Varnas and castes in ancient India. Caste system in India Representatives of what religion divide society into castes

INTRODUCTION

Dating back to the ancient Indian varnas and consecrated by Hinduism, the caste system has been the basis of the social structure of India since ancient times. Belonging to a particular caste was associated with the birth of a person and determined his status for his entire life.

The varno-caste system as a whole, precisely because of its rigid hierarchy, constituted the backbone of the social structure of India; unique in form, it not only turned out to be an effective alternative to a weak political administration (and perhaps vice versa: its uniqueness brought to life and determined the weakness of the state administration - why do you need a strong administrative system if there is no grassroots link, if the lower classes live on laws of self-regulating caste principles and communal norms?), but also successfully compensated for this weakness, although this kind of compensation did not contribute to the political stability of states in India.

VARNA, CASTES AND RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THEIR SYSTEM

Class - varna - caste - one of the unresolved problems of Oriental studies. In the study of these problems, not the last place should be given to legal categories, without taking into account which it is impossible to understand and explain the emergence of classes and forms of dependence in Ancient India.

The Brahmins were the “highest”, “pure” Varna. They were called avadhya - inviolable. The formation of the varna of the priestly elite of the Brahmins was facilitated by their monopolization at a certain stage of historical development of the administration of religious ceremonies, knowledge of Vedic hymns. At the same time, the Brahmins, who performed priestly functions and knew the sacred teachings, occupied the most honorable place in society. According to official ideas, the Brahmin is the highest of people. His occupation is the study of sacred books, participation in court and administration, the development of laws and regulations. Everything he sees belongs to him, he can "demand whatever he wants" (at least within the limits of the law). Observation of the change of seasons, river floods and other phenomena, observation, so necessary for the management of socio-economic life, was another function of the natives of this varna.

Against the background of general social mobility caused by the development of feudal relations, the position of the highest varna of the Brahmins underwent relatively few changes. The position of the Brahmins was determined by the increased role of Hinduism in connection with the feudalization of society, openly sanctifying social inequality, the power and privileges of the few and the lack of rights of the majority of people.

The second varna is the varna of kshatriyas, warriors, military and secular aristocracy, from its midst came kings, military leaders, dignitaries. According to the varna system, kshatriyas had to collect taxes from peasants and duties from merchants, traders and artisans.

A special military elite, the Kshatriyas, began to take shape in the process of conquest by the Aryans of the river valleys of Northern India. This category originally included only the Aryans, but in the process of assimilation of the conquered tribes, this varna was sometimes replenished with local leaders and heads of tribal groups, which, in particular, is indicated by the existence in ancient India of a special category of “vratya - kshatriyas” - i.e. kshatriyas by vow, not by birth. Here, therefore, both external and internal processes of the beginning decomposition of tribal society among the conquered and the conquerors closely interacted.

At the same time, tribal leaders and some foreign rulers were assimilated into Brahmin society as second-class kshatriyas, and in the post-Gupta era they were called Rajputs, and the place of a Rajput in their hierarchy depended on which tribe he came from.

In the Mauryan period, the kshatriyas, who concentrated military, political and economic power in their hands, began to refer mainly to those who belonged directly to the royal family and to the category of privileged mercenary warriors.

The isolation of the Kshatriyas among their fellow tribesmen - Vaishyas-commoners was facilitated by the idea that the Kshatriyas are the sovereign administrators of the wealth acquired by the war, including slave prisoners of war.

The name of the third varna - vaishya - comes from the word vish - people, tribe, settlement. This is the bulk of the working people, farmers, peasants, artisans and merchants - a true demos. Landless hired workers, representatives of the “untouchable” castes, worked on the farms of wealthy community members, who basically created a surplus product appropriated by various categories of exploiters, slaves. Vaishya most often, as a full-fledged communal landowner, could himself be an exploiter

The fourth varna was the Shudras. Among them are impoverished peasants who left the community, strangers, freed slaves, but slave labor did not play a significant role in the decisive sectors of the economy of Ancient India. Shudra could have a family, his children inherited property, the path to enrichment was not closed to him by any prohibition. And yet he is not free.

Shudra can be bought and sold. Even when released by his master, he is not released from the duty of service, "for they are born for him." He is the one "whose property can be taken away by the owner." In the eyes of the law, a sudra is impious, communication with him must be avoided, he is punished more severely, religious rites are forbidden to him. So, in the dharmasutras, the Shudras are excluded from participation in sacrifices, which become the prerogative of the highest varnas, they did not go through the rite of initiation - the "second birth", to which only free members of the community, called "twice born" - dvijati, were entitled.

