Votchina

Diploma of Peter the Great to Chancellor Golovkin for patrimony.

patrimony- land ownership owned by the feudal lord hereditarily (from the word "father") with the right to sell, pledge, donate. The estate was a complex consisting of landed property (land, buildings and inventory) and rights to dependent peasants. Synonyms for patrimony - allod, bockland.

During the Kievan Rus fiefdom was one of the forms of feudal land ownership. The owner of the patrimony had the right to transfer it by inheritance (hence the origin of the name from the Old Russian word “fatherland”, that is, paternal property), sell it, exchange it, or, for example, divide it among relatives. Estates as a phenomenon arose in the process of formation of private feudal land ownership. As a rule, their owners in the 9th-11th centuries were princes, as well as princely warriors and zemstvo boyars - the heirs of the former tribal elite. After the adoption of Christianity, church patrimonial landownership was also formed, the owners of which were representatives of the church hierarchy (metropolitans, bishops) and large monasteries.

There were various categories of patrimony: ancestral, bought, donated by the prince or others, which partially affected the ability of the owners to freely dispose of fiefdom. So, the possession of patrimonial estates was limited by the state and relatives. The owner of such an estate was obliged to serve the prince on whose lands it was located, and without the consent of the members of a kind of estate, the estate could not sell or exchange it. In case of violation of such conditions, the owner was deprived of the estate. This fact indicates that in the era of Kievan Rus, the possession of a fiefdom was not yet equated with the right of unconditional ownership of it.

The estates differed in economic structure (depending on the role of the domain, the type of feudal duties of the peasants), in size, and in the social affiliation of the estates (secular, including royal, church).

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The term of ancient Russian civil law for designating landed property with the rights of full private ownership of it. In the Moscow kingdom, V. is opposed to the estate, as land property with the rights of conditional, temporary and personal ... ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

fiefdom- patrimony, history. Type of land ownership, possession, acquired or granted with the right to transfer by inheritance, with the right to sell, mortgage, etc. (See Sl. RYa XI XVII. 3. 74). And there is no end to this distant sovereign estate, no edge, ... ... Dictionary of the trilogy "The Sovereign's Estate"

1) the oldest type of landed property in Russia, which was inherited. It arose in the 10th and 11th centuries. (princely, boyar, monastic), in the 13th-15th centuries. dominant form of land ownership. From con. 15th c. opposed the estate with which she approached ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

VOTCHINA, type of land ownership (hereditary family or corporate ownership). It arose in the 10th and 11th centuries. (princely, boyar, monastic), in the 13th-15th centuries. main form of land ownership. From the end of the 15th century existed along with the estate, with which ... ... Russian history

Votchina- the term of Old Russian law, denoting landed property with the rights of full private ownership of it. Originated in Kievan Rus in the 9th-10th centuries. (V. princes and boyars). In the XI XV centuries. V. became the predominant form of feudal inherited land ownership. ... ... Encyclopedia of Law

1) the oldest type of landed property in Russia, which was inherited. It arose in the XXI centuries. (princely, boyar, monastic); in the XIII-XV centuries. dominant form of land ownership. From the end of the XV century. opposed the estate with which she approached ... ... Law Dictionary

VOTCHINA, the oldest type of landed property in Russia, a family estate that passed by inheritance. It arose in the 10th and 11th centuries (princely, boyar, monastic), in the 13th and 15th centuries the dominant form of land ownership. At the end of the 15th and 17th centuries, it differed from ... ... Modern Encyclopedia

patrimony, patrimony, wives. (source). In Muscovite Rus', the family estate of a large landowner (prince, boyar), passed from father to son. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

patrimony, s, wives. In Rus' until the 18th century: ancestral hereditary land ownership. | adj. patrimonial, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

A term used in Russian historical literature to designate a complex of feudal land ownership (land, buildings, living and dead implements) and related rights to dependent peasants. Synonyms for patrimony are seigneuria ... Political science. Dictionary.

Veche- the national assembly, which had the power of the highest authority and the authority to resolve the most important state issues.

Cities and volosts were ruled by veche. Along with the veche, where all the heads of families enjoyed the right to vote, the power of princes appeared, who did not abolish the veche, but ruled the land either with the assistance or with the opposition of the latter. A veche convened by the prince was called legal, and one convened against his will was illegal. Therefore, the political significance of the veche decreased with a strong prince and increased with a weak one. Relations between the prince and the veche were constantly changing. Veche had the highest judicial powers. It was it that not only raised the question of trust in the prince, but also resolved this issue. The vocation of the prince was formalized by an agreement between the veche and the prince. The expulsion of the prince was carried out in the form of the destruction of the previously signed treaty. By decision of the veche, the people could not only expel the prince, but also kill him or put him in prison.

Veche was an emergency body formed from all free armed citizens of Kievan Rus. A similar institution in some cities was the city meeting. Veche met indefinitely. Decisions at the meeting were made unanimously. The veche existed until the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

The system of state authorities of Kievan Rus:

• great Kievan prince; 0 specific princes;
• national veche (representative power);
• council of elders (advisory body under the prince);
• posadniks and volostels (judicial power).

Signs of state power:

• being elected by the people;
• lack of regulations for the activities of government bodies;
• the difference between the authorities in Kyiv and locally;
• subordination of all princes to the great prince of Kyiv.

The power of the Grand Duke consisted of the autocratic 3 power of the monarch and the support of the people. The monarchy was not absolute and completely hereditary, the people had the right to overthrow the objectionable prince. But the prince relied on his own squad and with its help he held power.

In the event of hostilities, a people's militia was formed.

Military squads could have not only the prince, but also large feudal lords. Therefore, the people's militia was convened by the Grand Duke from free armed citizens participating in the activities of the veche, as well as from large feudal lords and their own squads. Thus, the armed forces of Kievan Rus were made up of the squad of the Grand Duke and the people's militia.

As previously mentioned, the prince exercised his power according to the palace and patrimonial principle. This idea grew out of the idea of ​​combining the management of the Grand Duke's palace with state administration.

The patrimony of the prince took shape:

• from the land inhabited by the people of the prince;
• land of the entire principality with its suburbs.

