The most difficult is the seating procedure. Be sure to take into account the age of the guest, his gender, to whom he is a relative, and much more. All guests must be introduced to each other.
Senior and honored guests sit at the head of the table. During the toast, the younger ones hold their glasses lower than the older ones. The first toast is usually a toast to the people, followed by a toast to the friendship of peoples. Be sure to raise glasses for the hero of the occasion and for relatives.

Wedding

The Abkhazian wedding is known as magnificent and spectacular. The engagement ring is not a mandatory piece of jewelry to exchange, as is the case with many other cultures. Sometimes they exchanged the most ordinary things. A girl could make a handkerchief or a towel as a gift to her fiancé, while a man gave a horn. This symbol meant the ability to hunt and get food.
At the wedding itself, the mother or father of the bride should not have appeared among the guests. At the celebration, guests from the side of the bride are supposed to behave respectfully and even modestly. Now the number of guests is rarely large, and earlier it could exceed 200 people. In the tradition of the wedding, it was always to yield to the elders on the stage or at the table. Young people practically did not drink alcohol, because it was considered shameful for them to be drunk at a wedding. The stage was not supposed to be empty, more and more people came out on it when the dancers began to get tired.

A life

Raising your voice is not recommended, it is considered impolite towards the interlocutor. The customs of the Abkhaz prescribe not to make noise, so loud music is also perceived negatively. The usual is the appeal to "you", while there are many additional respectful appeals, which are certainly taken into account by every inhabitant of Abkhazia. The appeals concern elders, women, other representatives different groups.
Abkhazians treat children in a special way, trying to spoil them, but teaching them restraint.

Religion

Christianity was accepted in Abkhazia in the 6th century. It had a Byzantine image. Gradually, Islam came here, although among many residents this religion is perceived as a foreign one. Until now, representatives of paganism have been preserved - there are about a hundred of them.

Language

Abkhazians speak Abkhazian (belongs to the Abkhaz-Abaza branch of the Abkhaz-Adyghe group of languages) and Russian. Russian is widespread in written and spoken form.

Appearance

Cloth

The national clothes of the Abkhaz have always been distinguished by an ornament. It was he who indicated the social status of the owner. Everyone tried to show their belonging to a particular genus by applying generic signs. The most expensive were the belt and fasteners, there were big differences between ordinary clothes and outfits of wealthy people. The peasants' clothes were embroidered from linen, cotton, while the princes had velvet, lace and brocade. One of the most important attributes of the Abkhaz costume was the staff of Alabashya. It was made of strong wood, used as a support, especially often used by the elders. By sticking such a staff into the ground, a person meant that he was ready to make an important speech.

Food

Abkhaz cuisine is extremely rich. It uses a variety of ingredients:

• fruit
• vegetables
• different kinds milk
• cereals.

Of the cereals, corn and wheat are most preferred; dairy products are buffalo, cow and goat milk. Instead of bread, they mainly used corn flour, from which they made mamalyga porridge. Peanut butter, cheese or milk could be added to it. From cornmeal they make cakes, bread and halva. Corn itself is also consumed, usually boiled.
Wheat flour is used for making pies, dumplings and baklava. Meat is cooked with adjika, and chicken is served with walnut sauce. A favorite delicacy is lamb, goat meat with the addition of mint.
Akud is prepared from vegetables, to which spices, beans, and hominy are added. Sometimes they make a simple achapa, which includes fresh vegetables. Achapa is salted in winter.

Cheese can also be served in a special way: with mint, in the form of cottage cheese, in cream. Common spices include:

1. Coriander
2. Parsley
3. Nettle
4. Dill
5. Purslane.

Always in the first place is adjika, which is considered spicy, although this directly depends on the amount of red pepper and spices. Adjika can be light or very scalding. It is adjika that is used to prepare a variety of sauces with berries and nuts.

Character

By nature, Abkhazians are hospitable and friendly. Many remain conservative only in certain aspects. In general, people are open to new knowledge. Families are patriarchy, with the woman taking care of the children and the home. Hot blood for Abkhazians means the absence of guile and real sincerity in relations with friends and relatives. The Abkhaz themselves say that they are wise, cunning and always welcoming.

dwelling

The traditional dwelling of the Abkhazians is apatsha. This type of building is over a thousand years old. The walls in Apache are wicker, they are made of hazel, azaleas, and yew or oak are used for the base. Apaches usually receive guests, prepare and eat food. Animals were rarely kept in the house, especially livestock.
The dwelling included 2-3 rooms. In the largest room, a hearth was placed, near which the elders slept. It could also host guests. The younger ones were in smaller rooms. Maintaining the fire in the hearth was an important occupation, as it symbolized life.
Benches were placed next to the hearth, bunks with woolen bedspreads were fixed on the walls. Some Abkhazians still use the same utensils as their ancestors: chests, caskets, old boxes that are covered with a blanket. Spices were stored on the shelves, and guns were hung on special hooks. Firewood for the hearth was stored on the head.

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