In dharmashastras, in some cases, distinctions are made between slaves and sudras, between slaves and persons in the service, in others - these distinctions are absent. The word dasa (dasya) in the Laws of Manu means both a slave and a person in service. This was due to the fact that slavery in ancient India was one of the forms of dependence, but far from the only one. Numerous transitional social forms, intermediate social conditions (from the free, but deprived of the poorest strata of the population to slaves) were widely represented here.

The processes of assimilation by the Aryans of numerous aboriginal tribes apparently played a significant role in the formation of the social stratum of the Shudras. These processes were undoubtedly influenced by social differentiation, the strengthening of property inequality within the Aryan society itself. The poorest part of the population of the Aryan community also fell into the category of Shudras, those members who worked off their debts were in the service. In the Dharma Sutras, the Sudras are often contrasted with the Aryans. So, for example, Apastamba in one of his prescriptions speaks of the unworthy behavior of an Aryan if he cohabits with a Shudra woman, in another - if he cohabits with a non-Aryan woman, or with a woman of the black race. At the same time, some samhitas still mention rich shudras (these references disappear in the sutras), they talk about sin against the shudra and arya, there are praises for the shudras, as well as for the brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas. The inconsistency of the evidence of dharmashastra regarding the position of the Shudras and their social and legal status is a consequence of the heterogeneity of the Shudra varna. In the process of her becoming a rich shudra could be a representative of a conquered tribe, while a shudra, attached to the religious rituals of the Aryans, is an impoverished Aryan. The further progressive development of ancient Indian society, the strengthening of property differentiation, leads to a certain leveling of the position of the Shudras - to the impoverishment of some and the loss of others of the religious and legal differences characteristic of the Aryans. Both of these ways of forming the Shudra varna led in antiquity to the emergence of slave dependence.

The ancient Indian state arose as a slave-owning state, however, there is no clear opposition between free and slaves in law. Castes obscure the classes. This is expressed in the fact that collections of laws speak much more clearly about the relations between castes than between classes, since it is the division of society into castes that is proclaimed by ancient Indian legislation as the main division of people that has existed from eternity, and it is precisely the presentation of the rights and duties of castes that is the main content of ancient Indian collections of laws.

A sudra should not accumulate wealth, even if he has the opportunity to do so, since a sudra, acquiring wealth, oppresses the brahmins - this can be read in the "Laws of Manu". A sudra guest was allowed to give food only if he was doing some work in the host's house.

The heterogeneity of the Shudra varna is evidenced by the fact that, as the caste division intensified, outcast, “untouchable” castes, performing the most humiliating work, began to be attributed to the Shudras. The Laws of Manu mentions faces "contemptible even to the outcast." The "untouchable" castes were discriminated against both as Shudras and as "untouchables". The "untouchables" were forbidden to visit Hindu temples, common reservoirs, cremation sites, shops that were visited by members of other castes.

Kshatriyas and Brahmins began to distinguish themselves from the general population on the basis that they own cattle, grain, money, and slaves, but there were also poor Brahmins and Kshatriyas who did not differ in status from poor Vaishyas. As the higher varnas - Brahmins and Kshatriyas - consolidated, a special order of regular deductions from agricultural products developed. The tax went to the content of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. People who were part of the three highest varnas were ritually separated from those who were part of the fourth varna.

The possibility of mixed marriages was limited. Dharmashastras establish clear religious and legal boundaries between Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, based on numerous religious and ritual restrictions, prohibitions, and prescriptions. For each varna, its own dharma, the law of the way of life, was formulated. State administration remained under the jurisdiction of the first two varnas. Entire chapters of dharmashastras are devoted to strict regulation of people's behavior, their communication with each other, with representatives of the so-called "untouchable" castes, standing outside the varnas of Indian society, rituals of "cleansing" from "pollution" in such communication. The severity of punishment for committing certain crimes is determined in dharmashastras in strict accordance with belonging to one or another varna.

The twice-born were given the right to study the Vedas, while the fourth estate, the Shudras, were deprived of this right. The fate of these latter was the service of the three highest varnas, as slaves or hired workers.

Strengthening property differentiation in the second half of the 1st millennium BC more and more often began to manifest itself in the discrepancy between the varna status and the place actually occupied by a person in society. In the Laws of Manu, one can find mention of brahmins herding cattle, brahmin artisans, actors, servants, who are prescribed to be treated "as sudras."

People of lower varnas cannot testify against people of higher varnas. The testimonies of "slaves, relatives and children" are "unreliable", and therefore it is better not to resort to them. In case of disagreement between an excellent and a good witness, the testimony of an excellent one, etc., should prevail.

Later, due to the decline in the role of free community members in public life, the Vaishyas began to differ little from the Shudras, and the dividing line began to pass between the nobility - Brahmins and Kshatriyas, on the one hand, and the common people - Vaishyas and Shudras - on the other.