The palace-patrimonial system of power meant absolute power within the prince's patrimony, where the prince's people lived, and limited power in another territory.

Along with the Grand Duke and the Veche, the church hierarchy also had judicial powers in Kievan Rus.

Votchina, a term used in Russian historical literature to refer to a complex of feudal landed property (land, buildings, living and dead inventory) and related rights to dependent peasants. The synonyms of the patrimony are seigneury, manor, grundershaft (Grundherrschaft), as well as the estate in the broadest sense of the word.

The fiefdom was the basis of the dominance of feudal lords in medieval society. As a rule, it was divided into the master's economy (domain) and peasant holdings. Within the limits of the estate, its owner (who had the right of immunity) had administrative and judicial power, the right to levy taxes. To exercise his rights, the owner of the patrimony relied on his own apparatus of coercion and the central government. The patrimonial economy was characterized by one or another ratio of domain and holdings and various combinations of forms of exploitation of the peasants (corvée, quitrent in kind, cash quitrent). In different periods, depending on the general socio-economic conditions, estates with different economic structures prevailed.

In Western Europe of the 8th-10th centuries, for a significant part of the estates, mainly large ones, there was typically a widespread use of corvée for cultivating the domain, while maintaining most of the land (at least two-thirds) in the hands of dependent peasant holders, obliged to food (partly in cash) dues. Starting from the 11th-12th centuries, as internal colonization developed and cities and trade grew, the share of land area occupied by peasant holdings began to increase, while the size of the domain and the role of corvée decreased. As a result, in the 14th and 15th centuries, patrimonies without a domain appeared in Western Europe, and in the 16th and 17th centuries they became typical, in which the votchinnik retained only the right to receive fixed payments from the peasants (mostly in cash).

In the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, until the 14th-15th century, estates prevailed, in which the main form was the collection of quitrents (in kind or cash); in the 14th-15th centuries, a large or medium-sized patrimony developed here, and in the 16th-18th centuries it became dominant, in which most of the land was occupied by entrepreneurial lordly farming, processed by the corvée labor of serfs (Second edition of serfdom). In the Scandinavian countries, in most of the eastern countries, privately owned patrimony either did not exist, or the master's economy proper did not become widespread in it.

In Rus', the votchina was the oldest form of private land ownership. The patrimony could be inherited, changed, sold. The term comes from the word "father", that is, paternal property. The first information about princely estates in Kievan Rus dates back to the 10th century. The 11th-12th centuries date back to the news of the boyar and monastic estates. The estates were serviced by the labor of dependent peasants-smerds and serfs. In the 11th-12th centuries, the rights of votchinniki were enshrined in the code of laws - Russkaya Pravda. During the period of fragmentation, in the 13th-15th centuries, the patrimony became the dominant form of land ownership. Along with princes and boyars, members of their squads, monasteries, and higher clergy owned estates. The fiefdoms were the specific principalities received by the prince as an inheritance from his father. The number and size of estates increased through the seizure of communal peasant lands, grants, purchases, and exchanges. In addition to general patrimonial rights, patrimonials had immunity privileges in court, in collecting taxes, and paying trade duties.

From the middle of the 15th century, part of the specific princes and the well-born boyars resisted the process of the formation of the Russian centralized state. Therefore, when at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century the Novgorod, Tver and Pskov lands were annexed to the Moscow principality, many large patrimonial estates were deprived of their possessions, and their lands were transferred on the rights of the estate to the nobles, on which the grand ducal power relied. The patrimonial rights and immunity privileges became more and more limited. In the 1550s, votchinniks were equated with the nobility in terms of military service, and the right of patrimonial redemption of votchins was also limited. The oprichny terror of Ivan the Terrible dealt a serious blow to the noble estates. In the second half of the 16th century, many large estate owners sold or mortgaged their lands. As a result, at the end of the 16th century, the manor became the predominant form of feudal landownership.

From the beginning of the 17th century, patrimonial land ownership increased again. The government rewarded the nobles for their service by giving them the lands of the old estates. The legal rights of estate owners were expanded, and the distinction between estates and patrimonies was being blurred. At the end of the 17th century, in the central regions of the country, hereditary (patrimonial) land ownership prevailed over the local (service). By the decree of March 23, 1714, on the uniform inheritance, the estates were legally equated with estates and merged into one type of land ownership - the estate.

The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.

The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.

The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, however, fragile ones. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy ( VI c.) There is information about a certain Russian prince Bravlin, who fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea in VIII - IX centuries, passing from Surozh to Korchev (from Sudak to Kerch). Eastern historians talk about the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Kuyaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyava, then called the area around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of Slavs - has not been precisely established.

According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To

to stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Rus' by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.

Norman theory

The legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited to XVIII V. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, personalities.

If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians only testifies to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kiev. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

2. Socio-economic development

Agriculture

The basis of the economy was arable farming. In the south, they plowed mainly with a plow, or ral, with a double team of oxen. In the north - a plow with an iron plowshare, drawn by horses. Cultivated mainly cerealsry: rye, wheat, barley, spelt, oats. Millet, peas, lentils, and turnips were also common.

Two-field and three-field crop rotations were known. The double field consisted in the fact that the entire mass of cultivated land was divided into two parts. One of them was used for growing bread, the second "rested" - was under fallow. With a three-field crop rotation, in addition to the fallow and winter field, a spring field also stood out. In the forest north, the amount of old arable land was not so significant, slash-and-burn agriculture remained the leading form of agriculture.

The Slavs kept a stable set of domestic animals. Bred cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry. Crafts played a rather significant role in the economy: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. With the development of foreign trade, the demand for furs increased.

Craft

Trades and handicrafts, developing, are more and more separated from agriculture. Even in conditions of subsistence farming, home craft techniques are being improved - the processing of flax, hemp, wood, and iron. Actually, handicraft production already numbered more than a dozen types: weapons, jewelry, blacksmithing, pottery, weaving, leather. Russian craft in its technical and artistic level was not inferior to the craft of the advanced European countries. Jewelry, chain mail, blades, locks were especially famous.