According to the Laws of Manu, Vaishyas and Shudras should not be allowed to deviate from their prescribed functions, otherwise chaos would reign in the world. Hence, in the ancient texts, the natural conclusion was drawn that the kshatriyas cannot prosper without the support of the brahmins, and the brahmins cannot prosper without the support of the kshatriyas. Only in alliance with each other can they succeed and rule the world.

Thus, within each varna, social inequality developed, a division into exploited and exploiters, but caste, communal, large-family boundaries, sealed by law, religion, held back their merging into a single class community. This created a special diversity of the estate-class social structure of Ancient India.

The weakening of the varna isolation of the entire system as a whole and attempts to strengthen the varna partitions in the later dharmashastras were the result of a restructuring of the estate-class division of early medieval society in India. In this restructuring, a new developing social form, the caste, occupied not the last place. In one of the later chapters of the "Laws of Manu" 61 castes are mentioned, and in the "Brahmavaivarta Purana" - more than a hundred. According to some authors, all these were mainly tribes turned into castes.

The problem of the emergence of castes is also one of the debatable problems of Oriental studies. At present, it can be considered established that varna as a social institution is of much earlier origin than the caste.

The heterogeneity of the castes greatly complicates the clarification of the question of their origin. Castes are also ethnic groups (for example, backward tribes included in the “untouchables”), and clans of conquering warriors (Rajput tribes), and professional groups, and religious sects, communities. Regardless of their original origin, castes, as feudal relations developed, “lined up” in the hierarchy of Hindu society in accordance with their position in the socio-economic structure of feudal society. The last, the lowest group of "untouchable" castes, included farmers and servants of the community, deprived of any property rights, who were in a semi-slavish, semi-serf dependence on full-fledged community members. The “untouchable”, most likely a non-communist, becomes the main object of exploitation. In domestic literature, L. B. Alaev convincingly proved that the rent-payer-community member himself was often a petty feudal exploiter, that land plots were cultivated by “untouchables”, non-communal members and non-communal peasantry. Untouchability arises along with the caste division of society, as the relations of exploitation expand as a result of the violent suppression of the uprisings of the Shudras - slaves, the subjugation of backward tribes, etc. It also contains numerous instructions on the most humiliating religious, ritual, everyday restrictions applied to them.

This double hierarchy is reflected in Hindu law. Belonging to a varna still determines the sum of the rights and obligations of an individual in society and the state. The caste hierarchy was associated mainly with the norms of marriage and family law. The "untouchable" castes were actually outside the scope of Hindu law. The norms of this law affected them only to the extent that they limited their legal capacity.

Ancient India, with its economic and national fragmentation, with its closed communities isolated from each other, is characterized by social amorphism, impersonality, "non-manifestation" of the ordinary person, the unconditional power of the community, the caste over the person, which was so deep and constant that it was part of the usual human psychology, and therefore was not always even realized by him.

CONCLUSIONS

Having studied the system of varnas and castes on the basis of legal monuments, which give a vivid picture of the prevailing in ancient Indian society, one can summarize and draw some generalizing conclusions.

Inequality, fixed by law, was characteristic of many peoples of antiquity, but such a complete one, as in India, was, perhaps, nowhere. It was the best way in the historical conditions of that time to legitimize the class domination of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas.

The process of such a specific social stratification of ancient Indian society began in the depths of disparate tribal communities. As a result of the decomposition of tribal relations, stronger and more influential clans emerged, which concentrated in their hands the public functions of administration, military protection, and priestly duties. This led to the development of social and property inequality, slavery, to the transformation of the tribal elite into a tribal aristocracy. Contributed to the development of social inequality and war, during which relations of dependence, subordination arose between individual tribes and communities.

At a certain stage in the development of ancient Indian society, as the process of division of labor and inequality deepened, a new, caste division began to take shape. Separate groups of people with the hereditary nature of their activities, formed according to professional, tribal, religious and other characteristics, became castes. Caste division in India exists at the present time, along with the traditional division into four varnas.

This civilizational feature of Ancient India is associated with a number of historical reasons, the most important of which were the varno-caste system and the strength of the community organization. Rigid varno-caste system with once and for all a certain place of a person in it, with caste conformity, strict adherence, observance of religious and moral principles of human behavior was a kind of alternative to the coercive nature of state power. Undoubtedly, this was facilitated by the isolation, autonomy of the Indian community with its subsistence economy, with patriarchal patronage inter-caste relationships of the agricultural part of the community with its artisans, servants, called "jajmani" ..

With the final formation of the slave-owning state, the division of all free people into four varnas was declared to be the eternally existing order and consecrated by religion. Thus, the varna borders do not lose their significance, moreover, the protection of these borders passes to the state power.

LIST OF LITERATURE USED IN WRITING THE SUMMARY

The literature was taken from the website of the Russian Internet University for the Humanities, at www.vusnet.ru

1. Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East.

2. Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. T.1.

Divided people into four estates, called varnas. The first varna, the brahmins, destined to enlighten and rule mankind, he created from his head or mouth; the second, the kshatriyas (warriors), the protectors of society, from the hand; the third, the vaishyas, the feeders of the state, from the abdomen; the fourth, sudras, from the legs, dedicating it to the eternal destiny - to serve the highest varnas. Over time, the varnas subdivided into many podcasts and castes, called jati in India. The European name is caste.

So, the four ancient castes of India, their rights and obligations according to the ancient law of Manu *, strictly enforced in.

(* Laws of Manu - an ancient Indian collection of prescriptions of religious, moral and social duty (dharma), today also called the "law of the Aryans" or "the code of honor of the Aryans").

Brahmins

Brahman "the son of the sun, a descendant of Brahma, a god among people" (the usual titles of this estate), according to the law of Menu, is the head of all created creatures; the whole universe is subject to him; other mortals owe the preservation of their lives to his intercession and prayers; his all-powerful curse can instantly destroy fearsome warlords with their numerous hordes, chariots and war elephants. Brahman can create new worlds; may even give birth to new gods. A Brahmin should be given more honor than a king.

The inviolability of the Brahmin and his life are protected by bloody laws. If a sudra dares to verbally insult a brahmana, then the law orders to drive a red-hot iron into his throat, ten inches deep; and if he takes it into his head to give some instruction to the Brahmin, the unfortunate one pours boiling oil over his mouth and ears. On the other hand, it is allowed for anyone to take a false oath or give false testimony before the court, if these actions can save the Brahmin from condemnation.

A Brahman cannot, under any condition, be executed or punished, either bodily or financially, although he would be caught in the most outrageous crimes: the only punishment to which he is subject is removal from his fatherland, or expulsion from the caste.

The Brahmins are divided into laymen and spiritualists, and are subdivided according to their occupations into different classes. It is noteworthy that among the spiritual brahmins, the priests occupy the lowest rung, and the highest are those who have devoted themselves only to the interpretation of sacred books. The worldly brahmins are the king's advisers, judges and other higher officials.

Only the brahmin is granted the right to interpret the sacred books, perform worship and predict the future; but he forfeits this last right if he makes a mistake three times in his predictions. Brahman can predominantly heal, for "illness is the punishment of the gods"; only a brahmin can be a judge, because the civil and penal laws of the Hindus are included in their sacred books.

The whole way of life of a Brahmin is built on the observance of a whole set of the strictest rules. For example, all brahmins are forbidden to accept gifts from persons unworthy (lower castes). Music, dancing, hunting and gambling are also forbidden to all Brahmins. But the use of wine and all sorts of intoxicating things, such as: onions, garlic, eggs, fish, any meat, except for animals slaughtered as a sacrifice to the gods, are forbidden only to the lower Brahmins.

A Brahman will defile himself if he sits at the same table even with the king, not to mention members of the lower castes or his own wives. He is obliged not to look at the sun at certain hours and to leave the house during the rain; he cannot step over the rope to which the cow is tied, and must pass by this sacred animal or idol, only leaving it to his right.

In case of need, a brahmin is allowed to beg from people of the three higher castes and engage in trade; but by no means can he serve anyone.

A Brahmin who wants to be awarded the honorary title of interpreter of laws and supreme guru prepares for this with various hardships. He renounces marriage, indulges in a thorough study of the Vedas in some monastery for 12 years, refraining from even talking in the last 5 and explaining himself only by signs; thus, he finally reaches the desired goal, and becomes a spiritual teacher.

The financial support of the Brahmin caste is also provided for by law. Generosity to the Brahmins is a religious virtue for all believers, and is the direct duty of the rulers. Upon the death of a rootless Brahmin, his property turns not into the treasury, but into the caste. Brahmin does not pay any taxes. Thunder would kill a king who dared to encroach on the person or property of a Brahmin; a poor brahmin is kept at public expense.

The life of a brahmin is divided into 4 stages.

First step begins even before birth, when learned men are sent to the pregnant wife of a Brahmin for conversations, in order "thus to prepare the child for the perception of wisdom." At 12 days, the baby is given a name, at three years old, his head is shaved, leaving only a piece of hair called kudumi. A few years later, the child is placed in the arms of a spiritual mentor (guru). Education with this guru usually lasts from 7-8 to 15 years. During the entire period of education, which consists mainly of the study of the Vedas, the student is obliged to blindly obey his preceptor and all members of his family. He is often entrusted with the blackest domestic work, and he must perform them unquestioningly. The will of the guru replaces his law and conscience; his smile is the best reward. At this stage, the child is considered single-born.

Second phase begins after the ritual of initiation or rebirth, which the young man goes through after the end of the teaching. From this moment on, he is twice born. During this period, he marries, brings up his family and performs the duties of a brahmin.