Trade

Internal trade in the Old Russian state was poorly developed, since subsistence farming dominated the economy. The expansion of foreign trade was associated with the formation of a state that provided Russian merchants with safer trade routes and supported them with its authority in international markets. In Byzantium and the countries of the East, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Russian princes was realized. Products of crafts were exported from Rus': furs, honey, wax, products of artisans - gunsmiths and gold smiths, slaves. Mostly luxury items were imported: grape wines, silk fabrics, fragrant resins and spices, expensive weapons.

Craft and trade were concentrated in cities, the number of which grew. The Scandinavians who often visited Rus' called our country Gardarika - the country of cities. In Russian chronicles at the beginning XIII V. more than 200 cities are mentioned. However, the inhabitants of the cities still retained close ties with agriculture and were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding.

social order

The process of formation in Kievan Rus of the main classes of feudal society is poorly reflected in the sources. This is one of the reasons why the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable. The presence of various economic structures in the economy gives reason to a number of specialists to evaluate the Old Russian state as an early class state, in which the feudal structure existed along with the slave-owning and patriarchal ones.

Most scientists support the idea of ​​academician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began to IX V. leading trend in the socio-economic development of ancient Rus'.

Feudalismcharacterized by the complete ownership of the feudal land and incomplete ownership of the peasants, in relation to whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion. The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his own plot of land, which he received from the feudal lord or the feudal state, and is the owner of tools, housing, etc.

The beginning process of the transformation of tribal nobility into land owners in the first two centuries of the existence of the state in Rus' can be traced, mainly, only on archaeological material. These are rich burials of boyars and combatants, the remains of fortified suburban estates (patrimonies) that belonged to senior combatants and boyars. The class of feudal lords also arose by singling out the most prosperous members of the community, who turned part of the communal arable land into property. The expansion of feudal landownership was also facilitated by direct seizures of communal lands by the tribal nobility. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of dependence of ordinary community members on landowners.

Population categories

However, in the Kiev period, there remained a fairly significant number of free peasants, dependent only on the state. The term "peasants" itself appeared in the sources only in XIV V. Sources of the period of Kievan Rus call the community members dependent on the state and the Grand Duke people or stinks.

The main social unit of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - verv. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. The members of the vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerds-farmers, but also smerds-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the needs of the community in handicrafts and worked mainly to order. A person who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called outcast.

WITHWith the development of feudal landownership, various forms of dependence of the agricultural population on the landowner appear. A common name for a temporarily dependent peasant was purchase This was the name of a person who received a kupa from the landowner - assistance in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and was obliged to return or work out the kupa with interest. Another term referring to dependent people is ryadovich, those. a person who has concluded a certain agreement with the feudal lord - a series and is obliged to perform various works according to this series.

In Kievan Rus, along with feudal relations, there was patriarchal slavery, which, however, did not play a significant role in the country's economy. Slaves were called serfs or servants. First of all, captives fell into slavery, but temporary debt bondage, which ceased after payment of the debt, became widespread. Kholops were commonly used as household servants. In some estates there were also so-called plowed serfs, planted on the ground and having their own

economy.

Votchina

The main cell of the feudal economy was the estate. It consisted of a princely or boyar estate and dependent communities-verveys. In the estate there was a yard and mansions of the owner, bins and barns with "abundance", i.e. stores, servants' dwellings and other buildings. Special managers were in charge of various sectors of the economy - tiunas And key keeper, at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was fireman. As a rule, artisans serving the lordly household worked in the boyar or princely patrimony. Craftsmen could be serfs or be in some other form of dependence on the votchinnik. The patrimonial economy had a natural character and was focused on the internal consumption of the feudal lord himself and his servants. The sources do not allow us to unequivocally judge the dominant form of feudal exploitation in the patrimony. It is possible that some part of the dependent peasants cultivated corvee, another paid the landowner in kind.

The urban population also fell into dependence on the princely administration or the feudal elite. Near cities, large feudal lords often founded special settlements for artisans. In order to attract the population, the owners of the villages provided certain benefits, temporary tax exemptions, etc. As a result, such craft settlements were called freedoms or settlements.

The spread of economic dependence, increased exploitation caused resistance from the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of dependent people. This is also evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - turning into a complete, "whitewashed" serf. Data on various manifestations of the class struggle are contained in Russkaya Pravda. It refers to violations of the boundaries of land holdings, arson of side trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, and theft of property.

3. Politics of the first Kyiv princes

10th century

After Oleg (879-912), Igor reigned, who is called Igor the Old (912-945) and is considered the son of Rurik. After his death during the collection of tribute in the land of the Drevlyans in 945, his son Svyatoslav remained, who at that time was four years old. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, became regent under him. Chronicles characterize Princess Olga as a wise and energetic ruler.

Around 955, Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she converted to Christianity. This visit was also of great political significance. Returning from Constantinople, Olga officially transferred power to her son Svyatoslav (957-972).

Svyatoslav, first of all, was a warrior prince who sought to bring Rus' closer to the largest powers of the then world. His whole short life was spent in almost continuous campaigns and battles: he defeated the Khazar Khaganate, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pechenegs near Kiev, made two trips to the Balkans.

After the death of Svyatoslav, his son Yaropolk (972-980) became the Grand Duke. In 977, Yaropolk quarreled with his brother, the Drevlyansk prince Oleg, and began hostilities against him. The Drevlyansk squads of Prince Oleg were defeated, and he himself died in battle. Drevlyane lands were annexed to Kyiv.

After the death of Oleg, the third son of Svyatoslav Vladimir, who reigned in Novgorod, fled to the Varangians. Yaropolk sent his deputies to Novgorod and thus became the sole ruler of the entire Old Russian state.

Returning two years later to Novgorod, Prince Vladimir expelled the Kyiv governors from the city and entered the war with Yaropolk. The main core of Vladimir's army was a mercenary Varangian squad, which came with him.

Violent clash between the troops of Vladimir andYaropolk happened in 980 on the Dnieper near the city of Lyubech. The victory was won by the squad of Vladimir, and the Grand Duke Yaropolk was soon killed. Power throughout the state passed into the hands of Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015).

The heyday of the Old Russian state

During the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Cherven cities were annexed to the Old Russian state - East Slavic lands on both sides of the Carpathians, the land of the Vyatichi. The line of fortresses created in the south of the country provided more effective protection of the country from the Pecheneg nomads.

Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the East Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this association with religious unity, unifying the traditional pagan beliefs. Of the numerous pagan gods, he chose six, which he proclaimed the supreme deities on the territory of his state. The figures of these gods (Dazhd-bog, Khors, Stribog, Semargl and Mokosh) he ordered to be placed next to his tower on a high Kiev hill. The pantheon was headed by Perun, the god of thunder, the patron of princes and combatants. The worship of other gods was severely persecuted.

However, the pagan reform, called first religious reform did not satisfy Prince Vladimir. Carried out in a violent way and in the shortest possible time, it could not be successful. In addition, it had no effect on the international prestige of the Old Russian state. The Christian powers perceived pagan Rus' as a barbarian state.

The long and strong ties between Rus' and Byzantium ultimately led to the fact that in 988 Vladimir adopted Christianity in its Orthodox version. The penetration of Christianity into Rus' began long before it was recognized as the official state religion. Princess Olga and Prince Yaropolk were Christians. The adoption of Christianity equated Kievan Rus with neighboring states, Christianity had a huge impact on the life and customs of Ancient Rus', political and legal relations. Christianity, with its more developed theological and philosophical system compared to paganism, and its more complex and magnificent cult, gave a huge impetus to the development of Russian culture and art.

In order to strengthen his power in various parts of the vast state, Vladimir appointed his sons as governors in various cities and lands of Rus'. After the death of Vladimir, a fierce struggle for power began between his sons.

One of the sons of Vladimir, Svyatopolk (1015-1019), seized power in Kyiv and declared himself a Grand Duke. By order of Svyatopolk, three of his brothers were killed - Boris of Rostov, Gleb of Murom and Svyatoslav Drevlyansky.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who occupied the throne in Novgorod, understood that he was also in danger. He decided to oppose Svyatopolk, who called on the help of the Pechenegs. Yaroslav's army consisted of Novgorodians and Varangian mercenaries. The internecine war between the brothers ended with the flight of Svyatopolk to Poland, where he soon died. Yaroslav Vladimirovich established himself as the Grand Duke of Kyiv (1019-1054).

In 1024, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky. As a result of this strife, the brothers divided the state into two parts: the area east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav, and the territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav. After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

The time of Yaroslav is the heyday of Kievan Rus, which has become one of the strongest states in Europe. The most powerful sovereigns at that time sought an alliance with Russia.

The bearer of supreme power in

The first signs of fragmentation

The whole princely family was considered to be the Kyiv state, and each individual prince was considered only a temporary owner of the principality, which he got in turn of seniority. After the death of the Grand Duke, it was not his eldest son who "sat" in his place, but the eldest in the family between the princes. His vacated inheritance also went to the next in seniority among the rest of the princes. Thus, the princes moved from one area to another, from less to more rich and prestigious. As the princely family increased, the calculation of seniority became more and more difficult. The boyars of individual cities and lands intervened in the relations of the princes. Capable and gifted princes sought to rise above their elder relatives.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Rus' entered a period of princely strife. However, it is still impossible to speak of feudal fragmentation at this time. It comes when separate principalities are finally formed - lands with their capitals, and their princely dynasties are fixed on these lands. The struggle between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise was still a struggle aimed at maintaining the principle of tribal ownership of Russia.

Yaroslav the Wise before his death divided the Russian land between his sons - Izyaslav (1054-1073, 1076-1078), Svyatoslav (1073-1076) and Vsevolod (1078-1093). The reign of the last of the sons of Yaroslav, Vsevolod, was especially restless: the younger princes were fiercely at enmity over the destinies, the Polovtsians often attacked the Russian lands. The son of Svyatoslav, Prince Oleg, entered into allied relations with the Polovtsy and repeatedly brought them to Rus'.

Vladimir Monomakh

After the death of Prince Vsevolod, his son Vladimir Monomakh had real chances to take the princely throne. But the presence in Kyiv of a rather powerful boyar group, opposed to the descendants of Vsevolod in favor of the children of Prince Izyaslav, who had more rights to the princely table, forced Vladimir Monomakh to abandon the struggle for the Kiev table.

New Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich (1093-1113) turned out to be a weak and indecisive commander and a bad diplomat. His speculation in bread and salt during the famine, patronage of usurers caused bitterness among the people of Kiev. The death of this prince served as a signal for a popular uprising. The townspeople defeated the yard of the Kyiv thousand, the yards of usurers. The Boyar Duma invited Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), popular among the people, to the Kiev table. Chronicles for the most part give an enthusiastic assessment of the reign and personality of Vladimir Monomakh, calling him an exemplary prince. Vladimir Monomakh managed to keep the entire Russian land under his rule.

After his death, the unity of Rus' was still maintained under his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), after which Rus' finally disintegrated into separate independent lands-principalities.

4. Early feudal monarchy

Control

The Old Russian state was an early feudal monarchy. Kyiv was at the head of the state Grand Duke.

The relatives of the Grand Duke were in charge of certain lands of the country - appanage princes or his posadniki. In governing the country, the Grand Duke was assisted by a special council - boyar thought, which included junior princes, representatives of the tribal nobility - boyars, combatants.

The princely squad occupied an important place in the leadership of the country. The senior squad actually coincided in composition with the boyar thought. From the senior warriors, princely governors were usually appointed to the largest cities. The younger warriors (youths, gridi, children) performed the duties of petty stewards and servants in peacetime, and in the military they were warriors. They usually enjoyed part of the princely income, such as court fees. The prince shared with the younger squad the collected tribute and military booty. The senior squad had other sources of income. In the early stages of the existence of the Old Russian state, senior combatants received from the prince the right to tribute from a certain territory. With the development of feudal relations, they became owners of land, owners of estates. Local princes, senior combatants had their own squads and boyar thoughts.

The military forces of the Old Russian state consisted of detachments of professional soldiers - princely and boyar combatants and the people's militia, which gathered on especially important occasions. A large role in the army was played by cavalry, suitable for fighting the southern nomads and for long-distance campaigns. The cavalry was made up mainly of vigilantes. The Kyiv princes also had a significant rook fleet and made long-range military and commercial expeditions.