The third period of the life of a brahmin - vanaprastra. Having reached the age of 40, a Brahmin enters the third period of his life, called vanaprastra. He must retire to desert places and become a hermit. Here he covers his nakedness with tree bark or the skin of a black antelope; cuts neither nails nor hair; sleeps on a stone or on the ground; must spend days and nights "without a house, without fire, in perfect silence, and eating only roots and fruits." The Brahman spends his days in prayer and mortification.

After spending 22 years in prayer and fasting in this way, the Brahmin enters the fourth department of life, called sannyas. Only then is he freed from all external rites. The old hermit goes deep into perfect contemplation. The soul of a Brahmin who has died in the state of sannyas immediately acquires merger with the deity (nirvana); and his body in a sitting position is lowered into a pit and sprinkled around with salt.

The color of the Brahmin's clothes depended on what spiritual order they were in. Sanyasis, monks who renounced the world wore orange clothes, family ones - white.

Kshatriyas

The second caste is made up of kshatriyas, warriors. According to the law of Menu, members of this caste could make sacrifices, and the study of the Vedas was made a special duty for princes and heroes; but later the Brahmins left them one permission to read or listen to the Vedas, without analyzing or interpreting them, and appropriated the right to explain the texts to themselves.

Kshatriyas should give alms, but not accept them, avoid vices and sensual pleasures, live simply, "as befits a warrior." The law says that "the priestly caste cannot exist without the warrior caste, nor can the last without the first, and that the tranquility of the whole world depends on the consent of both, on the union of knowledge and the sword."

With few exceptions, all kings, princes, generals and first rulers belong to the second caste; the judicial part and the management of education were from ancient times in the hands of the Brahmins (Brahmins). Kshatriyas are allowed to consume any meat except beef. This caste was formerly divided into three parts: all the ruling and non-possessing princes (rays) and their children (rayanutras) belonged to the upper class.

Kshatriyas wore red clothes.

Vaishya

The third caste is the Vaishyas. Previously, they also participated, both in sacrifices and in the right to read the Vedas, but later, through the efforts of the brahmins, they lost these advantages. Although the Vaishyas were much lower than the Kshatriyas, they still occupied an honorable place in society. They were supposed to be engaged in trade, arable farming and cattle breeding. The property rights of a vaishya were respected and his fields were considered inviolable. He had the right, consecrated by religion, to put money into growth.

The highest castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas - used all three scarves, senar, every caste - their own, and were called twice-born, as opposed to once-born - Shudras.

Shudra

The duty of a sudra, Menu says briefly, is to serve the three higher castes. It is best for a sudra to serve a brahmin, for his sake a kshatriya, and finally a vaishya. In such a single case, if he does not find an opportunity to enter the service, he is allowed to engage in a useful craft. The soul of a shudra, who has served a brahmin with zeal and honesty all his life, is reborn into a person of the highest caste upon resettlement.

A sudra is forbidden even to look at the Vedas. A Brahmin has no right not only to interpret the Vedas to a Shudra, but is also obliged to read them silently in the presence of the latter. A brahmin who allows himself to interpret the law to a sudra, or explain to him the ways of repentance, will be punished in hell Asamarite.

A sudra must eat the leftovers of his masters and wear their rags. He is forbidden to acquire anything, "so that he does not take it into his head to become proud of the temptation of the sacred Brahmins." If a sudra verbally insults a veishya or a kshatriya, then his tongue is cut out; if he dares to sit down beside the Brahmin, or take his place, then a red-hot iron is applied to the more guilty part of the body. The name of a sudra, says Menou's law, is a swear word, and the penalty for killing him does not exceed the amount that is paid for the death of an unimportant domestic animal, such as a dog or cat. Killing a cow is considered a much more reprehensible act: killing a sudra is a misdemeanor; killing a cow is a sin!

Bondage is the natural position of a sudra, and the master cannot release him by giving him leave; "for, says the law: who but death can free a sudra from the state of nature?"

It is rather difficult for us Europeans to understand such an alien world, and we, involuntarily, want to bring everything under our own concepts, and this is what misleads us. So, for example, according to the concepts of the Hindus, the Shudras constitute a class of people, designated by nature for service in general, but at the same time they are not considered slaves, they do not constitute the property of private individuals.

The attitude of the masters towards the Shudras, despite the given examples of an inhuman view of them, from a religious point of view, was determined by civil law, especially the measure and method of punishments, which in everything coincided with the patriarchal punishments allowed by folk custom in the relationship of a father to a son or an older brother to junior, husband to wife, and guru to disciple.