In addition to the prince and the squad, a significant role in the life of the Old Russian state was played by veche. In some cities, for example, in Novgorod, it acted constantly, in others it was collected only in emergency cases.

Collection of tribute

The population of the Old Russian state was subject to tribute. The collection of tribute was called polyudie. Every year in November, the prince with his retinue began to detour the territories subject to him. While collecting tribute, he carried out judicial functions. The size of state duties under the first Kyiv princes was not fixed and was regulated by custom. The attempts of the princes to increase the tribute provoked resistance from the population. In 945, Prince Igor of Kiev, who tried to arbitrarily increase the amount of tribute, was killed by the rebellious Drevlyans.

After the assassination of Igor, his widow, Princess Olga, traveled around some parts of Rus' and, according to the chronicle, "established statutes and lessons", "dues and tributes", that is, established a fixed amount of duties. She also determined the places of collection of taxes: "camps and graveyards." Polyudy is gradually being replaced by a new form of receiving tribute - cart- delivery of tribute by the taxable population to specially designated places. As a unit of taxation, a peasant agricultural economy was defined (tribute from the ral, plow). In some cases, tribute was taken from smoke, that is, from every house with a hearth.

Almost all the tribute collected by the princes was an export item. In early spring, along the high hollow water, tribute was sent for sale to Constantinople, where it was exchanged for gold coins, expensive fabrics and vegetables, wine, and luxury items. Almost all the military campaigns of the Russian princes against Byzantium were connected with the provision of the most favorable conditions for security on trade routes for this interstate trade.

"Russian Truth"

The first information about the law that existed in Russia is contained in the treaties of the Kyiv princes with the Greeks, which report on the so-called "Russian law", the text of which we do not

we know.

The earliest legal monument that has come down to us is Russkaya Pravda. The most ancient part of this monument is called the "Ancient Truth", or "The Truth of Yaroslav". Perhaps it is a charter issued by Yaroslav the Wise in 1016 and regulating the relationship of the prince's warriors among themselves and with the inhabitants of Novgorod. In addition to the "Ancient Truth", the composition of the "Russian Truth" includes the legal regulations of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs" (adopted around 1072). "The Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" (adopted in 1113) and some other legal monuments.

The Pravda Yaroslav speaks of such a relic of patriarchal-communal relations as blood feud. True, this custom is already dying out, since it is allowed to replace blood feud with a fine (vira) in favor of the family of the murdered. The "Ancient Truth" also provides for punishments for beatings, mutilations, blows with sticks, bowls, drinking horns, harboring a runaway slave, damage to weapons and clothes.

For criminal offenses, Russkaya Pravda provides for a fine in favor of the prince and a reward in favor of the victim. For the most serious criminal offenses, the loss of all property and expulsion from the community or imprisonment were provided. Robbery, arson, horse theft were considered such serious crimes.

Church

In addition to civil law in Kievan Rus, there was also ecclesiastical law that regulated the share of the church in princely incomes, the range of crimes subject to ecclesiastical court. These are the church statutes of princes Vladimir and Yaroslav. Family crimes, witchcraft, blasphemy and the trial of people belonging to the church were subject to church court.

After the adoption of Christianity in Rus', a church organization arises. The Russian Church was considered part of the universal Patriarchate of Constantinople. Her head is metropolitan- Appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1051, the Metropolitan of Kiev was elected for the first time not in Constantinople, but in Kyiv by a council of Russian bishops. It was Metropolitan Hilarion, an outstanding writer and church figure. However, subsequent Kievan metropolitans were still appointed by Constantinople.

In large cities, episcopal sees were established, which were the centers of large church districts - dioceses. Bishops appointed by the Metropolitan of Kyiv were at the head of the dioceses. All churches and monasteries located on the territory of his diocese were subordinate to the bishops. The princes gave a tenth of the tributes and dues received for the maintenance of the church - tithe.

Monasteries occupied a special place in the church organization. Monasteries were created as voluntary communities of people who abandoned family and ordinary worldly life and devoted themselves to serving God. The most famous Russian monastery of this period was founded in the middle XI V. Kiev-Pechersky monastery. Just like the highest church hierarchs - the metropolitan and bishops, the monasteries owned land and villages, and were engaged in trade. The wealth accumulated in them was spent on the construction of temples, decorating them with icons, and copying books. Monasteries played a very important role in the life of medieval society. The presence of a monastery in a city or principality, according to the ideas of the people of that time, contributed to stability and prosperity, since it was believed that "the prayers of the monks (monks) save the world."

The church was of great importance for the Russian state. It contributed to the strengthening of statehood, the unification of individual lands into a single state. It is also impossible to overestimate the influence of the church on the development of culture. Through the Church, Rus' joined the Byzantine cultural tradition, continuing and developing it.

5. Foreign policy

The main tasks facing the foreign policy of the Old Russian state were the fight against the steppe nomads, the protection of trade routes and the provision of the most favorable trade relations with the Byzantine Empire.

Russian-Byzantine relations

The trade of Rus' and Byzantium had a state character. In the markets of Constantinople, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Kievan princes was sold. The princes sought to ensure the most favorable conditions for themselves in this trade, tried to strengthen their positions in the Crimea and the Black Sea region. Attempts by Byzantium to limit Russian influence or violate the terms of trade led to military clashes.

Under Prince Oleg, the combined forces of the Kievan state besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (the Russian name is Tsargrad) and forced the Byzantine emperor to sign a trade agreement beneficial for Rus' (911). Another treaty with Byzantium has come down to us, concluded after Prince Igor's less successful campaign against Constantinople in 944.

In accordance with the agreements, Russian merchants came to Constantinople every summer for the trading season and lived there for six months. A certain place on the outskirts of the city was allocated for their residence. According to Oleg's agreement, Russian merchants did not pay any duty, trade was predominantly barter.