Impure castes

As almost everywhere a woman was subjected to discrimination and all kinds of restrictions, so in India the severity of the separation of castes weighs much more on a woman than on a man. A man, upon entering into a second marriage, is allowed to choose a wife from a lower caste, except for a sudra. So, for example, a Brahmin can marry a woman of the second and even the third caste; the children of this mixed marriage will occupy an intermediate degree between the castes of the father and mother. A woman, by marrying a man of a lower caste, commits a crime: she defiles herself and all her offspring. Shudras can marry only among themselves.

The mixing of any of the castes with the Sudras gives rise to impure castes, of which the most contemptible is that which comes from the mixing of the Sudras with the Brahmin. The members of this caste are called Chandalas, and must be executioners or flayers; the touch of a chandala entails expulsion from the caste.

Untouchables

Below the impure castes there is still a miserable kind of pariahs. Together with the Chandalas they engage in the lowest works. The pariahs skin the carrion, work it out, and eat the meat; but they abstain from cow meat. Their touch defiles not only a person, but also objects. They have their own special wells; near the cities they are assigned a special quarter, surrounded by a moat and slingshots. In villages, they also have no right to show themselves, but must hide in forests, caves and swamps.

A Brahmin, defiled by the shadow of a pariah, must bathe in the sacred waters of the Ganges, for only they are able to wash away such a stain of shame.

Even lower than the Pariah are the Pulai, who live on the Malabar coast. Slaves of the Nairs, they are forced to take refuge in damp dungeons, and do not dare to raise their eyes to the noble Hindu. Seeing a Brahmin or Nair from afar, the pulais emit a loud roar to warn the masters of their proximity, and while the "masters" are waiting on the road, they must hide in a cave, in a thicket of the forest, or climb a tall tree. Whoever did not have time to hide, the Nairs cut down like an unclean reptile. Pulayi live in terrible slovenliness, eating carrion and any meat except cow.

But even the pulai can rest for a moment from the general contempt that overwhelms him; there are human beings even more miserable, lower than him: they are pariars, lower because, sharing all the humiliation of the pulai, they allow themselves to eat cow meat too! Muslims, who also do not respect the integrity of fat Indian cows and acquaint them with the location of their kitchen, all of them, in his opinion, morally, completely coincide with the contemptible pariar.

Indian society is divided into estates called castes. Such a division occurred many thousands of years ago and has survived to this day. Hindus believe that, following the rules established in their caste, in the next life you can be born a representative of a slightly higher and more revered caste, take a much better position in society.

Leaving the Indus Valley, the Indian Aryans conquered the country along the Ganges and founded many states here, whose population consisted of two classes, differing in legal and material status. The new Aryan settlers, the victors, seized for themselves in India both land, and honor, and power, and the defeated non-Indo-European natives were plunged into contempt and humiliation, turned into slavery or into a dependent state, or, pushed into the forests and mountains, led there in inaction thoughts of a meager life without any culture. This result of the Aryan conquest gave rise to the origin of the four main Indian castes (varnas).

Those original inhabitants of India who were subdued by the power of the sword suffered the fate of captives and became mere slaves. The Indians, who voluntarily submitted, renounced their paternal gods, adopted the language, laws and customs of the conquerors, retained personal freedom, but lost all land property and had to live as workers on the estates of the Aryans, servants and porters, in the homes of rich people. From them came the Shudra caste. "Shudra" is not a Sanskrit word. Before becoming the name of one of the Indian castes, it was probably the name of some people. The Aryans considered it below their dignity to enter into marriage alliances with representatives of the Shudra caste. The Shudra women were only concubines among the Aryans. Over time, sharp differences in fortunes and professions formed between the Aryan conquerors of India themselves. But in relation to the lower caste - the dark-skinned, subjugated native population - they all remained a privileged class. Only the Aryans had the right to read the sacred books; only they were consecrated by a solemn ceremony: a sacred cord was placed on the Aryan, making him “reborn” (or “twice born”, dvija). This rite served as a symbolic distinction of all Aryans from the Shudra caste and the despised native tribes driven into the forests. The consecration was performed by laying on a cord, which is worn laid on the right shoulder and descending obliquely over the chest. Among the Brahmin caste, a cord could be placed on a boy from 8 to 15 years old, and it is made of cotton yarn; among the Kshatriya caste, who received it no earlier than the 11th year, it was made from kushi (Indian spinning plant), and among the Vaishya caste, who received it no earlier than the 12th year, it was made of wool.

The "twice-born" Aryans over time divided according to differences in occupation and origin into three estates or castes, which have some similarities with the three estates of medieval Europe: the clergy, the nobility and the middle urban class. The embryos of caste structures among the Aryans existed even in those times when they lived only in the Indus basin: there, from the mass of the agricultural and pastoral population, warlike princes of the tribes, surrounded by people skilled in military affairs, as well as priests who performed sacrificial rites, already stood out. During the resettlement of the Aryan tribes further deep into India, to the country of the Ganges, the warlike energy increased in bloody wars with the exterminated natives, and then in a fierce struggle between the Aryan tribes. Until the conquests were completed, all the people were engaged in military affairs. Only when the peaceful possession of the conquered country began, it became possible to develop a variety of occupations, it became possible to choose between different professions, and a new stage in the origin of castes began.