The Byzantine Empire sought to draw neighboring states into a struggle among themselves in order to weaken them and subject them to its influence. Thus, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros Foka tried to use the Russian troops to weaken the Danube Bulgaria, with which Byzantium waged a long and exhausting war. In 968, the Russian troops of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich invaded Bulgaria and occupied a number of cities along the Danube, of which the most important was Pereyaslavets, a large commercial and political center in the lower reaches of the Danube. The successful offensive of Svyatoslav was regarded as a threat to the security of the Byzantine Empire and its influence in the Balkans. Probably under the influence of Greek diplomacy, the Pechenegs attacked militarily weakened Kyiv in 969. Svyatoslav was forced to return to Rus'. After the liberation of Kyiv, he made a second trip to Bulgaria, already acting in alliance with the Bulgarian Tsar Boris against Byzantium.

The fight against Svyatoslav was led by the new Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes, one of the prominent commanders of the empire. In the first battle, the Russian and Bulgarian squads defeated the Byzantines and put them to flight. Pursuing the retreating army, Svyatoslav's troops captured a number of large cities and reached Adrianople. Near Adrianople, peace was concluded between Svyatoslav and Tzimiskes. The bulk of the Russian squads returned to Pereyaslavets. This peace was concluded in the fall, and in the spring Byzantium launched a new offensive. The Bulgarian king went over to the side of Byzantium.

The army of Svyatoslav from Pereyaslavets moved to the Dorostol fortress and prepared for defense. After a two-month siege, John Tzimisces offered Svyatoslav to make peace. According to this agreement, Russian troops left Bulgaria. Trade relations were restored. Rus' and Byzantium became allies.

The last major campaign against Byzantium was made in 1043. The reason for it was the murder of a Russian merchant in Constantinople. Having not received worthy satisfaction for the insult, Prince Yaroslav the Wise sent a fleet to the Byzantine shores, headed by his son Vladimir and the governor Vyshata. Despite the fact that the storm scattered the Russian fleet, the ships under the command of Vladimir managed to inflict significant damage on the Greek fleet. In 1046, peace was concluded between Russia and Byzantium, which, according to the tradition of that time, was secured by a dynastic union - the marriage of the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to the daughter of Emperor Constantine Monomakh.

The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate

The neighbor of the Old Russian state was the Khazar Khaganate, located on the Lower Volga and in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. The Khazars were a semi-nomadic people of Turkic origin. Their capital Itil, located in the Volga delta, became a major trading center. During the heyday of the Khazar state, some Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars.

The Khazar Khaganate held in its hands key points on the most important trade routes: the mouths of the Volga and Don, the Kerch Strait, the crossing between the Volga and the Don. The customs posts established there collected significant trade duties. High customs payments had a negative impact on the development of trade in Ancient Rus'. Sometimes the Khazar Khagans (rulers of the state) were not content with trading fees, they detained and robbed Russian merchant caravans returning from the Caspian Sea.

In the second half X V. the systematic struggle of the Russian squads with the Khazar Khaganate began. In 965, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazar state. After that, the Lower Don was again settled by the Slavs, and the former Khazar fortress Sarkel (Russian name Belaya Vezha) became the center of this territory. On the shores of the Kerch Strait, a Russian principality was formed with its center in Tmutarakan. This city with a large seaport became an outpost of Rus' on the Black Sea. At the end of the tenth century Russian squads made a number of campaigns on the Caspian coast and in the steppe regions of the Caucasus.

Fight against nomads

In X and early XI centuries on the right and left banks of the Lower Dnieper lived nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs, who made quick and decisive attacks on Russian lands and cities. To protect against the Pechenegs, the Russian princes built belts of defensive structures of fortified cities, ramparts, etc. The first information about such fortified cities around Kyiv dates back to the time of Prince Oleg.

In 969, the Pechenegs, led by Prince Kurei, besieged Kyiv. Prince Svyatoslav at that time was in Bulgaria. At the head of the defense of the city stood his mother, Princess Olga. Despite the difficult situation (lack of people, lack of water, fires), the people of Kiev managed to hold out until the arrival of the princely squad. South of Kyiv, near the city of Rodnya, Svyatoslav utterly defeated the Pechenegs and even captured Prince Kurya. And three years later, during a clash with the Pechenegs in the area of ​​​​the Dnieper rapids, Prince Svyatoslav was killed.

A powerful defensive line on the southern borders was built under Prince Vladimir the Holy. Fortresses were built on the rivers Stugna, Sula, Desna and others. The largest were Pereyaslavl and Belgorod. These fortresses had permanent military garrisons recruited from warriors ("the best people") of various Slavic tribes. Wishing to attract all the forces to the defense of the state, Prince Vladimir recruited into these garrisons mainly representatives of the northern tribes: Slovenes, Krivichi, Vyatichi.

After 1136, the Pechenegs ceased to pose a serious threat to the Kievan state. According to legend, in honor of the decisive victory over the Pechenegs, Prince Yaroslav the Wise built the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

In the middle of XI V. The Pechenegs were forced out of the southern Russian steppes to the Danube by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Kipchaks who came from Asia. In Rus' they were called Polovtsy, they occupied the North Caucasus, part of the Crimea, all the southern Russian steppes. The Polovtsians were a very strong and serious opponent, often making campaigns against Byzantium and Rus'. The position of the Old Russian state was further complicated by the fact that the princely strife that began at that time crushed its forces, and some princes, trying to use the Polovtsian detachments to seize power, themselves brought enemies to Rus'. The Polovtsian expansion was especially significant in the 90s. XI century, when the Polovtsian khans even tried to take Kyiv. At the end XI V. attempts were made to organize all-Russian campaigns against the Polovtsians. At the head of these campaigns was Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. The Russian squads managed not only to recapture the captured Russian cities, but also to strike at the Polovtsy on their territory. In 1111, the capital of one of the Polovtsian tribal formations, the city of Sharukan (not far from modern Kharkov), was taken by Russian troops. After that, part of the Polovtsy migrated to the North Caucasus. However, the Polovtsian danger was not eliminated. Throughout XII V. there were military clashes between the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans.

international significance Old Russian state

The ancient Russian power in its geographical position occupied an important place in the system of European and Asian countries and was one of the strongest in Europe.

The constant struggle against the nomads protected a higher agricultural culture from ruin and contributed to the security of trade. The trade of Western Europe with the countries of the Near and Middle East, with the Byzantine Empire, largely depended on the military successes of the Russian squads.