The fertility of the Indian land aroused the desire for the peaceful pursuit of livelihoods. From this quickly developed an innate Aryan tendency, according to which it was more pleasant for them to work quietly and enjoy the fruits of their labor than to make heavy military efforts. Therefore, a significant part of the settlers ("Vish") turned to agriculture, which gave abundant harvests, leaving the fight against enemies and the protection of the country to the princes of the tribes and the military nobility formed during the period of conquests. This estate, which was engaged in arable farming and partly in shepherding, soon grew so much that among the Aryans, as in Western Europe, they formed the vast majority of the population. Therefore, the name vaishya “settler”, which originally denoted all Aryan inhabitants in new areas, began to denote only people of the third, working Indian caste, and warriors, kshatriyas and priests, brahmins (“prayers”), who over time became privileged classes, made the names of their professions by the names of the two upper castes.

The four Indian estates listed above became completely closed castes (varnas) only when Brahmanism rose above the ancient service to Indra and other gods of nature, a new religious doctrine of Brahma, the soul of the universe, the source of life from which all beings originated and to which all beings will return. This reformed creed gave religious holiness to the division of the Indian nation into castes, especially the priestly caste. It said that in the cycle of life forms passed by all that exist on earth, Brahman is the highest form of being. According to the dogma of the rebirth and transmigration of souls, a being born in human form must go through all four castes in turn: to be a sudra, a vaishya, a kshatriya, and finally a brahmin; having passed through these forms of existence, it is reunited with Brahma. The only way to achieve this goal is for a person, constantly striving for a deity, to exactly fulfill everything commanded by the Brahmins, honor them, please them with gifts and signs of respect. Offenses against the Brahmins, severely punished on earth, subject the wicked to the most terrible torments of hell and rebirth in the forms of despised animals.

Belief in the dependence of the future life on the present was the main pillar of the Indian caste division and the dominion of the priests. The more resolutely the Brahminical clergy placed the dogma of the transmigration of souls at the center of all moral teaching, the more successfully they filled the imagination of the people with terrible pictures of hellish torments, the more honor and influence they acquired. Representatives of the highest caste of the Brahmins are close to the gods; they know the path leading to Brahma; their prayers, sacrifices, holy feats of their asceticism have magical power over the gods, the gods have to fulfill their will; bliss and suffering in the Hereafter depend on them. It is not surprising that with the development of religiosity among the Indians, the power of the Brahmin caste increased, tirelessly praising in their holy teachings respect and generosity to the Brahmins as the surest ways to obtain bliss, suggesting to the kings that the ruler is obliged to have his advisers and make judges of the Brahmins, is obliged to reward their service with rich content. and pious gifts.

So that the lower Indian castes would not envy the privileged position of the Brahmins and would not encroach on it, the doctrine was worked out and strongly preached that the forms of life for all beings were predetermined by Brahma, and that the progress through the degrees of human rebirths is made only by a calm, peaceful life in a given position, true performance of duties. So, in one of the oldest parts of the Mahabharata it says: “When Brahma created creatures, he gave them their occupations, each caste had a special activity: for the brahmins - the study of the high Vedas, for the warriors - heroism, for the vaishyas - the art of labor, for the shudras - humility before other colors: therefore ignorant brahmins, infamous warriors, unskillful vaishyas and disobedient sudras are reprehensible." This dogma, which attributed to every caste, every profession, a divine origin, consoled the humiliated and despised in the insults and deprivations of their present life with the hope of improving their fate in the future existence. He gave the Indian caste hierarchy religious consecration.

The division of people into four classes, unequal in their rights, was from this point of view an eternal, unchanging law, the violation of which is the most criminal sin. People have no right to overthrow the caste barriers established between them by God himself; they can achieve the improvement of their lot only by patient obedience. Mutual relations between the Indian castes were clearly characterized by teaching; that Brahma produced Brahmins from his mouth (or the first man Purusha), Kshatriyas - from his hands, Vaishyas - from thighs, Shudras - from feet soiled in mud, therefore the essence of nature among the Brahmins is “holiness and wisdom”, among the Kshatriyas - “power and strength", among the Vaishyas - "wealth and profit", among the Shudras - "service and humility". The doctrine of the origin of castes from different parts of the highest being is expounded in one of the hymns of the latest, most recent book of the Rig Veda. There are no caste concepts in the older songs of the Rig Veda. The Brahmins attach great importance to this hymn, and every truly believing Brahmin recites it every morning after bathing. This hymn is a diploma by which the Brahmins legitimized their privileges, their dominion.