The marriage ties of the Kyiv princes testify to the international significance of Rus'. Vladimir the Holy was married to the sister of the Byzantine emperors, Anna. Yaroslav the Wise, his sons and daughters became related to the kings of Norway, France, Hungary, Poland, Byzantine emperors. Daughter Anna was the wife of the French king Henry I , son Vsevolod is married to the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, and his grandson Vladimir - the son of the Byzantine princess - married the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald.

6. Culture

epics

The heroic pages of the history of the Old Russian state, connected with its defense from external dangers, were reflected in Russian epics. Epics - a new epic genre that arose in X V. The most extensive epic cycle is dedicated to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who actively defended Rus' from the Pechenegs. In epics, the people called him the Red Sun. One of the main characters of this cycle was the peasant son, the hero Ilya Muromets, the defender of all the offended and unfortunate.

In the image of Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, scientists see another prince - Vladimir Monomakh. The people created in the epics a collective image of the prince - the defender of Rus'. It should be noted that the events, although heroic, but of lesser importance for the people's life - such as the campaigns of Svyatoslav - were not reflected in the folk epic poetry.

Writing

The agreement between Prince Oleg and the Greeks of 911, drawn up in Greek and Russian, is one of the first monuments of Russian writing. The adoption of Christianity by Russia significantly accelerated the spread of education. It contributed to the widespread penetration of Byzantine literature and art into Rus'. The achievements of Byzantine culture initially came to Rus' through Bulgaria, where by this time there was already a significant supply of both translated and original literature in an understandable Slavic language in Rus'. The creators of the Slavic alphabet are considered to be the Bulgarian missionary monks Cyril and Methodius, who lived in 9th century

With the adoption of Christianity, the emergence of the first educational institutions is associated. According to the chronicle, immediately after the baptism of the people of Kiev, St. Vladimir arranged a school in which the children of "the best people" were to study. During the time of Yaroslav the Wise, more than 300 children studied at the school at St. Sophia Cathedral. Monasteries were also original schools. They copied church books and studied the Greek language. As a rule, monasteries also had schools for the laity.

Literacy was quite widespread among the urban population. This is evidenced by graffiti inscriptions on the things and walls of ancient buildings, as well as birch bark letters found in Novgorod and some other cities.

Literature

In addition to translated Greek and Byzantine works, in Rus' there are literary works of their own. In the Old Russian state, a special kind of historical composition arose - an annals. On the basis of weather records of the most important events, chronicles were compiled. The most famous ancient Russian chronicle is The Tale of Bygone Years, which tells the history of the Russian land, starting with the settlement of the Slavs and the legendary princes Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv.

Prince Vladimir Monomakh was not only an outstanding statesman, but also a writer. He was the author of Teachings to Children, the first memoir in the history of Russian literature. In "Instructions" Vladimir Monomakh draws the image of an ideal prince: a good Christian, a wise statesman and a brave warrior.

The first Russian metropolitan, Hilarion, wrote the "Sermon on Law and Grace" - a historical and philosophical work showing the deep mastering and understanding of the Christian view of history by a Russian scribe. The author affirms the equal position of the Russian people among other Christian peoples. Hilarion's "Word" also contains praise for Prince Vladimir, who enlightened Rus' with baptism.

Russian people made long journeys to various countries. Some of them left travel notes and descriptions of their campaigns. These descriptions constituted a special genre - walking. The oldest walk is compiled at the beginning XI V. Chernigov hegumen Daniel. This is a description of a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and other holy places. Daniel's information is so detailed and accurate that his "Journey" for a long time remained the most popular description of the Holy Land in Rus' and a guide for Russian pilgrims.

Architecture and fine arts

Under Prince Vladimir, the Church of the Tithes was built in Kyiv, under Yaroslav the Wise - the famous St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate and other buildings. The first stone churches in Rus' were built by Byzantine masters. The best Byzantine artists decorated the new Kyiv churches with mosaics and frescoes. Thanks to the cares of the Russian princes, Kyiv was called a rival of Constantinople. Russian craftsmen studied with visiting Byzantine architects and artists. Their works combined the highest achievements of Byzantine culture with national aesthetic ideas.

RUSSIA IN XII - EARLY 17th century

SOURCES

The most important sources on the history of medieval Rus'chronicles still remain. From the end XII V. their circle is expanding considerably. With the development of individual lands and princegestures, the regional annals are distributed. In the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow in XIV - XV centuries. a common Russian chronicle appears. The most famousAll-Russian chronicles are Troitskaya (beginning XV c.), Nikonovskaya (middle XVI century) chronicles.

The largest body of sources is made up of act materials-letters written on a variety of occasions. Diplomas were granted, deposited, in-line,bills of sale, spiritual, truce, statutory and others, depending on the purpose. With increased centralizationstate power and the development of the feudal-local system, the number of current office work increasesnoah documentation (scribe, sentinel, bit, rodoscatch books, replies, petitions, memories, court lists ki). Actual and office materials arethe most valuable sources on the socio-economic history of Russia. WITH XIV V. in Rus' they begin to use the boomgu, however, for economic and household records continuedyut use parchment and even birch bark.

In historical research, scholars often useworks of fiction. Most popularstrange genres in ancient Russian literature werenews, words, teachings, walking, life. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (end XII c.), "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (beginning Lo XIII c.), "Zadonshchina" (end XIV c.), "The Tale of Mamamassacre" (line XIV-XV centuries), "Walking (walking) over the three seas" (end XV c.) enriched the treasury of the world literature.

Late XV - XVI centuries became the heyday of publicityki. The most famous authors were Iosif Sanin (“EnlightenTel"), Nil Sorsky ("Tradition by a disciple"), Maxim Grek (Messages, Words), Ivan Peresvetov (Big and Small peopleupholstered, "The Tale of the Fall of Tsar-Grad", "The Legend of Magmet-Saltan").

In the middle of XV V. was compiled "Chronograph" - historicalskoe essay, which considered not only Russian, but also world history.

Knorring V.I. The art of management. - M., 1997. - S. 1.

See: Fundamentals of Modern Social Management: Theory and Methodology. - M., 2000. - S. 26.

Sociology of management: textbook. allowance. - M., 2007. - S. 85.

Zborovsky G. E., Kostina N. B. Sociology of management: textbook. - M., 2007. - S. 84.

Zborovsky G. E., Kostina N. B. Fundamentals of modern social management: theory and methodology. - M., 2000. - S. 8.

Zborovsky G. E., Kostina N. B. Sociology of management: textbook. allowance. - M., 2007. - S. 86.

Zborovsky G. E., Kostina N. B. Sociology of management: textbook. allowance. - M., 2007. - S. 88.

End of free trial.

Introduction.. 3

1. Characteristics of the position of the great princes in the Old Russian state .. 4

2. reign of the great princes.. 7

2.1. The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich and the Baptism of Rus'. 7

2.2. State administration under Yaroslav the Wise.. 9

Conclusion.. 11

REFERENCES... 12

Introduction

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kiev. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

After the death of Oleg, Igor became the ruler of Rus'. He managed to basically preserve the unity of the young state. Igor's attempt to collect additional tribute from the Drevlyane tribe ended in his death in 945. In Kyiv, the four-year-old son of Igor Svyatoslav remained to reign. His mother, Princess Olga, ruled on his behalf for the first years. The son of Igor and Olga Svyatoslav became famous as one of the largest commanders of Rus'.

After the death of Svyatoslav, his son Yaropolk began to rule in Kyiv. Soon, between Yaropolk and his brothers Oleg and Vladimir, a struggle for primacy in Rus' began. During it, Oleg and Yaropolk died, and Vladimir, who had previously ruled in Novgorod, seized power in 980.

Vladimir went down in history as the largest statesman of the early period of Russian history. After the death of Vladimir, his son Yaroslav the Wise, who made a significant contribution to the development of Russian law, became the Grand Duke. The reign of the princes of Vladimir and Yaroslavl is considered the heyday of Kievan Rus.

About public administration in the era of the reign of the Grand Dukes Vladimir and Yaroslav and will be discussed in this work.

Characteristics of the position of the Grand Dukes in the Old Russian state

According to the form of government, Kievan Rus was an early feudal monarchy. was at the head of the state Grand Duke. Its functions at an early stage of the existence of the Old Russian state consisted in organizing the armed forces, commanding them, collecting tribute and establishing foreign trade. In the future, the activities of the prince in the field of administration acquired greater importance: the appointment of a local administration, princely agents, legislative and judicial activities, management of foreign relations, etc.

The income of the prince consisted of feudal duties, tribute (tax), court fees, criminal fines (vir and sales) and other requisitions. Relations with other princes were built on the basis of letters of the cross, which determined the rights and obligations of the Grand Duke and the vassal princes (protection of the latter, rendering assistance to them, their assistance to the Grand Duke, etc.). The Grand Duke's throne was transferred by inheritance: first, according to the principle of seniority - the eldest in the family, and then "fatherland" - to the son.

The Grand Duke in his activities relied on the advice of large feudal lords - the boyars and the clergy. Although the council did not have a clearly defined competence, the boyars, together with the prince, resolved the most important issues of administration, foreign policy, courts, legislative activities, etc. advice from the boyars and "princely husbands". The management of the branches of the princely palace economy was entrusted to tiunov And elders Over time, they turn into managers of branches of the princely economy. The decimal system of government is being replaced by the palace-patrimonial system, in which political power belongs to the owner (boyar-patrimony). There are two centers of power - princely palace And boyar estate.

In the early feudal monarchy, the popular assembly plays an important state and political role - veche. All free residents of the city (posada) and adjacent settlements (slobodas) participated in the veche. The competence of the veche included issues of taxation, defense of the city, organization of military campaigns and the election of princes. The executive body of the veche was the council, which consisted of the city patriciate, elders, and others.

local government carried out by posadniks (governors) in cities and volosts in rural areas, and relied on military garrisons led by thousands, centurions and tenths.

The representatives of the prince had the following powers: they collected tribute and duties, administered justice, established and levied fines, etc. Instead of a salary for service, they had the right to keep part of the money collected from the population for themselves. This control system is called feeding systems.

The body of local peasant self-government was territorial community - rope. Verv XI-XII centuries. combined elements of neighborhood and family communities and was a conglomerate of small settlements. The competence of the Vervi included issues of redistribution of land allotments, tax and financial issues, police supervision, resolution of litigation, investigation of crimes and execution of punishments. The state, using the rope for fiscal, police and administrative purposes, was interested in the further preservation of the community structure.

Judicial bodies as special institutions did not yet exist. Judicial functions carried out by authorities and administrations in the center and locally - princes, posadniks, volostels and other representatives of princely power.

issued church jurisdiction. The Church judged: the dependent population of their lands, the clergy in all categories of cases, the population of the state in certain categories of cases (crimes against religion, morality, etc.).

The armed forces included: the squad of the Grand Duke, the squads of local princes, the feudal militia and the people's militia.

The most famous Kyiv prince was Vladimir, nicknamed Red Sun(978-1015). The period of his reign is the time of the heyday of Kievan Rus, the strengthening of statehood. Under him and on his initiative, a historic event of great importance took place, which influenced the entire subsequent history of our state. We are talking about the adoption of Christianity according to the Byzantine model, about the baptism of Rus', which began in 988. For this, Vladimir was subsequently canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. Baptism was not always carried out easily, for example, Novgorod was baptized with "fire and sword." The baptism of Rus' had a huge, decisive influence on its further development, including the development of statehood, as well as law. Together with the unity of faith, the realization of the unity of the state gradually began to come. With Christianity also came the idea of ​​the unity of church and state.

After death Vladimir his son became the grand duke Yaroslav the Wise made a significant contribution to the development of Russian law. After Yaroslav, Rus' actually begins to enter a new period of its development - a period of feudal fragmentation. Particularly intensified the processes of fragmentation after the death of the prince Vladimir Monomakh(1113-1125), when new centers were strengthened: Vladimir, Galich, Novgorod. A number of researchers consider the capture and plunder of Kiev by the prince to be the end of the Kievan state. Andrey Bogolyubsky in 1169