Thus, the Indian people were led by their history, their inclinations and customs to fall under the yoke of the hierarchy of castes, which turned classes and professions into tribes alien to each other, drowned out all human aspirations, all the inclinations of humanity. The main characteristics of castes Each Indian caste has its own characteristics and unique characteristics, rules of existence and behavior. Brahmins are the highest caste Brahmins in India are priests and priests in temples. Their position in society has always been considered the highest, even higher than the position of the ruler. At present, representatives of the Brahmin caste are also engaged in the spiritual development of the people: they teach various practices, look after temples, and work as teachers.

Brahmins have a lot of prohibitions: Men are not allowed to work in the field and do any manual labor, but women can do various household chores. A representative of the priestly caste can only marry his own kind, but as an exception, a marriage to a Brahmin from another community is allowed. A brahmin cannot eat what a person of another caste has prepared: a brahmin would rather starve than accept forbidden food. But he can feed a representative of absolutely any caste. Some Brahmins are not allowed to eat meat.

Kshatriyas - warrior caste

Representatives of the kshatriyas have always performed the duties of soldiers, guards and policemen. At present, nothing has changed - kshatriyas are engaged in military affairs or go to administrative work. They can marry not only in their own caste: a man can marry a girl from a lower caste, but a woman is forbidden to marry a man from a lower caste. Kshatriyas are allowed to eat animal products, but they also avoid forbidden food.

Vaishya Vaishyas have always been a working class: they were engaged in agriculture, raised cattle, traded. Now representatives of the Vaishyas are engaged in economic and financial affairs, various trade, banking. Probably, this caste is the most scrupulous in matters related to food intake: vaishyas, like no one else, monitor the correct preparation of food and will never accept defiled dishes. Sudras are the lowest caste The Shudra caste has always existed in the role of peasants or even slaves: they were engaged in the dirtiest and hardest work. Even in our time, this social stratum is the poorest and often lives below the poverty line. Shudras can marry even divorced women. Untouchables The untouchable caste stands out separately: such people are excluded from all social relations. They do the dirtiest jobs: cleaning the streets and toilets, burning dead animals, dressing the skin.

Amazingly, the representatives of this caste could not even step on the shadows of representatives of the higher classes. And only recently they were allowed to enter temples and approach people of other classes. Cast Unique Features Having a brahmin in the neighborhood, you can give him a lot of gifts, but you should not expect a response. Brahmins never give gifts: they accept but do not give. In terms of land ownership, sudras can be even more influential than vaishyas.

Shudras of the lower stratum practically do not use money: they are paid for their work with food and household items. It is possible to move to a lower caste, but it is impossible to get a higher caste. Castes and Modernity Today, Indian castes have become even more structured, with many different sub-groups called jati. During the last census of representatives of various castes, there were more than 3 thousand jati. True, this census took place more than 80 years ago. Many foreigners consider the caste system a relic of the past and believe that the caste system no longer works in modern India. In fact, everything is completely different. Even the Indian government could not come to a consensus regarding such a stratification of society. Politicians are actively working on dividing society into layers during elections, adding to their election promises the protection of the rights of a particular caste. In modern India, more than 20 percent of the population belongs to the untouchable caste: they have to live in their own separate ghettos or outside the settlement. Such people should not go to shops, government and medical institutions, and even use public transport.

There is a completely unique subgroup in the untouchable caste: the attitude of society towards it is rather contradictory. This includes homosexuals, transvestites and eunuchs who make a living by prostitution and begging tourists for coins. But what a paradox: the presence of such a person at a holiday is considered a very good sign. Another amazing untouchable podcast is a pariah. These are people who are completely expelled from society - marginalized. Previously, it was possible to become a pariah even by touching such a person, but now the situation has changed a little: a pariah becomes either born from an inter-caste marriage or from pariah parents.

The caste system in India is a social hierarchy that divides the entire population of the country into separate groups of both low and high origin. Such a system presents various rules and prohibitions.

The main types of castes

Types of castes come from 4 varnas (which means genus, species), in accordance with which the entire population was divided. The division of society into varnas was based on the fact that people cannot be the same, there is a certain hierarchy, since each person has his own life path.

The highest varna was varna Brahmins, that is, priests, teachers, scientists, mentors. The second in rank is the varna of kshatriyas, which means rulers, nobles, warriors. next varna Vaishya, they included cattle breeders, farmers, merchants. last varna sudra consisted of servants and dependent people.

The first three varnas and shudras had a clear, even sharp boundary between them. The highest varna is also called “dvija”, which means twice-born. The ancient Indians believed that people are born a second time when a rite of passage takes place, and a sacred thread is imposed on them.

The main goal of the Brahmins was that they had to teach others and learn themselves, bring gifts to the gods, and make sacrifices. The main color is white.